Teaching & Teacher Education, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp.

229--241, 1995
Pergamon Copyright @ 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0742-051 X (94)00031 -X 0742051x/95$9.50+0.00

THE REFLECTIVE JOURNAL: A WINDOW TO PRESERVICE TEACHERS'

PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE

DAWN FRANCIS

James Cook University of North Queensland, Australia

Abstract--Following the work of Sch6n (1983) "reflection' as a way in which teachers construct
the meanings and knowledge that guide their actions in the classroom has become something of
a buzz word in education. I believe that reflection is more intellectually challenging than is generally
recognised and that too little assistance is provided to teachers to help them observe, think through,
reconstruct, and deeply understand the process of personal theory building. In addition, preservice
students have developed a pattern of focusing on what they feel they are supposed to say in order
to please supervisors and lecturers. This paper outlines one approach to developing preservice
teachers as reflective practitioners.

Placing Reflection in the Context of Subject and together or integrated with the changing perspective
Personal Belief provided by the individual's values and ideals.

The journal writing described here is a require-

We believe that preservice teachers bring to our
ment in a year-long Professional Development
classroom a wealth of life experience and well-
c o m p o n e n t of the Curriculum and Teaching
developed, albeit often implicit, personal and
Studies subject in the third year of the 4-year
practical theories. We also believe that an essen-
preservice Bachelor of Education at James C o o k
tial part of professional growth is to confront
University in Australia. A team of three lecturers
"practical theory", to make it explicit, to clarify
collaboratively plan and teach a professional
and extend it by articulating and by subjecting
development strand within the subject which also
it to the challenge of others. This is linked to our
includes the curriculum strands of social educa-
belief that teaching is beset with uncertainty,
tion, science, and physical education. Students
attended by ambiguity. There is no one best
are asked to keep a journal organized into four
m e t h o d of teaching and there is frequently a lack
clear sections: (i) teaching plans; (ii) reflective
of consensus about what schools ought to be
writing a b o u t w o r k s h o p content, strategies, and
doing, whose interests they are serving, and
issues; (iii) a professional diary d o c u m e n t i n g
about what they are achieving. Thus our preser-
events which make an impact on personal view
vice teachers need to develop the attitudes, skills,
of teaching; and (iv) a critical s u m m a r y of
and confidence to frame their own agendas, use
professional reading. their puzzlement to drive useful inquiry, and to
O u r intention is to work with preservice
influence policy and educational thinking be-
teachers in confronting their developing "prac-
y o n d the classroom context. They need to de-
tical t h e o r y " which H a n d a l and Lauvas (1987,
velop a voice.
p. 8) describe as a
As a teaching team we try to model both the
private, integrated but ever-changing system of collaborative a p p r o a c h to learning and a respect
knowledge, experience and values which is relevant for individual construction of knowledge which
to teaching practice at any particular time ... a includes critical challenge. In this we are in-
personal construct which is continuously established
in the individual through a series of diverse events fluenced by the work of American teacher and
(such as practical experience, reading, listening, look- teacher educator, Eleanor Duckworth, whose
ing at other people's practice) which are mixed 1977 m o n o g r a p h states:

229
230 DAWN FRANCIS
In my view, there are two aspects to teaching: The
first is to put students into contact with phenomena
related to the area to be studied the real thing, not
lectures or books about it -- and to help them notice
what is interesting; to engage them so they will
continue to think and wonder about it. The second
is to have the students try to explain the sense they
are making, and instead of explaining things to
students, to try and understand their sense. (Duck-
worth, 1977, p. 3)
The journal allows preservice teachers to deter-
mine their own focus and what they want to
understand, and to have their ideas seriously
valued as knowledge being personally construc-
ted. It also permits us, as teachers, to tap the
sense they are making and to engage w i t h them
as learners, n o t as teachers.
From Classical to Modern Rhetoric
Reflective thinking is not a new notion. Soc-
rates (Meno, 82a-86d) contrasted perceiving of
things outside the self with reflection, the dis-
covery of what was within and brought to birth
by questioning. Dewey referred to reflection in
his early work as a form of thought growing
from a puzzlement felt in a directly experienced
situation. This activated a purposeful inquiry
demanding "active, persistent and careful con-
sideration of any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in the light of the grounds that
support it" (Dewey, 1933, p. 9). Dewey's puzzle-
ment demanded that immediate, direct action be
suspended so that observations and possible
courses of action could be tested by purposeful
mental elaboration and a search for what is
absent in the given situation. Three key ideas of
modern rhetoric can be identified here: direct
experience, careful consideration of beliefs,
values, or existing knowledge, and the suspension
of immediate action to permit systematic con-
templation.
Following the work of Sch6n (1983, 1987), the
notion of reflection as a way in which teachers
construct the meanings and knowledge that
guide their actions has become something of a
buzz word in education, even though none of his
examples come from classrooms as we know
them - - sites of complex, fast-moving interaction
involving teacher(s) and large numbers of preser-
vice teachers of varied backgrounds. It is perhaps
ironic that it is this complexity that leads us to
the work in Sch6n and a valuing of the profes-
sional knowledge embedded in teachers' own
interpretations of their experience rather than
"technical rationality" based on theory. Sch6n's
arguments for reflection-in-action (thinking on
your feet) and reflection-on-action (contempla-
tion undertaken after the practice is completed)
provide us with a perspective which values
teachers' constructs, implicit theories, and stra-
tegies for action. However, once one moves
beyond acceptance of the desirability of thought-
fulness about beliefs and actions the notion of
reflection can mask very different approaches to
the education of teachers.
Calderhead (1989) has shown how the full
range of educational philosophies and beliefs can
be comfortably incorporated into the rhetoric of
reflective practice. Gore and Zeichner (1991, p.
121), using a framework established by Zeichner
and Liston (1987) provide a useful guide through
the maze by distinguishing four traditions, which
provide four perspectives or conceptions:
(a) an academic version that stresses the representa-
tion and translation of subject matter knowledge to
promote student understanding ... (b) a social effi-
ciency version that emphasizes the thoughtful appli-
cation of particular teaching strategies that have been
suggested by research on teaching ... (c) a develop-
mental version that prioritizes teaching that is sensi-
tive to student interests, thinking and patterns of
developmental growth.., and (d) a social reconstruc-
tionist version that stresses reflection about the social
and political context of schoolingand the assessment
of classroom actions for their ability to contribute
toward greater equity, social justice and humane
conditions in schoolingand society.
While all these approaches in teacher education
need to be acknowledged, they are prioritized
differently by teacher educators operating in
different traditions. In retrospect, we had com-
menced work with the notion of reflective prac-
tice without a clearly conceptualised position
within the various traditions, and had not clari-
fied the criteria that we attached to evaluating
that practice (Francis & Sellars, 1991a). Our
background in clinical supervision (Francis &
Sellars, 1990, 1991b; Sellars, 1990) and our
attempts to increase the opportunities that
teachers have to collaborate in analysing and
reconstructing their own teaching had fostered
a deep commitment to systematic development
of the attitudes and skills of collaborative learn-
ing. We also valued a practice of basing this
 The Reflective Journal 231

learning on the analysis and reconstruction of teaching (derived from a critical-theoretical

real life experience and one's own practice.
Influenced by the writing of Handal and Lauvas
(1987), the importance of the interview as a
selection procedure for teacher appointment and
the Queensland Department of Education's new
emphasis on teachers' documenting their own
development, we also wanted our preservice
teachers to be able to articulate their unique
stances on professional issues, to be aware of
connections and/or conflicts in their construc-
tion of knowledge from theory, practice, personal
biography (including culture, class, and gender)
and beliefs. However, only when we were well
into the second semester did we consciously place
ourselves within a reconstruction of experience
perspective. Following Grimmett (1989, p. 22)
we defined reflection as leading to new under-
standing of: (i) action situations; (ii) self as
teacher in terms of the cultural milieu of teaching;
and (iii) taken-for-granted assumptions about
stance). We put to preservice teachers that our
individual and collaborative reflection should
involve six key activities as illustrated in Figure 1.
This model was developed from our own
intuitive reactions to our preservice teachers'
early efforts, a desire to "lift the level" beyond
single focus description and from our reading of
the emerging literature concerning a develop-
mental sequence expressed in levels (Van Manen,
1977; Kitchener, 1977; Noordhoff & Kleinfeld,
1988; Simmons & Sparks, 1987). However,
preservice teacher writing indicated little use of
this model even though they could reproduce it
accurately and give examples at each level. The
"ah ha" breakthrough was visible when Smyth's
(1989) approach to personal and professional
empowerment was presented as illustrated in
Figure 2.
Perhaps identification with this approach can
be related to preservice teachers' early concern

/ LONGTERM \
/ CONSEQUENCES ~

/ COLLABORATIVEGENER- \

// IDENTIFICATION
OF SOCIAL \
// POLITICAL,
CULTURALCON- \
STRAINTSAND/ORFACILITATORS

// COLLABORATIVEQUESTIONINGOF ASSUMP- \
TIONS1NRELATIONTOGOALSANDBELIEFS \

/ TAPPINGEXISTINGBELIEFSANDVALUES
(OWN& O T H E R S ' ~

/ FRAMING
REAL,SPECIFICEVENTS: SELECTINGFEATURES
TO WHICHATYENTIONWILLBEGIVEN

Figure 1. Reconstructingexperiencethrough reflection.

232 DAWN FRANCIS

DESCRIBING
WHAT DO I DO? Detailed observational description without
judgement.

INFORMING
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? Search for patterns or principles
underpinningthe described practice.

CONFRONTING
HOW DID I COME TO BE THIS WAY? Examination of the
broad historical, social and cultural context.

RECONSTRUCTING
HOW MIGHT I VIEW/DO THINGS DIFFERENTLY?
Consideration of alternative views and generation of goals for
future critical action.

Figure 2. Stages in personal and professional empowerment.

for self (Fuller & Brown, 1975; Katz, 1972), or
to the simpler l a n g u a g e used. W h a t e v e r the
reason, it seems p e r t i n e n t to use this framework
earlier. I would also add a fifth dimension,
C H A L L E N G I N G , to reinforce our belief that
reflection should lead to action which is better
informed t h a n that which occurred before the
reflection.
Establishing the Reflective W r i t i n g Process
S t u d e n t teachers, feeling over-loaded with
weekly reading a n d assessment, do n o t typically
engage in v o l u n t a r y writing. I n addition, few of
our preservice teachers were diary writers a n d
some actively resisted:
I find it difficult to write my personal thoughts. We
have been trained not to do this. It took me a long
time to learn to write as an academic and now I see
no purpose in doing this (personal writing).If it is not
for evaluation, why do it? (Stephanie, 3 March 1992)
This scares me. I want to do it properly.... I can see
others writing a lot. I don't write easily, especially if
I have no definite question to answer. I usually just
write out lectures as they are given. (Mary, 9 March
1992)
It was therefore necessary to construct the
j o u r n a l writing process as a n extension of work
d o n e in lectures a n d workshops with writing time
built into contact time. I n the early stages, 15-20
m i n u t e s were set aside at the end of each
80-minute workshop. W r i t t e n reflections were
collected at the end of that time. Lecturers
responded to the reflection in a n o n - j u d g e m e n t a l
written dialogue. M y own practice here was to
stress that since j o u r n a l s were personal docu-
ments I would not write in them, preferring to
write a separate personal response in letter form,
or as time became critical, to use "post-it"
stickers which could be removed easily. I respon-
ded positively to c o n t e n t i o u s n o t i o n s a n d used
questions liberally to explore c o m p e t i n g inter-
pretations, to seek specific detail, to refer to
literature or my own experience, to anticipate a
range of consequences, to highlight assumptions,
beliefs, a n d values or encourage testing of new
ideas in university or classroom contexts. Stu-
dents f o u n d this a p p r o a c h u n u s u a l :
I compared my tutor's comments with others and we
find it really different.At first I looked for the negative
comments and was puzzled that there weren't any. 1
find it refreshingto receive a paper back which hasn't
been demolished by corrections. Comments are al-
ways POSITIVE ! I look forward to it and I am going
to remember the difference this makes when I am
teaching. (Debbie, 9 March 1992)
W h e n we i n t r o d u c e d the reflective j o u r n a l
preservice teachers often asked, " W h a t do you
 The ReflectiveJournal 233

Summary: a brief summary of the key points.

New Learning: major new insights that come out of the session for you.

Questions: questions that emerge from the topics, issues or strategies.

Personal Reaction: a personal reaction to the context, content or

•strategies used.

Figure 3. Guidelines for reflective writing.

want me to write?- Some would rewrite after
the workshop and resubmit asking, "Is this what
you want?" It became clear that the expectation
that writing was completed to gain good grades
and please the lecturer had led preservice
teachers to feel uncomfortable with their own
voice. Some had learned to withold it, while
others generally believed they had no "expert-
ise".
I have so m a n y questions and I know so little. I wish
you would just tell me what to do so that when I ' m
in the school I can do the right thing. The more I
write, the more questions come out and I still don't
have the right answers. (Mary, 10 April 1992)
While there was some resistance to the writing,
the uninterrupted reflection time was valued by
preservice teachers from the beginning.
T h a n k you for thinking of this quiet time. After days
of mass lectures and information overload I feel
confused, tired and often incapable. I leave these
workshops knowing I've absorbed new ideas and put
them down in m y own way. The knots in my stomach
go and I can feel competent and in control again. I'll
remember to build in thinking time in my class. It
makes S U C H A BIG D I F F E R E N C E . (Elizabeth, 18
March 1992)
I feel I ' m really understanding when I am forced to
write in my own words. We never get time to do this
in the rest of the week. We're always pressured to
remember some theory that fits the lecturer's view
even when they say they are promoting critical
thinking. Here | am learning to be honest about my
thinking and I have time to do it. (John, 1 March 1992)
This emphasis on "being right" was a common
theme. To overcome this lack of confidence an
optional structure for workshop reflections was
provided as shown in Figure 3.
For several weeks preservice teachers carefully
followed this format with most placing emphasis
on the summary. Each week selected individuals
were given notice of an option to share aspects
of new learning or to put to the group puzzling
notions arising from the journal writing. In this
way we hoped that preservice teachers' attention
could be moved from recall of workshop content
to the framing of personally significant problems
and the construction of personal meaning.
Similar to Canning (1991, p. 20) we found that
it was common for preservice teachers to
"ramble" in their writing until connections and
real issues were discovered. Those preservice
teachers willing to explore their own experience
in this way tended to raise more issues of personal
significance than did those who maintained a
more cautious and precise style. The "ramblers"
also tended to assume stronger ownership of
both the journal and the knowledge generated
there.
Collaboration and the Notion of
"Critical Friend"
From the beginning, we asked preservice
teachers to work in pairs or small groups and
to think of themselves as "critical friends". Our
intent here was to establish appreciation of the
value of open dialogue grounded in observation
and experience, along with the habit of engaging
colleagues in systematic reflection for the pur-
pose of personally directed professional devel-
opment. While this begins with identification of
beliefs and the biographical and sociological
234 DAWN FRANCIS
contexts shaping personal perceptions, it pro-
gressively includes analysis of impact on others
in the context of the institution. Only when
teacher reflection has an impact on more equi-
table and just preservice teacher o u t c o m e s can
its high profile in teacher education be justified.
This notion of critical friendship was an exten-
sion of a long-term c o m m i t m e n t to a supervision
model based on collaboration and research
(Francis & Sellars, 1991a, 1991b) which indicated
a need to develop familiarity and confidence in
critical and collaborative processes at preservice
level.
Emphasis was initially placed on the preservice
teachers' articulating their practical theory of
teaching (through m e t a p h o r and concept map-
ping) and on analysis of the beliefs and values
influencing teaching action. The simple clinical
supervision cycle of pre-conference observation
for data collection, and post-observation confer-
ence was set up using a c o m b i n a t i o n of role-play
related to recorded conferences and video les-
sons. In the audio-video demonstrations a "criti-
cal friend" explored, with a local teacher, beliefs
a b o u t problem solving in mathematics and the
intended preservice teacher and teacher roles in
the lesson to follow. Students noted verbatim the
"critical friend's" questions and analysed these
in terms of question type, power structures
established, ownership of knowledge, usefulness
of knowledge, and focus of observation estab-
lished. Prior to viewing the lesson they construc-
ted their own instruments for collecting data
related to the teacher's stated concerns. The
lesson was viewed, data collected and a post-
conference role-played prior to listening to the
experienced teachers' analysis of the lesson. The
examples used were developed specifically to
explore interconnections a m o n g teacher think-
ing, instructional decision-making, anticipated
learning outcomes and teacher beliefs. The cycle
was repeated with a second example taken from
the local context.
Students reported the mix of modelling and
practice as a powerful learning experience which
transformed views of the nature of teacher col-
laboration and feedback.
My thoughts on the role of the critical friend are a
lot clearer. My first perception was that as a critical
friend your job was to provide solutions. Instead, the
critical friend should extend your thoughts so that
you can reach your own solutions. Questioning and
understanding your partner's beliefs is vital to being
a critical friend. The type of language you use is vital,
especially in forming mediating questions directed at
engaging thinking. (Megan, 22 May 1992)
This practice of critical friends working within
the agenda set by their partners in order to
stimulate, clarify, and extend thinking within
their framework of beliefs, values, and needs was
something which preservice teachers found dif-
ficult but exciting. Most drew comparisons with
their practicum experience of supervision and
were keen to develop skills which might transfer
to that context,
Students did come to feel accountable both
for their own growth and that of their peers.
Some tasks required groups of three to six while
others, like micro-teaching, involved selection of
a critical friend who would not only commit
outside time to collaboration, but would hold a
" s t a k e " in the outcome.
At first I was doubtful about this (critical friend) idea
but I really enjoyed the micro-teaching knowing I
had a friend. It gives me the chance to explore in
more detail the things we are interested in developing
further. I feel we gained confidence when working
together. The rest of the group as "class" were friendly
and I know they want to help ... very different from
the usual feeling of being watched. It's much easier
to learn together from experience/example rather than
read in a book or be told what to do! (Frank, 10
April 1992)
I chose my lesson because I felt the topic would benefit
the group ... it was something I noticed in the first
week that "Jo" and "Fred" were having trouble with
but I felt confident about. (Elizabeth, 10 April 1992)
We had several meetings before l felt Ann was really
ready and confident to do her lesson. It really paid
off! We were SO PROUD! (Vanessa, 14 April 1992)
At this stage there was little evidence of
conscious c o m m i t m e n t to greater equity or social
justice in the content selected or processes used.
Research suggests that preservice teachers and
experienced teachers are not easily m o v e d to
incorporate the moral and ethical criteria or the
social dimensions of the discourse of schooling
into their reflection (Feiman-Nemser & Floden,
1986; G o r e & Zeichner, 1991; Sparks, 1991;
Zeichner & Teitelbaum, 1982). While some of
our preservice teachers had this difficulty, others,
particularly aboriginal preservice teachers and
mature age women, wrote extensively, often
passionately linking teaching acts to injustice in
society and yet had difficulty attending to the
 The Reflective Journal
detail of specific events or to pedagogical prin-
ciples. We used the model illustrated in Figure
1 to help restore balance in attending to technical
competence, theory, personal experience, and
social responsibility but we remain dissatisfied
with both the suggestion of sequence and priority
here.
Initial Difficulties: Identifying New Pathways
to Be Taken
In a classroom meeting following work on
critical incidents and the supervision cycle, our
preservice teachers identified four aspects of their
collaboration as requiring more structured prac-
tice. First, they had difficulty articulating the way
in which personal values and beliefs linked to
decision-making and teacher action. The con-
nections and conflicts were often not evident to
them unless "the right" question was asked. They
recognised "global focus" as a problem and also
saw their own preoccupation with "getting
through content" and "worrying about manage-
ment". Second, they found it difficult to view a
teaching encounter from another's viewpoint
and thus empower the person doing the teaching.
Questions and responses were loaded with judg-
ments and presuppositions which suggested a
"one best way of teaching--I know best" view.
Third, they saw themselves as talkers, not lis-
teners. Fourth, in observation they found it
difficult to move from content of the lesson
towards a focus on context and teaching moves.
Students participated as if they were children
learning in the classrooms being observed. As a
result, they missed much of the thick detail
needed for reflection.
To meet some of these needs we used extracts
from Costa and Garmston's kit, Another Set of
Eyes, applying written exercises and video
models to further role-play using peer observers.
To help with the fourth concern, replay of video
was changed to allow observation and discussion
of specific, "micro" instances, rather than view-
ing of whole episodes. Journal writing indicated
that progress was made.
When you stopped the video and asked. 'What did
she just say ...' I realised I was working out the
probabilityjust like the kids. I didn't ask myselfwhat
she'd done or said to get me in like that but I really
wanted to know how to do it.... Reviewing bits of
235
the video it was surprising that people were seeing
and hearing different things. (Rod, 18 March 1992)
My first description of the incident was focused on
the content of the lesson. I couldn't recall what the
teacher had said or wherethe kids were sitting. I knew
they moved quickly but I couldn't recall why. When
we replayed after the questions were asked, I took
more notice of the strategies used and how these
linked to the teacher's beliefs about the kids being
responsible for followingthe agreed rules. Still, I am
getting better at observing detail. (James, 18 May
1992)
When you review and discuss you find things your
didn't see.... I changed my mind about it after
listening to my peers and thinking again about what
the teacher said she believed. I'd been looking at it
frommy own limited beliefs.(Annette, 18 March 1992)
This reflection on "micro incidents" combined
with the journal writing served to uncover and
render explicit impressions which might other-
wise have made no impact on subsequent obser-
vations.
Structured Journal Tasks: Developing the Skills
and Attitudes of Reflection
In addition to the regular writing in four
sections of the journal, more focused and struc-
tured tasks linked to content were completed
within workshops. In most cases these involved
a cycle of invidivual brainstorming concerning
a specific context or incident, small group shar-
ing, individual writing and group challenging.
Four of these tasks were identified by our
preservice teachers as being particularly useful
in both facilitating questions about self as
teacher-learner, and in reshaping institutional
expectations: critical incident analysis, class-
room management process modelling, construc-
tion of a professional diary, and the analysis of
metaphor.
1. Critical Incident Analysis
This activity is conducted in five parts. First
the preservice teacher selects and writes a short
description of an incident from recent school
experience. Stress is placed on detail (thick
description) and suspension of judgment. Here
our aim was to suspend, in the sense advocated
by Dewey, the immediate action and taken-for-
granted assumptions. Second, on another page
the preservice teacher reflects on this incident in
terms of meaning given to it. This reflection
236 DAWN FRANCIS
might include feeling, beliefs, application of the-
ory, comparison with other events, or questions.
Third, critical friends exchange first page descrip-
tions and react to them. Fourth, groups of 4-5
react to each incident for the express purpose of
generating a range of alternative ways of viewing
the incident. Finally each preservice teacher
returns to their own incident and reconstructs
the meaning given to it in the light of their beliefs
as influenced by the group analysis.
Students uniformly rated this critical incident
analysis as a powerful learning experience. They
identified increased awareness of the need to
observe detail, and of a need to view observation,
interpretation, and judgment as being construc-
ted within personal belief systems. Links between
personal theory, teacher thinking, and action
became explicit. The specific task provided "per-
mission" to express personal views and to "chal-
lenge in a supportive way". Typical of partici-
pants' reactions was this:
For the first time I saw what being a "critical friend"
meant. There is a balance of critical and friend. I'd
been letting one dominate the other. We really were
quite different (in our interpretation of the incident)
but the difference wasn't a t h r e a t - - y o u didn't have
to feel put down or guilty for not agreeing because
we were all interested in learning together. I found
new approaches I wouldn't have thought of alone
and I understand better why my teacher does ...
(Mary, 23 March 1992)
Another realized the impact of personal belief
on selective perception.
When were were asked to write an objective descrip-
tion I found myself continually wanting to use my
opinions and feelings as a part of the description. The
exercise helped me to remember how easily my
perceptions are influenced by my beliefs. It was really
interesting to see the way our group's discussion had
changed when we were asked to screen the incident
again from a different angle. A mature aged women
and the one aboriginal student in the group helped
us to see one incident very differently. I could really
see how it was for them. (Janelle, 4 March 1992)
Many made reference to the time given for
written reflection during analysis of the incident.
The idea of reflective w r i t i n ~ o f putting down your
own thoughts at each stage in the w o r k s h o ~ i s new
to me and I've noticed how it helps you to search
what your true feelings are towards something. You
begin to own it rather than just take on what the
lecturer says. You don't usually have time to do this.
I hadn't thought about why this incident stayed in
mind. I see now that it challenged (something I felt
strongly about). (Graham, 23 March 1992)
We have come to see this "giving of quiet time"
as a key component in our teaching-learning
process.
Not only did this exercise allow us to address
the individual early concerns of beginning
teachers (Fuller & Brown, 1975), but through a
process of systematic coupling of personal recall
of lived experience, collaborative consideration
of different viewpoints, and specific time for
written reflection, we establish the notion of
critical friendship as a way of reconstructing
personal meaning-making.
2. Classroom Management Process Modellin 9
As part of a 3-week unit in classroom man-
agement and after reading Webber (1977), our
preservice teachers followed a similar individ-
ual/paired/group process to reflect on their most
recent classroom experience. This task explicitly
requires consideration of expressed theory (the
"ideal") and theory in use ("what we do in the
classroom"). First, each listed the characteristics
of their "ideal" classroom (A1). Next, each listed
the characteristic of the classroom in which they
had last worked (A2). Discrepancies between
these two were identified. Much discussion and
debate was generated as to the importance of
these discrepancies which in turn led to some
reassessment of ideals. Finally, each generated a
range of short-tern and long-term strategies
which might be used to reduce the discrepancy.
This process is illustrated in Figure 4.
Journal work associated with this task re-
vealed an overwhelming preoccupation with the
affective dimensions of the classroom. Fostering
positive relationships through teacher and pupil
warmth and supportiveness was a common ideal.
A few students identified this pattern in their
belief system and moved on to challenge it both
at an individual and group level. Debbie's jour-
nal illustrates in this extract.
I am still tending to think about my own "getting
through the instruction" (quote from earlier journal
entry) and the preparation of a caring classroom
climate. While I still think this is important, there
must be more to managing the learning environment
than a positive atmosphere. Atmosphere alone
doesn't stimulate thinking or challenge children to
set higher goals. I need to spend more time working
through exercises like this one to identify what these
other strategies are. (Debbie, 24 March 1992)
 The Reflective Journal
The "Ideal" Conditions
Description and analysis
of your ideal classroom
management conditions
A1
t
Assess managerial effectiveness in
terms of goals from AI
(a step viewed as essential to
teaching)
Figure 4. Classroom process model.
We need to give more attention to identifying
such patterns and engaging preservice teachers
in discussion about them.
Another outcome of structuring a task to focus
on discrepancies was that many uncovered in-
consistencies in their current philosophy and
practice and, perhaps more importantly, felt
"free" to articulate these:
I enjoyed analysing what actually happened and
comparing and combining it with what I wanted to
happen. I found myself ideally wanting creative,
autonomous students making their own decisions.
However, when it comes to dealing with real problems
I find I'm reverting to a safe, strict and restricting
classroom environment. My supervisor also has a
strong voice like me and (using the collaborative cycle
we've practiced) together we are going to work at
curbing our voices. To do this we need to make sure
we anticipate and prepare adequate instructions to
minimise the need for voice and I especially have to
think before I yell or voice my own opinions of what
should be done when we can negotiate. (Ann, 24 April
1992)
Discussion surrounding this task revealed a
growing confidence to acknowledge concerns
and inconsistencies, and to initiate collaborative
action beyond the context of the university
classroom. In an earlier entry Ann had expressed
scepticism about "exposing weaknesses to super-
237
The "Real" Condition
I
Description and Analysis
of actual classroom
condition
A2
~ Identif7 ALIA2
Discrepancies
Select managerial strategies
• short term
• long term
which move toward the ideal
vising teachers". Here she indicates perception
of a more equal, collaborative relationship in
which supervisor and preservice teacher are joint
learners.
3. Professional Diary
It is here that preservice teachers truly take
ownership of their emerging practical theory.
The task was put to the preservice teachers as
"recording and reflecting on anything which
impacts on your beliefs about teaching". The
extracts vary enormously in content, length, and
depth of analysis. Initially the entries were con-
fined to reflection on incidents from teaching
practice and learning from our particular subject
area. Increasingly however, television, popular
press, conversations with people outside of the
education system, conversations with children,
and analysis of policy documents are being
included. One diary scanned for this paper
contained themes such as "tread carefully over
family court matters", "linguistic responsibility",
"the Mayer Committee key compentencies",
"challenging parents", "youth employment--
what are my options?" and "kitchen science
messy". Each entry had detail of the stimulus
and in-depth analysis of the personal meaning
constructed from reflection on it.
238
F o r the first time in 15 years of tertiary
teaching, I a m i n t e r a c t i n g frequently with preser-
vice teachers w h o are n o t p r e d o m i n a n t l y con-
cerned with m y role as e v a l u a t o r a n d d i s p e n s e r
of grades. Evidence of j o u r n a l use for i n d i v i d u a l
p u r p o s e s can be seen in the n u m b e r of preservice
teachers who a t t a c h notes like this:
I'm sorry this is so long but I need to work this
through in my own way. I write a lot but I'll eventually
solve it myself. You don't need to read it if time is
short. (Jose, 16 May 1992)
I didn't hand in my journal as (my supervisor) needed
it at school for tracking a special-needs child. We are
going back over what we did at the beginning - - so
much of it we had forgotten - - he has made much
more progress than we realised. I'm so pleased I wrote
down so much. (Janette, 5 May 1992)
S o m e built in "sign p o s t s " where they w a n t e d
comment:
Nolan and Huber make the assertion that reflection
positively effects beliefs about teaching and self es-
teem. I can identify with this. Throughout workshops,
where self-reflection has been predominant, I have
focused myself continually reassessing and redefining
my philosophy of teaching. However, I don't really
see how this affects my self-esteem. Any suggestions?
(Janelle, 27 June 1992)
A lot said about "worthwhile". Worthwhile to whom?
For what? Dawn, I want you to react to this ! ! ! (Cath,
1 May 1992)
After talking with a fellow student about integration,
I pointed out that the gifted and talented students of
the class hold society's direction for their future so
more attention should be given to them. Indirectly,
and in time, I believe that these children will contrib-
ute to special-needs children by advancements they
make in technology, to the structuring of the economy,
research into disability. This view seems a hard, even
selfish one, but I do believe it is realistic. WHAT A
MORAL DILEMMA! Please comment, Dawn.
(Janelle, 14 March 1992)
T h e r e were n u m e r o u s occasions where preser-
vice teacher, with j o u r n a l in h a n d , m a d e p e r s o n a l
c o n t a c t to d e m a n d r e a c t i o n where such has been
o v e r l o o k e d , o r where the r e a c t i o n was consider-
ed insufficient o r w o r t h y of further debate.
Reflections such as Janelle's (above), which
challenge the in-vogue rhetoric of the i n s t i t u t i o n
a n d invite d e b a t e with a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h a t
system, signal the preservice t e a c h e r ' s t a k i n g
executive c o n t r o l of the l e a r n i n g process. W h i l e
this is valued in o u r class, it raises questions
a b o u t student v u l n e r a b i l i t y in o t h e r c o n t e x t s - - a
critical issue for those w h o are c o m m i t t e d to
d e v e l o p i n g reflective practitioners.
D A W N FRANCIS
4. Metaphors
M e t a p h o r s have a coherence a n d internal
consistency which p r o v i d e insights into ideas
t h a t are n o t explicit o r consciously held. T h e y
can also be evocative, s t i m u l a t i n g b o t h self a n d
o t h e r to tease o u t c o n n e c t i o n s which might n o t
be m a d e by use of direct questions. O u r use of
m e t a p h o r is b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p r o -
fessional k n o w l e d g e is often tacit a n d consists of
m o r e t h a n t h a t which can be told or written
d o w n ( M u n b y , 1986). W e also h o l d t h a t there is
a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the m e t a p h o r s teachers
c o n s t r u c t a n d their p r a c t i c a l t h e o r y of teaching.
In o u r " m e t a p h o r " t a s k the preservice teachers
were a s k e d to write a p a r a g r a p h b e g i n n i n g
" t e a c h i n g is like . . . " . G r o u p s a n a l y z e d the
m e t a p h o r s l o o k i n g for relationships between
m e t a p h o r a n d beliefs a b o u t teaching. S o m e went
further to search j o u r n a l entries for further use
of m e t a p h o r .
M o s t surprising in this task was the uncover-
ing of d i c h o t o m y between professed theories of
teaching a n d theories in use. In p a r t i c u l a r , al-
t h o u g h preservice teachers in this p r o g r a m m e
c l a i m e d to have a d o p t e d a constructivist ap-
p r o a c h to teaching a n d learning, there were
n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s of c o n d u i t m e t a p h o r s . F o r
example:
I see myself as a teacher who is like the current flowing
through an electric circuit. Each student causes a
resistance and a subsequent withdrawal of energy
from the teacher; hopefully the light bulbs (students)
will glow brightly when they are given energy. The
source of energy which the teacher relies on eventually
runs down and needs to be recharged if the light bulbs
are to continue to glow brightly and sometimes the
switch in the circuit is open and prevents the current
from flowing. (Janelle, 4 March 1992)
This preservice t e a c h e r ' s l a n g u a g e use consist-
ently fitted within the c o n d u i t m e t a p h o r . Phrases
such as " b e i n g a catalyst for discussion", " m o v -
ing t h e m a l o n g " , " f r o m m e to t h e m " , " g e t t h e m
focused o n " , were used often. T o w a r d s the end
of the semester, which h a d included weekly
c o n t a c t with a c l a s s r o o m a n d d e v e l o p i n g interest
in special-needs children, her l a n g u a g e use in-
d i c a t e d a c h a n g e of focus from teacher as trans-
m i t t e r to c o n c e r n for c h i l d r e n ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n s of
meaning. T h e m o v e m e n t m e t a p h o r s r e m a i n e d
b u t the source of p o w e r h a d altered.
Children are well able to reflect on the consequences
of behavior and action and to develop strategies for
 The Reflective Journal
dealing with failure as well as success. Openness can
cause them to take off. (Janelle, 5 May 1992)
There was also evidence of uncertainty and
fear tempered by anticipation of better times
ahead:
Teaching is parachute jumping; uncertain and scary
to begin with, but can develop into an exciting
adventure with time, patience, practice and learning,
the ride smoother. (Joanne, 4 March 1992)
Teaching is photography. You start off with a clear
image similar to the one in the view finder, but during
the development you can feel that you are stumbling
around in the dark. Like parents some need more
exposure to a subject than others, while a few just
take longer to develop. However, if you manage to
get the process right that clear image will linger with
all the quality of the initial view. (Debbie, 4 March
1992)
And yet others felt the frustration of waiting:
Teaching is like watching paint dry. It can take a long
while. You must choose the type of paint to suit the
wall. Watching it dry is a long, tedious process, but
the end result will be a better wall. (Pare, 4 March
1992)
TO date no attention has been given to having
preservice teachers track their own development
through metaphor, although they have done this
using Barbara's story (Bullough & Knowles,
1991).
All of these tasks have been developed in line
with our belief that the attitudes and skills of
reflection must be explicitly and systematically
developed. They also involve lecturer modelling
of a reflective process in which questions and
inconsistencies can often be more important than
answers locked into consistent sets of rules and
customary ways of thinking. The structured
nature of the early tasks permits some explicit
reshaping of institutional expectations re "expo-
sure of weakness", disclosure of nonconforming
beliefs and notions of critical friendship. While
each task can facilitate social and political re-
flection, it also recognises that the preservice
teacher's level of concern, and professional need,
also requires some careful analysis at a technical-
skill level.
Reflection on Reflection
Our venture into the process of personal
theory-building through journal writing is just
beginning. We have discovered that busy preser-
vice teachers do not typically engage in reflection
239
in order to transform information transmitted
to them and that they have, in effect, learned not
to value or apply their own voices to issues of
professional significance. Given the time, some
structure and the expectation to do so, they can
find a voice. While some remain at a technical
level, albeit more fully drawn and subjected to
critical analysis, others move on to challenge
commonly held perspectives of their role as
teachers and learners. Certainly the preservice
teachers' journals show that they are observing
in more detail and with greater critical aware-
ness. They are more aware of themselves as
teachers and more confident of their ability to
construct and articulate personal knowledge.
Kate put this aptly when she said, "Knowledge
is not something someone can give you; it is
something you arrive at yourself....". We have
yet to achieve the transfer of this view to pupils.
The following summary is a first attempt to
understand what we have learned. The points
made are neither complete nor conclusive. They
are made with the hope of generating further
discussion and as a guide to our own ongoing
reflection.
1. Location of Concept and Process of Reflection
in a Philosophical Framework
There is a need to recognize the range of
traditions within which reflection can be located.
Failure to anchor the approach adopted in a
clearly articulated philosophy can contribute to
preservice teacher confusion and extend the time
that they withhold an honest voice. Only when
a firm base is established can the focus move
from reflection as a nebulous concept to ident-
ifying criteria by which its components and value
can be ascertained. We have located this work
within a reconstruction of experience perspective
(Grimmett, 1989) which accepts preservice
teachers' early concern with self(Fuller & Brown,
1975; Katz, 1972) and recognises the importance
of the idiosyncratic personal theories which
underpin what we see, think, and do.
2. Recognition of the Institutional Context
In-depth reflection does not occur automati-
cally and it is not developed without anxiety for
preservice teachers who have been socialised to
expect that they will be graded and valued
according to the degree of "fit" of their ideas to
those of the "expert" lecturer. There is a need
240 DAWN FRANCIS
to affirm tentative risk-taking and to balance
acceptance with a demand for rigor based on
careful observation and analysis of events and
the meaning-making these provoke. Any restruc-
turing of institutional expectations involves some
risk for students. We are conscious of their
vulnerability and continue to seek ways of build-
ing not only our joint awareness of institutional
contexts, but of building capacity to read and
influence those contexts.
3. A Learned Process
The attitudes and skills of reflective writing
can and must be consciously developed. We have
found that a combination of sequenced, struc-
tured tasks, and free-focus writing seemed to
make a positive contribution to this. The critical
incident analysis was particularly useful when
used early in the learning process. Our learning
here supports the work of Griffiths and Tan
(1992) in placing the articulation and probing of
personal theories and one's own practice at the
centre of reflection and professional develop-
ment. We attempt to involve our preservice
teachers in a collaborative process of reconstruc-
tion of lived teaching experiences, reflection on
personal beliefs and, most importantly, create
activities where challenge of meaning construc-
ted in those experiences is viewed as supportive.
Following Duckworth (1977, p. 3) we aim to have
preservice teachers tap into the sense they are
constructing and continue to question and con-
sciously reconstruct this. More work is needed
to elaborate both the components of the process
and the outcomes of reflective practice. The
models used here suggest a developmental se-
quence. This continues to concern us because it
denies both the complex, interactive nature of
the thinking process and the demands of sense-
making in context. It is likely that some situ-
ations properly require systematic and sustained
analysis at the technical skill level while others
demand socially critical reflection. Equally im-
portant and overlooked in much of the literature,
we have not yet established how teachers being
more reflective will positively impact on
children's learning. Follow-up studies here are
urgently needed.
4. Establishing a Commitment to Journal Writing
Students cannot realistically be expected to
adopt journal writing with enthusiasm from the
beginning. Provision of contact time, "captive
audience" writing and routine collection and
reaction to journal entries within a warm, sup-
portive environment can facilitate commitment.
Time given to this task does reduce the content
covered, but is offset by the firm anchoring of
new concepts in personally meaningful con-
structs.
5. Collaborative Learning
Our work to date indicates that individual
reflection is enhanced by group and paired
collaboration. Articulating to others helps shape
and clarify ideas. The group has more resources
to call on than do individuals. This can stimulate
reconstruction of existing beliefs and, when trust
and mutual support are held at a premium,
preservice teachers are more likely to risk ex-
pressing partly formed ideas, questions, lack of
understanding and challenge to fellow learners
(including lecturers) in the small group context.
Sharing develops confidence in self as learner
and the positive reaction of peers contributes to
valuing of personal experience and confidence in
capacity to generate knowledge. However, suc-
cessful collaboration does not just happen. It
must be consciously nurtured. Specific skills
needing to be developed include active listening,
identification of personal goals as related to
beliefs, identification of presuppositions in lan-
guage use, using mediating and clarifying ques-
tions, data recording and analysis, group and
task maintenance. As well as building the devel-
opment of these skills into this subject, it is our
intention to mount an elective which specifically
focuses on the philosophy, theory, and skills of
co-operative learning and teaching.
6. Critical Friends A Question of Balance
Students have been preconditioned to see
"critical" as necessitating negative evaluation.
They automatically give weight to being critical
and overlook the connection to friendship with
its implied warmth and support. Students, like
their more experienced peers, lace observation
and feedback with subjective judgments and a
"fix it" assumption. They must be taught to use
alternative strategies. Given positive models and
the opportunity to practice, they quickly appreci-
ate the empowering potential of another set of
eyes and are excited by the prospect of transfer-
ring the notion of critical friendship to the
 The Reflective Journal
practicum context. It is not easy to quantify the
changes that have occurred. Students initial
resistance has altered to a valuing of journal
writing as stimulating growth, increasing self-
awareness and confidence which can be trans-
ferred to the school contexts. We no longer have
to collect journals to ensure that writing is done
Some write extensively beyond allocated times.
We have learned a great deal, but there is still
a long way to go before we can claim that our
reflective practitioners are making a positive
impact on children's learning. This is the real
challenge !
References
Bullough, R. V., & Knowles, J. G. (1991). Teaching and
nurturing: Changing conceptions of self as teacher in a
case study of becoming a teacher. Qualitative Studies in
Education, 4, 121-140.
Calderhead, J. (1989). Reflective teaching and teacher edu-
cation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 5, 43-51.
Canning, C. (1991). What teachers say about reflection.
Educational Leadership, 14(6), 18-21.
Dewey, F. (1933). How We Think. Chicago: Henry Regnery.
Duckworth, E. (1977). The having of wonderful ideas and other
essays on teaching and learning. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Feiman-Nemser, S., & Floden, R. E. (1986). The cultures of
teaching. In M. C. Winrock (ed.), Handbook of research
on teaching (pp. 505-526). New York: Macmillan.
Francis, D., & Sellars, N. (eds). (1990). Readings in supervision
and professional development. James Cook University,
Townsville.
Francis, D., & Sellars, N. (eds). (1991a). Reading in teaching
strategies and professional development. James Cook Uni-
versity, Townsville.
Francis, D., & Sellars, N. (1991b). Collaborative professional
development in a primary school: A case study. Paper
presented at ATEA Conference, Melbourne.
Fuller, F. F., & Bown, O. H. (1975). Becoming a teacher. In
K. Ryan (ed.), Teacher education, The Seventy-Fourth
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu-
cation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gore, J. M., & Zeichner, K. M. (1991). Action research and
reflective teaching in preservice teacher education: A case
study from the United States. Teacher and Teacher Edu-
cation, 7, 119 136.
241
Griffiths, M., & Tann, S. (1992). Using reflective practice to
link personal and public theories. Journal of Education for
Teaching, IS(D, 69-83.
Grimmett, P. P. (1989). A commentary on Sch6n's view of
reflection. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 5(1),
19 28.
Handal, G., & Lauvas, P. (1987). Promoting reflective teach-
ing: Supervision in action. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Katz, L. G. (1972). Elementary School Journal, 73(1), 50-54.
Kitchener, K. S. (1977). Intellectual development in late
adolescents and young adults: Reflective judgment and verbal
reasoning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University
of Minnesota.
Munby, H. (1986), Metaphor in the thinking of teachers: An
exploratory study. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 18,
197 209.
Noordhoff, K., & Kleinfield, J. (1988). Rethinking the rhetoric
of "reflective inquiry" in teacher education programs. In
H. C. Waxman, H. J. Freiberg, J. C. Vaughan, & M. Weil
(eds), Images of reflection in teacher education. Reston, VA:
Association of Teacher Education.
Sch6n, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How profes-
sionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Sch6n, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner:
Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the
profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sellars, N. W. (1990). Towards a model for the professional
development of the teacher. Occasional Paper No. 901.
Centre for the Study of Teaching and Teacher Develop-
ment, James Cook University of North Queensland.
Simmons, J. M., & Sparks, G. M. (1987). The need for a new
model of teacher supervision and evaluation: The implication
of identifying reflection as an explicit goal of teacher
education programs. Paper presented at the OERT Con-
ference on Teacher Reflection, Houston.
Smyth, J. (1989). An alternative vision and an "educative"
agenda for supervision as a field of study. Journal of
Curriculum and Supervision, 4(2), 162-177.
Sparks, A. C. (1991). The culture of teaching, critical reflection
and change: Possibilities and problems. Educational Man-
agement and Administration, 19(1), 4-19.
Van Manen, M. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways
of being practical. Curriculum Inquiry, 6, 205-228.
Zeichner, K., & Liston, D. (1987). Teaching student teachers
to reflect. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 23-48.
Zeichner, K., & Teitelbaum, K. (1982). Personalized and
inquiry-oriented teacher education. Journal of Education
for Teaching, 8, 95-117.
Submitted 19 April 1993
Accepted 4 May 1994