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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Natures of Lightning

Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge that occurs typically during a
thunderstorm. This discharge occurs between electrically charged regions of a cloud
(called intra-cloud lightning or IC), between two clouds (CC lightning), or between a
cloud and the ground (CG lightning).
The charged regions in the atmosphere temporarily equalize themselves
through this discharge referred to as a flash. A lightning flash can also be a strike if it
involves an object on the ground. Lightning creates light in the form of black body
radiation from the very hot plasma created by the electron flow, and sound in the form
of thunder. Lightning may be seen and not heard when it occurs at a distance too great
for the sound to carry as far as the light from the strike or flash.
The details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but
there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm
electrification. The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of
the storm where air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from
−15 to −25 degree Celsius. At that place, the combination of temperature and rapid
upward air movement produces a mixture of super-cooled cloud droplets (small water
droplets below freezing), small ice crystals, and graupel (soft hail). The updraft
carries the super-cooled cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward. At the
same time, the graupel, which is considerably larger and denser, tends to fall or be
suspended in the rising air.
The differences in the movement of the precipitation cause collisions to occur.
When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively
charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged. The updraft carries the
positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud. The larger
and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls
toward the lower part of the storm.
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The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while
the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged. The
result is that the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged
while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.
The upward motions within the storm and winds at higher levels in the atmosphere
tend to cause the small ice crystals (and positive charge) in the upper part of the
thunderstorm cloud to spread out horizontally some distance from thunderstorm cloud
base. This part of the thunderstorm cloud is called the anvil. While this is the main
charging process for the thunderstorm cloud, some of these charges can be
redistributed by air movements within the storm (updrafts and downdrafts) in Figure
2.1. In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom
of the thunderstorm cloud due to the precipitation and warmer temperatures.

Negative Charge

Positive Charge

Upward
Return
Streamer
Stroke

Lightning Rod

Figure 2.1. Lightning Made in Cloud

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Lightning is formed by an imbalance of electrical charges in a cumulonimbus

cloud. These large clouds have strong vertical and downdraft winds. As the water
particles and ice crystals are violently bounced around within the cloud the positive
and negative charges begin to congregate at the bottom and top of the cloud. Positive
charges build up on the ground and negative charges build up at the base of the cloud.
The negative charges begin to move downward in a zigzag stroke called a stepped
leader (they cannot be seen at this point). Positive charges build up on the ground,
congregate around the highest point (a tree, lightning rod, or even a person). Since
positive and negative charges attract, the positively charged upward streamer begins
to reach up toward the negatively charged, downward stepped leader. When the two
strokes meet a bright bolt of lightning, called the return stroke, is visible. At 54,000
degrees Fahrenheit, a lightning bolt is 5 times hotter than the surface of the sun! The
sudden, rapid expansion of air is heard as a clap of thunder. There can be no thunder
without lightning. The sound of thunder travels at 5 miles per second, so it is possible
to calculate the distance of lightning by counting how many seconds it takes to hear
the thunder after seeing a bolt of lightning.

2.2. Effects of Lightning in Power System

International Electrical Commission (IEC) classifies voltages and overvoltage
into the following four classes; continuous (power frequency) voltage, temporary
overvoltage, transient overvoltage and combined overvoltage based on their shape and
duration. Power frequency voltage is continuously applied voltage to any part of an
insulation configuration. Temporary overvoltage is defined as power frequency
overvoltage for relatively long duration and is caused by load rejection, line short
circuit fault and etc. Transient overvoltage is a short-duration overvoltage of few
milliseconds or less and it consists of three type overvoltage; slow-front, fast-front
and very fast-front. Combined overvoltage is the combination of two types of
overvoltage.
Fast front overvoltage are the results of the lightning that is the reason why it
is called as lightning overvoltage. It is known that lightning strikes inject steep front
current impulses to the overhead transmission lines. This current impulse cause
traveling waves which propagate along the overhead line and overvoltage. Also, in
substations, they cause lightning impulse overvoltage and pose a risk to any items of
equipment. Thus, the dielectric withstand of the different equipment of substation
must be higher than the resulting overvoltage.
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Lightning affects the performance of power lines by both direct and indirect
effects where the transient high voltages may cause flashover on the electrical
equipment on the power line. Direct lightning strikes, may intercept with line
conductors, towers or shielding wires. The probability of direct strike in a given
region increases with line height, thus, high voltage (HV) lines may subject to direct
strikes more than medium voltage (MV) or low voltage (LV) lines.
On the other hand, when lightning strikes the ground or any object close to a
line, the electromagnetic fields will propagate in all directions. The inductive and
capacitive coupling of such electromagnetic fields with conducting wires induce
voltage impulses in the power system. These lightning induced overvoltage (LIOV)
may cause significant problems in MV and LV power lines because of the low value
of critical flashover (CFO) voltage compared to that of HV line. Moreover, the chance
of an indirect effect is higher than that of a direct strike as for any lightning event
around a power line, LIOV can appear on the power line.
There are two kinds of lightning impulse overvoltage which are considered
due to the different position of the strike point. The first is the back flashover. In this
type lightning impulse overvoltage, the lightning strikes on the tower or shielding
wire, and then it increases the tower top voltage over the insulator strength. This leads
to backward flashovers from the tower to an overhead line conductor. The second one
is the shielding failure. In this type, the lightning strikes directly on the phase
conductor of the overhead line due to the protection failure of shielding wire.

2.3. Components of Substation

Power system is a constituent of power generation, transmission and
distribution systems. For all the power system operations, substations are required for
their course of action. Substations are congregation of electrical equipment through
which consumers get supply of electrical power from generating stations. By varying
the voltage levels or frequency or any other aspects, the required electrical quantity
can be altered in substations to provide quality power to consumers.
Based on the application of substations, they are classified into different types:
Generation substation, Indoor substation, Outdoor substation, pole mounted
substation, Switching substation, Transmission substation, Converter substation and
Distribution substation. In rare cases like wind farm power generation system,
multiple hydroelectric and thermal power plants one can observe the collector
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substation which is used for transferring power from multiple turbines into one
transmission unit.
The following devices are used for lightning protection in substation:
1. Insulator
2. Fuse
3. Relay
4. Bus-bar
5. Earth switch
6. Lightning arrester

2.3.1. Insulators
The metal which does not allow free movement of electrons or electric charge
is called as an insulator. Hence, insulators resist electricity with their high resisting
property. There are different types of insulators such as suspension type, strain type,
stray type, shackle, pin type and so on. A few types of insulators are shown in Figure
2.2. Insulators are used for insulation purpose while erecting electric poles with
conductors to avoid short circuit and for other insulation requirement.

Figure 2.2. Insulators

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2.3.2. Fuse
The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting point,
high conductivity and least deterioration due to oxidation e.g. silver copper etc. It is
inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. Under normal operation conditions,
the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the
normal current without overheating. However, when a short circuit or overload
occurs, the current through the fuse increase beyond its rated value. This raises the
temperature and fuse element melts, disconnecting the circuit protected by it. In this
way a fuse protects the machines and equipment from damage.
The function of a fuse is to carry the normal current without overheating but
when the current exceeds its normal value, it rapidly heats up to melting point and
disconnects the circuit protected by it. In order that it may perform this function
satisfactorily, the fuse element should have the following desirable characteristics
1. Low melting point e.g. tin, lead
2. High conductivity e.g. silver, copper.
3. Free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g. silver.
4. Low cost e.g. leads tin copper.
The most commonly used materials for fuse element are led, tin, copper, zinc
and silver. For small currents up to 10A, tin or alloy of lead and tin (37%, tin 63%) is
used for making the fuse element. For larger currents, copper or silver is employed. It
is a usual practice to tin the copper to protect it from oxidation.

2.3.3. Relays
Relays are used for disconnecting the circuits by manual or automatic
operation. Relay consists of the coil which is excited or energized and such that
making the contacts of relay closed activates the relay to break or make the circuit
connection. There are different types of relays such as over current relays, definite
time over current relays, voltage relays, auxiliary relays, reclosing relays, solid state
relays, directional relays, inverse time over current relays, microcontroller relays, etc.

2.3.4. Bus Bars

The conductor carrying current and having multiple numbers of incoming and
outgoing line connections can be called as bus bar, which is commonly used in
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substations shown in Figure 2.3. These are classified into different types like single
bus, double bus and ring bus.

LINE LINE TRANSFORMER

BAY
CURRENT TRAFO

CIRCUIT BREAKER

DISCONNECTOR

BUSBARS

Figure 2.3. Bus Bars

2.3.5. Earthing Switch

The choice of earthing system has implications for the safety and
electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply. A protective earth (PE)
connection ensures that all exposed conductive surfaces are at the same electrical
potential as the surface of the Earth, to avoid the risk of electrical shock if a person
touches a device in which an insulation fault has occurred. It ensures that in the case
of an insulation fault such as" short circuit”, a very high current flows, which will
trigger an over current protection device that disconnects the power supply.
Earthing switch is connected between the line conductor and earth, normally it
is open, when the line is disconnected, the earthing switch is closed so as to discharge
the voltage trapped on the line. Though the line is disconnected, there is some voltage
on the line to which the capacitance between line and earth is charged. This voltage is
significant in high voltage system. Before starting the maintenance work these
voltages are discharged to earth by closing the earthing switch. Normally the earthing
is mounted on the frame of isolator. The earthing switch consists of conductor bar.
When the earthing switch is to be Closed, these bar swing and connect the contact on
line unit of isolator to earth.There are about 5 types of earthing.
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1. Solid earthing
2. Resistive earthing
3. Reactance earthing
4. Neutral earthing
5. Petrson coil or suppression coil

2.3.6. Lightning Arresters

The substation equipments such as conductors, transformers, etc., are always
erected outdoor. Whenever light surges occur then, a high-voltage pass through these
electrical components causing damage to them (either temporary or permanent
damage based on the amount of voltage surge). Therefore, to avoid this difficulty,
lightning arresters are placed to pass the entire lightning surges to earth. There are
other arresters which are used to ground the switching surges called as surge arresters
shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4. Lightning Arresters

2.4. Lightning Arrester for Transformer Protection

Lightning arresters are devices that help prevent damage to apparatus due to
high voltages. The arrester provides a low-impedance path to ground for the current
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from a lightning strike or transient voltage and then restores to a normal operating
condition.
The original lightning arrester was nothing more than a spark air gap with one
side connected to a line conductor and the other side connected to earth ground. When
the line-to-ground voltage reached the spark-over level, the voltage surge would be
discharged to earth ground.
The modern metal oxide arrester provides both excellent protective
characteristics and temporary overvoltage capability. The metal oxide disks maintain
a stable characteristic and sufficient non-linearity and do not require series gaps.
A lightning arrester may be compared to a relief valve on a boiler or hot water
heater. It will release high pressure until a normal operating condition is reached.
When the pressure is returned to normal, the safety valve is ready for the next
operation.
When a high voltage (greater than the normal line voltage) exists on the line,
the arrester immediately furnishes a path to ground and thus limits and drains off the
excess voltage. The arrester must provide this relief and then prevent any further flow
of current to ground.
The arrester has the following functions.
1. It must provide a point in the circuit at which an over-voltage
pulse can pass to ground.
2. To prevent any follow-up current from flowing to ground.
3. It limits the voltage produced by lightning.
4. It protects the equipment connected in parallel with it.
Transformer is the heart of modern power system. Therefore, it is mandatory
to protect transformer from any kind of disturbances. High voltage occurs due to
lightning create insulation failure in transformers. This is the reason why lightning
arresters are placed close to the transformer.
There are many types of lightning arresters.
1. Polymer Housed Arrester
2. Multi-Gap Arrester
3. Metal Oxide Arrester
4. Rod Gap Arrester
5. Horn Gap Arrester
6. Sphere Gap Arrester
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2.5. Arrester Selection

The objective of arrester application is to select the lowest rated surge arrester
which will provide adequate overall protection of the equipment insulation and have a
satisfactory service life when connected to the power system. The arrester with the
minimum rating is preferred because it provides the greatest margin of protection for
the insulation. A higher rated arrester increases the ability of the arrester to survive on
the power system, but reduces the protective margin it provides for a specific
insulation level. Both arrester survival and equipment protection must be considered
in arrester selection.
The proper selection and application of lightning arresters in a system involve
decisions in three areas:
1. Selecting the arrester voltage rating. This decision is based on whether or not the
system is grounded and the method of system grounding.
2. Selecting the class of arrester. In general, there are three classes of arresters. In
order of protection, capability and cost, the classes are:
(i) Station class
(ii) Intermediate class
(iii) Distribution class
The station class arrester has the best protection capability and is the most expensive.
3. Determine where the arrester should be physically located.

2.5.1. Arrester Voltage Rating

The lower the arrester voltage rating, the lower the discharge voltage, and the
better the protection of the insulation system. The lower rated arresters are also more
economical. The challenge of selecting and arrester voltage rating is primarily one of
determining the maximum sustained line-to-ground voltage that can occur at a given
system location and then choosing the closest rating that is not exceeded by it. This
maximum sustained voltage to ground is usually considered to be the maximum
voltage on the unfaulted phases during a single line-to-ground fault. Hence, the
appropriate arrester ratings are dependent upon the manner of system grounding.
The rating of the arrester is defined as the RMS voltage at which the arrester
passes the duty-cycle test as defined by the reference standard. Metal oxide arresters
are designed and tested in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C62.11. For surge arrester
applications the “solidly grounded” classification is usually found in Electric Utility
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distribution systems where the system is usually only grounded at the point of supply.
These systems can exhibit a wide range of grounding coefficients depending upon the
system or location in the system. Accordingly, these systems may require a study to
ensure the most economical, secure, arrester rating selection. If this information is not
known or available, the ungrounded classification should be used.
The “ungrounded” classification includes resistance grounded systems,
ungrounded systems and temporarily ungrounded systems. Both high resistance and
low resistance systems are considered ungrounded for the selection of the proper
surge arrester since during a line-to-ground fault the unfaulted phases and their
arresters experience essentially line-to-line voltage. The same is true for the
infrequently used ungrounded system. This simply means that the maximum
continuous operating voltage, as discussed below, must be at least 100 % of the
maximum operating voltage of the system.

2.5.2. Arrester Class

The class of lightning arrester to be applied depends upon the importance and
value of the protected equipment, its impulse insulation level and the expected
discharge currents the arrester must withstand.

2.5.2.1. Station class

Station class arresters are designed for protection of equipment that may be
exposed to significant energy due to line switching surges and at locations where
significant fault current is available. They have superior electrical performance
because their energy absorption capabilities are greater, the discharge voltages
(protective levels) are lower and the pressure relief is greater. The value of the
protected equipment and the importance of uninterrupted service generally warrant
the use of station class arresters throughout their voltage range. Industry standards
dictate the use of both station class and intermediate class arresters for equipment
protection in the 5 to 20 mVA size ranges. Above 20 mVA, station class arresters are
predominately used.

2.5.2.2. Intermediate class

Intermediate class arresters are designed to provide economic and reliable
protection of medium voltage class power equipment. Intermediate arresters are an
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excellent choice for the protection of dry-type transformers, for use in switching and
sectionalizing equipment and for the protection of URD cables. Traditional
applications include equipment protection in the range of 1 to 20 mVA for substations
and rotating machines.

2.5.2.3. Distribution class

Distribution class arresters are frequently used for smaller liquid-filled and
dry-type transformers 1000 kVA and less. These arresters can also be used, if
available in the proper voltage rating, for application at the terminals of rotating
machines below
1000 kVA. The distribution arrester is often used out on exposed lines that are
directly connected to rotating machines.
All of the system parameters need to be considered while choosing an arrester
classification. If the actual arrester energy duties are not known and a transient study
cannot be performed, then it is suggested that Station class arresters be applied. This
is a conservative approach that reduces the chances of misapplication.

2.6. Location of Arresters

The ideal location for lightning arresters, from the standpoint of protection, is
directly at the terminals of the equipment to be protected. At this location, with the
arrester grounded directly at the tank, frame or other metallic structure which supports
the insulated parts, the surge voltage applied to the insulation will be limited to the
discharge voltage of the arrester. Practical system circumstance and sound economics
often dictate that arresters be mounted remotely from the equipment to be protected.
Often, one set of arresters can be applied to protect more than one piece of equipment.
Low BIL apparatus (certain dry-type transformers and rotating machines) will often
require surge protective devices be connected directly at the terminals of the
equipment being protected.
In many switchgear installations, the only exposure to lightning will be
through a transformer located on its upstream side. When the transformer has
adequate lightning protection on its primary, experience has shown that the surge
transferred through the transformer is usually not of a magnitude that would be
harmful to the switchgear. Hence, it is generally not necessary to provide arresters in
the switchgear.
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When arresters are located away from the terminals of the protected
equipment, the voltage wave will reflect positively on the equipment terminals and
the voltage magnitude at the terminal point will always be higher than the discharge
voltage of the arrester. This, as discussed earlier, is due to the fact that the protected
equipment usually has a higher surge impedance than the line or cable serving it. If
the circuit is open at the protected equipment (infinite surge impedance), the voltage
will be double the arrester discharge voltage.
The actual surge voltage appearing at the protected equipment depends, in
part, on the incoming wave magnitude at the instant of arrester discharge. If a positive
reflected surge from the protected equipment arrives back at the arrester before
arrester discharge, it will add to the incoming wave to produce discharge at a lower
incoming wave magnitude. The reflected wave, in this case, results in improved
protection. The closer the arrester is to the protected equipment, the greater the effect
of the reflected surge on arrester discharge and the better the protection.

2.7. Transformer Protection

Protection system for transformer is important as Power transformers are used
in High Voltage (HV) / Extra High Voltage (EHV) / Ultra High Voltage (UHV)
systems as they transfer a huge amount of power to the customers but the volume of
vulnerability and damage is also huge and destructive. Therefore, in order to avoid
such destruction and loss, protective devices are used with different protection
schemes to provide safe and secure power to the customers. These devices not only
protect the equipment but also preserve human life and secure the system from
impairment.
When a fault occurs in a transformer, the damage is proportional to the
dissipated fault energy which relates to the fault time. The transformer should
therefore be disconnected as soon as possible from the network. Fast reliable
protective relays are therefore used for detection of faults. Monitors can also detect
faults and sense abnormal conditions which may develop into a fault. The size of the
transformer and the voltage level has an influence on the extent and choice of
protective equipment. Monitors prevent faults and protective relays limit the damage
in case of a fault. The cost for the protective equipment is marginal compared to the
total cost and the cost involved in case of a transformer fault. There are often different
opinions about the extent of transformer protection. However, it is more or less
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normal that transformers with an oil conservator are equipped with the following
equipments:
1. Overload protection (thermal relays or temperature monitoring systems)
2. Gas detector relay
3. Overcurrent protection
4. Ground fault protection
5. Differential protection
6. Pressure relay for tap-changer compartment
7. Pressure relief device
8. Overvoltage protection

2.7.1. Stresses Generated by Supply

Two types of over voltages may stress and even destroy a transformer:
1. The lightning over voltages due to lightning stroke falling on or near an
overhead line supplying the installation where the transformer is installed
2. The switching over voltages generated by the opening of a circuit breaker
or a load break switch for instance.
Depending of the application, protection against these two types of voltage
surges may be necessary and are often ensured by means of Z nO surge arrestors
preferably connected on the MV bushing of the transformer.

2.7.2. Stresses due to the Load

A transformer overload is always due to an increase of the apparent power
demand (kVA) of the installation. This increase of the demand can be the
consequence of either a progressive adjunction of loads or an extension of the
installation itself. The effect of any overload is an increase of the temperature of oil
and windings of the transformer with a reduction of its life time.
The protection of a transformer against the overloads is performed by a
dedicated protection usually called thermal overload relay. This type of protection
simulates the temperature of the transformer’s windings. The simulation is based on
the measure of the current and on the thermal time constant of the transformer. Some
relays are able to take into account the effect of harmonics of the current due to non-
linear loads such as rectifiers, computers, variable speed drives etc. This type of relay
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is also able to evaluate the remaining time before the emission of the tripping order
and the time delay before re-energizing the transformer.
In addition, oil-filled transformers are equipped with thermostats controlling
the temperature of the oil. Dry-type transformers use heat sensors embedded in the
hottest part of the winding’s insulation. Each of these devices (thermal relay,
thermostat, heat sensors) generally provides two levels of detection:
1. A low level used to generate an alarm to advise the maintenance staff,
2. A high level to de-energize the transformer.

2.7.3. Internal Faults in Oil Filled Transformers

In oil filled transformers, internal faults may be classified as follow:
1. Faults generating production of gases, mainly:
(i) Micro arcs resulting from incipient faults in the winding insulation
(ii) Slow degradation of insulation materials
(iii) Inter turns short circuit
2. Faults generating internal over pressures with simultaneously high level of
line over currents:
(i) Phase to earth short circuit
(ii) Phase to Phase short circuit.
These faults may be the consequence of external lightning or switching over
voltage. Depending on the type of the transformer, there are two kinds of devices able
to detect internal faults affecting an oil filled transformer.

2.8. Lightning Protection in Transmission Line

Lightning effects on transmission line have always been a matter of concern in
studies of power distribution, transmission and up gradation of transmission system.
The magnitude and shape of the lightning on transmission line will be undetermined
and unpredictable form. It takes place for some microseconds to milliseconds and as it
arises (immerges on object), it causes a serious damage to the system where it
immerges. The analysis of lightning leader (strokes) arising in distribution and
transmission system is assuming increased importance. This is mainly because such
studies yield necessary information about the possible damage on different component
which will determine their proper design as well as their persistence protection
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strategies. Height dependent model is universally accepted production industry

standard for both distribution and transmission.
Surge arresters (or lightning arresters or surge diverters) are installed on
transmission lines between phase and earth in order to improve the lightning
performance and reduce the failure rate. Surge arresters are semiconductors with
nonlinear resistance from a few to several. Several different types of arresters are
available (e.g. gapped silicon carbide, gapped or non-gapped metal-oxide) and all
perform in a similar manner: they function as high impedances at normal operating
voltages and become low impedances during surge conditions. Even though a great
number of arresters which are gapped arresters with resistors made of silicon-carbide
(SiC) are still in use, the arresters installed today are almost all metal-oxide (MO)
arresters without gaps, something which means arresters with resistors made of metal-
oxide. An ideal lightning arrester should:
(i) conduct electric current at a certain voltage above the rated voltage;
(ii) hold the voltage with little change for the duration of overvoltage; and
(iii) substantially cease conduction at very nearly the same voltage at which
conduction started.