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EROSION CONTROL

Ten Rules of Thumb for Culvert

Crossings
Sept. 1, 2003

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By Christopher M. Crowley

Spending the time to achieve proper drainage

crossings of ranch and forest roads is good

business. As consultants for ranch, forest, rural

subdivision, and commercial site road design, we

are called upon to advise on new construction and,

unfortunately, sometimes on the repair of culvert

road crossings. Forest access roads are essential to

forest management, insect and fire control, timber

stand improvement, inventory, recreation, and

harvesting. Crossings of live and ephemeral

drainages are most commonly accomplished with

buried culverts. An overwhelming number of these

are galvanized or aluminized corrugated metal

pipe (CMP). The most common failures for forest

roads are improper drainage control and culvert

blowout. It stands to reason that a properly

designed and constructed culvert will not only

stand the test of weather and time but also will be

in place when needed the most.

Over many years of firsthand observation of

installed culverts, 10 items stand out as good

rules of thumb. These rules address pipe sizing,

installation, pipe material, erosion protection, and

maintenance.

Rule 1. Use a Pipe No Smaller Than 18-In.

Diameter With 18 In. of Clean, Compacted

Cover

A culvert

smaller than
This culvert was too small and not long
18 in. might
enough for the traffic to make the turn.
be the
Its crushed end will not pass storm
correct size,
flows.
but size is

not

everything
This culvert was set too shallow without
in the
a proper tail ditch.
design of

culverts. Pound for pound, most commonly

available 18-in. CMPs are the strongest pipes to

put in service. The gauge of the steel often is the

same for pipes from 18 in. all the way up to 60 in.

Smaller sizes, such as 8, 12, and 15 in., often are

made of thinner-gauge steel.

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The 18-in. pipe offers the added benefit of being

easier to clean if it becomes plugged than pipes of

smaller diameters. Pop cans, leaves, and

pinecones easily can render useless a 6- or 8-in.

culvert.

The cover over the pipe is critical to the

performance of the pipe in service. The cover

spreads the downward load of vehicles’ wheels

over a greater footprint, preventing the collapse

that can occur when a heavy force is applied to a

focused point on the pipe. The cover must be

clean: free of large sticks, stones, and trash. We

often specify that no debris, including stones,

larger than 3 in. in diameter be allowed in the

backfill. Manufacturers identify minimum tover

depths over the top centerline for their products –

generally 18 in. of clean cover. More cover is

preferred, and we often specify at least 1.5 times

the minimum to ensure that adequate cover is

achieved. Warranty of the installation might not be

possible if the manufacturer’s minimum

requirements are not met.

Rule 2. Measure the Cross-Sectional Area of

the Culvert Crossing to Obtain the Area of

Flow for the Spring Storm

This rule comes with several caveats. All culverts

should be sized according to their intended use

and the amount of protection they are to provide.

On primary roads, over live streams where

residential and emergency traffic travels, a

professional engineer trained in hydrology and

hydraulics should be employed to design the

crossing; rules of thumb do not apply in these

situations. The rules of thumb for sizing can be

applied on woodlot, ranch, farm, and private

roads; in minor drainages; and across small

streams where seasonal access is required.

The idea is to design a crossing that will function

in the spring melt and summer afternoon

thunderstorms in an average year. The method we

employ is to obtain the stream’s average area

beneath the scour mark or high-water mark that

results from years of storms. This mark can

appear as a cut bank, a vegetation line, several

years’ collection of flotsam arranged as a high-

water mark, stains on boulders from storm events,

or the limits of the exposed sand- or gravel-

armored stream bottom. It generally is the visually

observed “channel” limits where a casual observer

easily could identify where water previously has

flowed.

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We take the average depth multiplied by the

average width to obtain the cross-sectional area

and divide by four to determine the rough

diameter of pipe needed to pass the average

storm. The diameter of pipe(s) used must add up

to the total diameter needed without using a pipe

taller than the average depth.

Always measure the slope of the channel because

slope affects the capacity of the pipe. A simple

way to measure is to pull a 10-ft. rope taut

downstream with a line level bubble attached to

obtain level and measure the feet of rise from the

channel bottom to the end of the string. Calculate

the feet per foot of fall by dividing the length (10

ft.) by the rise. Generally pipe slopes are kept to

something less than 0.25 ft. per foot, or 2.5%. The

steeper the pipe, the more capacity it will have,

because the velocity within the pipe is increased.

Increased velocity generally requires more energy

dissipation at the outfall end (see Rule 8).

If you calculate that something more than a 48-in.

pipe is needed or that the fall is greater than 2.5

ft., it is strongly recommended that the opinion of

a professional be obtained. A structure’s failure

could cause significant flood damage

downstream.

Crossings that carry storm drainage from one side

of a roadway to another to “relieve” the roadside

ditch are called relief culverts and should be sized

to turn out 75% of the ditch flow. These culverts

should be placed at least every 500 ft. where the

road is in a cut or the ditch continues to follow the

road. Watch your roadway after construction and

place additional relief culverts upstream of where

water crosses the roadway. Generally, using 18-in.

pipes as relief culverts systemwide is considered

acceptable. Remember to place them low enough

in the roadside ditch to allow for a bypass equal to

or greater than 25% of the full ditch capacity.

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Rule 3. Place Multiple Culverts at Least One

Culvert Diameter Apart

Backfill of

soils under,
PVC is not UV light resistant and will
adjacent to,
become brittle. The pipe is also too
and atop
small and set too high to drain the ditch.
culverts is

extremely

important in
The embankment soils are too steep and
realizing
were not compacted, which has led to
their full
filling in the orifice.
service life.

Pipes should be separated enough so that the soil

can be worked into a tight bond with a compactor.

Where fill is loosely placed or voids occur in the

backfill next to the culvert, a phenomenon called

piping can occur. Piping means that water enters

the space between the culvert and the backfill,

saturates the soil, and slowly washes away fine

particles. Over time this action creates larger

voids and erodes the soil away until a failure

occurs, either when a storm washes out the

remaining soil and causes a blowout or when a

vehicle sinks into a hole and crushes the culvert.

Rule 4. Compact Clean Soil Tightly in and

Around Culverts and the Cover Material

You can rent a “wacker” for a few dollars at most

rental centers. A wacker is a gas-operated,

vibratory, single-operator compactor that can be

brought to the site in a pickup truck. You can build

a great road and design an incredible culvert

crossing, but without compaction of the backfill,

you will get to do it all over again. Poor

compaction and debris-laced fill are the most

commonly diagnosed failures in culvert crossings.

Careful placement and compaction of clean fill is

needed to install a culvert properly. Installing a

granular backfill of pea gravel, often called pipe

bedding, in the trench to a depth of 6 in. under the

pipe and on both sides up to the midway point

aids in draining groundwater and seepage away

from the outer walls of the pipe and reliably

assists in preventing piping failures.

Rule 5. Construct the Road Section Low or

Allow for Overtopping to One Side

The sizing of the culvert crossing is for an average

year storm. Blockage, larger storms, rapid

snowmelt, and debris flows all endanger the

roadway and crossing. A prudent designer

purposely will depress the road grade to allow for

a storm-flow section equal to twice the cross-

sectional area developed in Rule 2 to pass over

the roadway. The site geometry will determine

whether the overtopping section should be directly

over the culvert or whether placing it to one side

will be adequate. If possible, the overtop section

should be placed to one side to prevent the

erosive forces of the overtopping mixture of water

and debris from destroying the downstream

embankment face directly over the culvert.

Overtopping to one side often causes the water to

flow on a thinner fill section or, even better, over

stable native ground. If the overtopping section is

strategically placed and sufficiently armored, the

access road will still be in place once the

floodwaters have passed.

Rule 6. Use Maximum Sideslopes of 2:1 (H:V)

and a Road Surface Width of at Least 12 Ft. to

Calculate the Pipe Length

A common problem with culvert installations is

trying to get by with a short pipe length. The

design needs to take into account the sideslopes,

depth of cover, and roadway width to calculate the

necessary length of pipe. Sideslopes steeper than

2:1 generally are not stable and erode quickly in

the first few years. Steep slopes are difficult to

establish vegetation on and hard to maintain. The

slope should meet the bottom of the pipe and not

the top; the latter causes a very steep point over

the pipe that easily is eroded. Add together the

diameter of the pipe twice, the slope length (cover

times slope) twice, and the roadway width to

determine the pipe width. For pipes set in steeply

sloped channels, more length is needed, but in

general this approach works for a majority of the

crossings. If possible, always install a factory-

made flared end section on the pipe, which aids in

outfall dispersal of the stormwater and makes

road embankment sideslopes above the pipe

more stable.

Rule 7. Consult a Professional When Working

With Special-Use Pipes

Special-use pipes include arch pipe, elliptical

reinforced concrete (RCP), noncorrugated steel,

and PVC. Special-design pipes, such as arched

and elliptical, generally are more expensive than

standard CMP culverts and therefore should be

applied carefully. In addition, RCP pipes can be

more technically challenging to install properly.

RCP is heavy and usually must be delivered to the

site on a large truck. Mild steel and some easily

found tubing from metal yards or discards from

industrial applications usually are not up to vehicle

loading pressures and likely not as corrosion-

resistant as coated CMP. Industrial pipes

sometimes can cause a discoloration of water

through rusting or chemical coatings. PVC

waterline pipes generally are not recommended

because they are not ultraviolet- (UV-) resistant

and will become brittle after extended exposure to

sunlight. PVC pipes do not have as high an

elasticity coefficient as other available materials

and might shatter or splinter instead of crimping or

bending when heavily loaded.

Although multipurpose CMP is by far the most

widely used pipe for this application, the use of

high-density polyethylene, or HDPE, piping for

roadway projects is on the rise. These pipes are

UV- and corrosion-resistant, come in all the

standard sizes with end sections and adapters

such as CMP, and are cost-competitive. The

drawback is that these pipes cannot withstand

wildland or prescribed fire. They are very flexible,

however, and can be reused because of their

durability.

Rule 8. Add Riprap Protection to the Upstream

and Downstream Approaches to Culverts

Commonly, riprap or concrete rubble is installed

on the ends of culverts to provide scour

protection. Unfortunately it often is placed

incorrectly or is too small to provide the needed

level of protection.

Sizing

riprap can These culverts are properly separated to

be fairly better handle flows.

complicated

if standard

engineering This is the same double culvert after

calculations some needed attention. The brush was

are to be cleared, the riprap added, and the

completed culvert approach and departure channel

because of reshaped before the snow.
the level of

detail needed about the site to fill the variables in

the equations. Often professional judgment is

substituted for site-specific measurements to

complete the equations, which would not be an

option for someone who is not trained in these

matters. There is a rule-of-thumb alternative.

If the area has natural rock occurring in the stream

as in many northern, eastern, and western states,

a quick and easy way to size riprap is based on

the energy of the stream to move it. Go to the

stream and walk in the bottom stepping heel to

toe. Count, measure, and record the average

diameter of 100 stones you encountered on the

end of the left toe only. Record all the

measurements, not just the large ones. Generally,

0.5-, 0.75-, and 1-in. classifications to 10 in.

followed by 2-in. classifications to 24 in. are

plenty. Naturally, anything larger than about 6 in.

will need to be measured in place. Drop the two

smallest diameters and add the two largest to the

list. Add the entire list of diameters together and

divide by 100 to get the average-size stone that

nature has left in the creek for bottom armor. The

idea is to size median stones in the riprap to be

slightly larger than the average stone left behind

after years of storms have scoured the channel.

Commercially availably riprap median sizes range

from 6 to 36 in. in a mixture of smaller and larger

pieces. The size classes available from quarries

usually are in 6-in. groups (6, 12, 18, 24, and so

on). About 50% of the stones in a delivery will be

larger and 50% smaller, but the median stone will

be what you ordered. Whatever size you estimate

from your count, go up to the next size to be safe.

Always use a graded material, one with many

differing stone sizes. This aids in interlocking the

material, filling the voids, and dispersing the jet of

water through the riprap to help prevent erosion of

the underlying soils (piping).

The depth of the riprap is key in providing the

necessary protection. Engineers generally

stipulate that the depth be at least twice the stone

size (e.g., 12-in. stones that are 24 in. deep).

Because the riprap must be flush to the dry gulch

or live stream bottom, overexcavation will be

required. Under the riprap, place a 6-in. bed of

pea gravel or a strong nonwoven geotextile filter

fabric. If bedding or fabric is not used, piping will

occur and the riprap will appear to sink into the

ground over time, thereby losing its effectiveness.

If the project is in an area frequented by the

public, it is best to use stones at least 12 in. in

diameter or larger to prevent vandalism. Smaller

stones tend to “migrate” to campgrounds, become

souvenirs, or be changed into “tosserights”

(“Bobby ‘tossed her right’ through the window,

Dad!”) and disappear. Generally five times the

culvert diameter will be adequate for the length of

the riprap needed upstream and downstream of

the culvert. A width strategy that usually works is

to place the stones so that they come up the sides

of the channel to at least the halfway point on the

diameter of the pipe.

Rule 9. Check the Condition of the Crossings

Frequently and Clear the Openings of Debris

We often specify that a fence post or a Karsonite

marker with a reflector be placed on the bank

above the culvert openings for easy identification

in the dark and when there is snowpack. The

culvert cannot operate properly if blocked. Snow

and ice can block an opening just as easily as

twigs and leaves can. When culverts are marked,

snowplow operators can be alerted so as not to

block or damage the ends. It is easy to routinely

observe the opening of a marked culvert when

driving by.

Rule 10. Know Your Limitations

If the job seems too big, get help. Damage to

downstream areas from an improperly designed

crossing is the landowner’s responsibility. In many

instances, designs on live streams require federal,

state, and local permits. Restricting the stream to

a culvert can block fish passage to upstream

feeding and spawning areas. Most professionals

will offer general advice and guidance gratis over

a cup of coffee and can quickly assess your need

for further engineering and habitat design studies.

Summary

Designing and building proper roadway crossings

will greatly increase the service life of the piping

and roadway section. Reduced maintenance and

replacement costs are the monetary savings for

following these rules of thumb.

Christopher M. Crowley is an SAF Certified

forester, president of the Colorado Forestry

Association, and a forest hydrologist in the

Central Rockies for TetraTech-RMC.

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