Nanomaterials

Due to the ability to generate the materials in a particular way to play a specific role, the use of
nanomaterials spans across various industries, from healthcare and cosmetics to environmental
preservation and air purification.

Definition:- Nanomaterials can be defined as materials possessing, at minimum, one external

dimension measuring 1-100nm . They may be in the form of particles, tubes, rods or fibers. They
have unique properties due to their large surface area and quantum effects.

They exhibit different colors depending upon their size. Higher surface area of nanomaterials
leads to brittle chemical reactivity and greater strength of materials. Quantum effects become
much more important in determining material properties like optical, electrical, and magnetic
behavior.

Nanomaterials can occur naturally, be created as the by-products of combustion reactions, or be

produced purposefully through engineering to perform a specialized function. These materials
can have different physical and chemical properties to their bulk-form counterparts.

Examples of nanomaterials:-

 Examples of uses of nanomaterials for different types of applications

Applications Nanomaterial used

Electronics, ICT and photonics Carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, graphene

Pharmaceuticals and medicine Nanomedicines and carriers (nanobiotechnology)

Cosmetics and personal care Titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, fullerenes, gold

Catalysts and lubricants Cerium oxide, platinum, molybdenum trioxide

Paints and coatings Titanium dioxide, gold, quantum dots

Environmental and water remediation Iron, polyurethane, carbon nanotubes, graphene

Agrochemicals Silica as carrier

Food packaging Gold, nanoclays, titanium dioxide, silver

Composite materials Graphene, carbon nanotubes

CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS:-

The classification of nanomaterials is based on the number of dimensions

Materials are classified as: zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D)
and three-dimensional (3D) nanomaterials.

(i) Zero-dimensional nanomaterials: Here, all dimensions (x, y, z) are at nanoscale, i.e., no
dimensions are greater than 100 nm. It includes nanospheres and nanoclusters.

(ii) One-dimensional nanomaterials: Here, two dimensions (x, y) are at nanoscale and the
other is outside the nanoscale. This leads to needle shaped nanomaterials. It includes nanofibres,
nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.

(iii) Two-dimensional nanomaterials: Here, one dimension (x) is at nanoscale and the other
two are outside the nanoscale. The 2D nanomaterials exhibit platelike shapes. It includes
nanofilms, nanolayers and nanocoatings with nanometre thickness.

(iv) Three-dimensional nanomaterials: These are the nanomaterials that are not confined to
the nanoscale in any dimension. These materials have three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm.
The bulk (3D) nanomaterials are composed of a multiple arrangement of nanosize crystals in
different orientations. It includes dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of nanowires and
nanotubes as well as multinanolayers (polycrystals) in which the 0D, 1D and 2D structural
elements are in close contact with each other and form interfaces.

Synthesis of nanomaterials:-Synthesis of nanomaterials and nanostructures are the important

aspect of nanoscience and nanotechnology. New physical properties and applications of
nanomaterials are only possible when nanostructured materials are made available with desired
size, shape, morphology, crystal structure and chemical composition.
The interest in synthesis of nanomaterials has grown because of their distinct optical, magnetic,
electronic, mechanical, and chemical properties compared with those of the bulk materials.

Top-down approach -Top-down approach involves the breaking down of the bulk material into
nanosized structures or particles. Top-down synthesis techniques are extension of those that have
been used for producing micron sized particles. Top-down approaches are inherently simpler and
depend either on removal or division of bulk material or on miniaturization of bulk fabrication
processes to produce the desired structure with appropriate properties. The biggest problem with
the top-down approach is the imperfection of surface structure. For example, nanowires made by
lithography are not smooth and may contain a lot of impurities and structural defects on its
surface. Examples of such techniques are high-energy wet ball milling, electron beam
lithography, atomic force manipulation, gas-phase condensation, aerosol spray, etc.

Bottom-up approach-The alternative approach, which has the potential of creating less waste
and hence the more economical, is the ‘bottom- up’. Bottom-up approach refers to the buildup of
a material from the bottom: atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule, or cluster-by cluster. Many of
these techniques are still under development or are just beginning to be used for commercial
production of nanopowders. Oraganometallic chemical route, revere-micelle route, sol-gel
synthesis, colloidal precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, template assisted sol-gel,
electrodeposition etc, are some of the well- known bottom–up techniques reported for the
preparation of luminescent nanoparticals

Concluding points:

1. A number of techniques have been explored to synthesis nanomaterials of desired size, shape
and orientation.

2. Broadly these technical approaches can be grouped as Top-down and Bottom-up approaches.

3. Both approaches play very important roles in device industry as well in nanoproducts and have
their own merits and demerits.

4. The biggest problem with top-down approach (physical methods) is the imperfection of the
surface structure.

5. Such imperfections would have a significant impact on the physical and chemical properties of
nanostructures and nanomaterials.

6. among the top-down and bottom-up approaches, the bottom-up approach is more accepted in
synthesis of nanoparticles due to many merits as fewer defects, more homogenous chemical
composition and better ordering.

7. It is found that the Gibbs free energy, thermodynamic equilibrium and kinetic methods are the
main strategies of nanoparticles synthesis in bottom-up approach.
Production methods for the nanoparticles-
There are two methods

1) CVD (Chemical vapourisation deposition)

2) PVD (Physical vapourisation deposition)

CVD -is a widely used technique to make 2D nanomaterials and thin films on solid substrates. In
this technique, the precursors, gas or vapor, can react or decompose on the preselected substrate
at high temperature and vacuum in a chamber, as shown in Fig. In this process, 2D nanosheets
grow on the substrate with or without the help of catalysts.

CVD techniques were developed for the growth of various 2D nanosheets, such as graphene , h-
BN nanosheets , TMDs , borophenes , antimonene , and silicene .
In comparison with other synthesis techniques, CVD has the highest level of control for the
fabrication of 2D nanomaterials. The CVD technique offers massive production of 2D
nanomaterials with high crystal quality, purity, and limited defects on the substrates. The 2D
nanomaterial prepared by the CVD technique is used in a variety of practical applications such as
electronics, optoelectronics, and solar cell devices. But in the case of CVD technique, it is
always demanding the transfer of nanosheets from deposited substrates for further investigation.
Besides, higher production cost is another drawback.

PVD- In this process the material is vapourised by using heat in furnace or lasers. These
generated vapours are condensed on cool surfaces to produced nanoparticles. In this process inert
gas re introduced to prevent further side reactions like oxidation.
Examples;- single wall carbon nanotubes are prepared by vapourising by carbon target like
graphite at about 1500 k temperature using laser followed by condensation

Nanomaterials can be used in different applications such as in medicine, electronic device,

sunscreens, military applications, photovoltaic cells, paints, catalysts, etc. Some of these do not
have an effect on the environment, while others have an effect on it