470E2310

1 - 10

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Master of Social Work (MSW)

Third Semester

COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE

LESSONS : 1 - 10

Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only
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MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (MSW)

THIRD SEMESTER
COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE
Editorial Board

Chairman
Dr.K. Vijayarani
Dean
Faculty of Arts
Annamalai University

Members
Dr. R. Singaravel Dr. P. Vijayan
Director Director
Directorate of Distance Education Academic Affairs
Annamalai University Annamalai University

Dr. K. Somasundaran Dr. R. Gurumoorthy

Associate Professor and Head Associate Professor and
Dept. of Sociology and Social W ork Co-ordinator
Annamalai University Sociology W ing, DDE
Annamalai University

Internals
Dr. S. Allah Baksh Dr. P. Vinayagamurthy
Associate Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Sociology and Department of Sociology and
Social W ork Social W ork
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Externals
Dr. K.R. Murugan Dr. P. Rajkumar
Professor and Head Professor
Department of Social Work Department of Sociology
Alagappa University Madurai Kamaraj University
Karaikudi Madurai.
Lesson Writer
Dr. P. Christuraj
Associate Professor
Dept. of Sociology and Social Work
Annamalai University
 MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (MSW)
THIRD SEMESTER
COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE
SYLLABUS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 LOl - To enable the students to learn the various principles, techniques
and process in counselling and guidance
 LO2 - To identify and practice the appropriate counselling skills
 LO3 - To acquire the knowledge about group counselling and its goals
Course Outcomes
Upon completion of this course students will
COl - Integrate therapeutic techniques and psychological principles require for
counselling process
CO2 - Develop the skills to establish relationship with clients or suffers.
Unit I
Counselling - Definition - Elements - Characteristics and goals - Evolution of
counselling. Foundations of counselling - Sociological foundations - Influences of
social system - philosophical foundations - dignity of the human person -
Psychological foundations - Concept of self - Goal directed behaviour - Learning
principles - Developmental needs at different stages.
Unit II
Personal Growth and effectiveness of the Counsellor - Concerns of self -
Attitudes - Values - Beliefs - Relationships - Self esteem - openness to others -
Accepting personal responsibility - Levels of aspiration - Self actualizationThe
portrait of the helper - The portrait of a trainee.
Unit III
Theoretical Approaches of Counselling - Humanistic Approach - Rogers Self
Theory - T.A - Rational emotive Therapy - Cognitive Approach - The electric
Approach - Family Therapy - Behaviouristic Approach.
Unit IV
Counselling process - Preparation for Counselling - Counselling relationship -
Counselling - Content and process - Counselling interactions - Variables affecting
the Counselling process - Counsellor’s skills - Portrait of an effective counsellor.
Unit V
Group Counselling - Definition - Types - Goals - Structuring groups - Process of
group Counselling - Group development. Counselling in different settings. Family -
School - Industrial and health setting - De-addiction centres - Correctional settings
- HIV/AIDS.
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Books for Reference

1. Harms, E. and Schreiber. Handbook of Counselling. New Delhi: Oxford
Press, 1978.
2. NarayanaRao, S. (3rd Ed.). Counselling and guidance, New Delhi: Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Limited, 1992.
3. Dave, Jndu. The Basic Elements of Counselling, New Delhi : Sterling
Publication, 1982.
4. Fransella Fayand Peggy Dalton. Personal Construct Counselling in
Action London:Sage Publications, 1990.
5. Gerald Corey (5th Ed). Theory and Practice of Counselling and
Psychotherapy USA: Brooks Cole Publishing Co., 1977.
6. Richard Hallam. Counselling for Anxiety Problems, London: Sage
Publications,1992.
7. SusanCulley. Integrative Counselling Skills in Action, New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
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MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (MSW)

THIRD SEMESTER
COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE
CONTENTS

Unit L.No Title

P. No.
No.

1. Counselling : Meaning, Definition and its Elements 1

2. Counselling : Characteristics, Goals, Evolution of

19
I counseling

3. Foundations of Counselling 41

II 4. Personal Growth and Effectiveness of the Counsellor 55

5. Theoretical Approaches 68
III
6. Counselling Process & Counselling Interaction 87

7 Variables Affecting the Counselling Process 98

IV
8 Portraits of an Effective Counsellor 108

9 Group Counselling Process 118

V
10 Counselling in Different Settings 133
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 LESSON – 1
COUNSELLING: MEANING, DEFINITION, & ELEMENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling is a personal or individual process. Counselling is a series of direct
contacts with the individual which aims to offer him assistance in changing his
attitudes and behaviour. It is always personal. It cannot be performed with a group.
Counselling students can begin to acquire a counselling style tailored to their own
personality by familiarizing themselves with the major approaches to therapeutic
practice in social work aspects. Webster Dictionary defined that Counselling means
“consultation, mutual interchange of opinion, deliberating together”. This Unit gives
an a approaches to counselling and psychotherapy, presenting the key concepts of
each approach and discussing features such as the therapeutic process (including
goals), the client-therapist relationship, and specific procedures used in the
practice of counselling.
This information will help you develop a balanced view of the major ideas of
each of the theories and acquaint you with the practical techniques commonly
employed by counsellors who adhereto each approach. This Unit encourage you to
keep an open mind and to seriously consider both the unique contributions and the
particular limitations of each therapeutic system. You do not gain the knowledge
and experience needed to synthesize various approaches by merely completing an
introductory course in counselling theory.
This process will take many years of study, training, and practical counselling
experience. Nevertheless, I recommend a personal integration as a framework for
the professional education of counsellors. The danger in presenting one model to
which all students are expected to subscribe is that it can limit their effectiveness
in working with a diverse range of future clients. An undisciplined mixture of
approaches, however, can be an excuse for failing to develop a sound rationale for
systematically adhering to certain concepts and to the techniques that are
extensions of them. It is easy to pick and choose fragments from the various
therapies because they support our biases and preconceptions. By studying the
models presented in this book, you will have a better sense of how to integrate
concepts and techniques from different approaches when defining your own
personal synthesis and framework for counselling.
Each therapeutic approach has useful dimensions. It is not a matter of a theory
being “right” or “wrong,” as every theory offers a unique contribution to
understanding human behaviour and has unique implications for counselling
practice. Accepting the validity of one model does not necessarily imply rejecting
other models. There is a clear place for theoretical pluralism, especially in a society
that is becoming increasingly diverse. Although I suggest that you remain open to
incorporating diverse approaches into your own personal synthesis or integrative
approach to counselling letme caution that you can become overwhelmed and
confused if you attempt to learn everything at once, especially if this is your
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introductory course in counselling theories. A case can be made for initially getting
an overview of the major theoretical orientations, and then learning a particular
approach by becoming steeped in that approach for some time, rather than
superficially grasping many theoretical approaches. An integrative perspective is
not developed in a random fashion; rather, it is an ongoing process that is well
thought out. Successfully integrating concepts and techniques from diverse models
requires years of reflective practice and a great deal of reading about the various
theories
It is the people in the organisation who are the most important and valuable
asset. They have emotions, feeling and a tender heart. Sometimes emotions and
feelings create problems and men and women could not overcome and lose their
confidence and fail to put their mind in the work. These problems do not
necessarily relate to the work. They may be family problems, financial problems,
marital problems etc. All have a negative impact on their jobs. They can’t work
properly and can’t put hundred per cent.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
 To facilitate the students of Social Work to understand the importance
of counselling and its meaning, definitions and elements.
1.3 CONTENTS
1.3.1 Concept of Counselling
1.3.2 Meaning
1.3.3 Definition
1.3.4 Counsellor & Counsellee
1.3.5 Requirements of Effective Counselling
1.3.5.1 Do’s & Don’t in Counselling Process
1.3.5.2 Workplace Counselling
1.3.6 Techniques of Counselling
1.3.7 Types of Counselling
1.3.7.1 Directive Counselling
1.3.7.2 Non-directive Counselling
1.3.7.3 Cooperative Counselling
1.3.7.4 Marital and Family Counselling
1.3.7.5 Other Types
1.3.8 Importance of Counselling
1.3.9 SWOT analysis
1.3.1 CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING
Counselling is a form of ‘talk therapy’. It is a process where an individual,
couple or family meet with a trained professional counsellor to talk about issues
and problems that they are facing in their lives. Professional counselling is
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confidential and non-judgmental. Counselling can provide people with the

opportunity to share their views, be heard and gain new perspectives on their
situation and experiences. Counselling can help people to gain clarity surrounding
issues. Together with their counsellor people identify and work towards achieving
the desired outcomes and goals for counselling. Counsellors work with clients on
strategies to overcome obstacles and personal challenges that they are facing.
Counselling is used to deal with a broad range of issues and problems that you
may be facing. It can help you to deal with stress, provide treatment for
anxiety and treatment for depression. Counselling can provide you with the
opportunity to reassess or set new goals in your life and help you to gain clarity and
direction.
Counselling can be used to address issues and problems within
your relationship or provide mediation between you and your partner. Counselling
can help by allowing a very safe and private space for you to talk about issues and
problems that are you having. These are problems that you may find difficult to talk
to other people about because they feel very private. It may feel unsafe or
uncomfortable to talk to your normal support network, friends or loved ones.
A professional counsellor is trained and registered, and will provide you with a
genuine, caring and empathic response to your problems. In foreign countries, the
legislations are supported for licensing their profession. Where as in India is yet to
come such legislations for regulating the profession. A trained counsellor will have
tools and techniques that are evidence based. They can use these tools to support
you or help you to move through the difficult, problem, feelings, behaviours,
thoughts or situation that are you experiencing.
The process of counselling is where individuals, couples or family members
meet with a professional counsellor to confidentially discuss problems in their lives.
The counsellor will draw on tools and techniques from their training and
should provide understanding and empathy to their client, while their client works
out how to move through the issues that they have brought to counselling.
During the process of counselling, goals will be identified, and this is the
purpose of the counselling process. The goals can change if that is what the
counsellor and client see as beneficial.
1.3.2 MEANING
Counselling is often client-centred, the goal is for the client to make the
decision on the best course of action with the support of their therapist. The
counsellor can provide tools, techniques, suggestions and homework.
Ultimately it is the client who needs to make the decision on what is best for
themselves as a key part of the process.
The need of the hour is to remove the problem and help the individual to regain
his or her self-confidence and esteem and put his strength in work. Counselling can
do the magic and help an individual to overcome his lost confidence and self-
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respect because of the problem. So counselling is the process of helping an

individual facing a problem and to regain his lost confidence and self-esteem and
put his mind in his job.
1.3.3 DEFINITIONS
A counsellor is a professionally trained expert who helps people overcome their
issues after a systematic chain of sessions. The types of counselling vary,
depending on the needs of the clients.
Counselling is a talking therapy that allows people to discuss their problems
with trained professionals in a peaceful and safe ambiance. The exact meaning of
counselling might vary among individuals. But in general, it is the process where
you talk about your issues in detail either intending to overcome the same or to
explore your thoughts comprehensively.
The role of a counsellor doesn’t limit to suggesting you do this or that. Rather
they support you to speak about your problems in detail to identify the primary
cause behind them. Furthermore, they develop an action plan to help you cope up
with the issue or win over it.
Let’s see some of the definitions here.
RUTH STRANG has defined that “Counselling is a face to face relationship in
which growth takes place in the counsellor as well as the counsellee.”
HARRIMAN defined that “Counselling is the psychotherapeutic relationship in
which an individual receives direct help from an adviser or finds an opportunity to
release negative feelings and thus clear the way for positive growth in personality.”
HAMPHERY TRAXLER has defined that “Counselling is the application of the
personal resources of the school or other institution to the solution of the problems
that individuals have.”
BISWALO (1996) defines “counselling as a process of helping an individual to
accept and to use information and advice so that he/she can either solve his/her
present problem or cope with it successfully. Counselling depends heavily on
information”.
Governing Council of the American Counselling Association (ACA)
accepted the following definition of professional counselling: Counselling is the
application of mental health, psychological or human development principles,
through cognitive, affective, behavioural or systemic interventions, strategies that
address wellness, personal growth, or career development, as well as pathology.
Counselling involves talking with a person in a way that helps the person solve
a problem or helps to create conditions that will cause the person to understand
and/or improve his behaviour, character, values or life circumstances. It is a
process that enables a person to sort out issues and reach decisions affecting their
life.
Often counselling is sought out at times of change or crisis, however it need not
be so as counselling can also help us at any time of our life. It emphasises on
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exploration and understanding the problem and stresses the idea of professional
relationship and the importance of self-determined goals (of course by the client). It
should be differentiated from advice giving or directing. It should be noted that
counselling is a principled profession.
There are different formats through which the counselling sessions can take
place, The client is free to choose a format that suits and fits his needs the best.
PRESENT COUNSELLING FORMATS
The given below are the popular counselling formats that people mostly favour:
In-Person: Face-to-face counselling sessions take place in the counsellor’s
chamber where you meet them in person after scheduling an appointment to
discuss your problems. It is one of the most popular counselling formats.
Group Counselling: Professionals provide group counselling sessions where
you can join to address the issues. Joining such a group will help you find people
with similar problems and you will be able to develop a strong network of support
as well. However, if you wish to focus on your problem, in-person sessions are
better.
Telephonic Sessions: A great alternative to in-person counselling sessions are
telephonic rounds that can be scheduled from the comfort of your home. Telephonic
counselling rounds are best for busy individuals who might find it difficult to get
into the chambers. In this flexible process, you can discuss the problems with the
counsellor in a secure environment from your room.
Online Counselling: If you wish not to meet your counsellor face to face and
protect your anonymity, you have the option to email the counsellor. In this
process, you have the scope to think well and decide which of the problems you
want to discuss with him. The online counselling trend is becoming much more
popular these days.
MAJOR ELEMENTS OF COUNSELLING are given below:
Elements
1. Counselling involves two individuals-one seeking help and the other, a
professionally trained person who can help the first.
2. There should be a relationship of mutual respect between the two
individuals. The counsellor should be friendly and cooperative and the
counsellee should have trust and confidence in the counsellor.
1.3.4 COUNSELLOR & COUNSELLEE
The process of counselling begins with establishing relationship between
counsellor and counsellee and taking into confidence the counsellee by the
counsellor and allowing him to open his or her heart and after understanding the
situation advising him to face the harsh realities of life and society boldly and
building his confidence and paving way to make the best use of his strength by
overcoming his weaknesses.
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COUNSELLOR
Any person can act as counsellor. He must be a person with charming
personality, caring, should attract other persons toward himself and should be
affectionate towards one and all and should understand and interpret the
behaviour of others. Counsellor commands respect from the people and enjoys
status in the entire organisation as his services help in achieving good human
relations. Manager has to act as counsellor many a times. If this is so then manager
has to be very careful.
It is an additional responsibility he has to shoulder. It is an added advantage
for the manager as counsellor that he knows his employees and subordinates well
and could find no difficulty in understanding the problems faced by them. Manager
must know that the problem ridden employees cannot work better but commit
mistakes and sometimes come across accident causing immense loss to the
organisation. Problems may be work related or personal, both affect job
performance and losses have to be borne by the organisation increasing botheration
of the manager.
It is, therefore, to be taken seriously. If proper counselling services are rendered
to the problem employee by the manager and his self-confidence is restored, he can
be a potential contributor towards the achievement of organisational objectives. Any
employee can face problem even the good and hardworking employees can face
problems because of certain emotions or hurt self-respect. The manager should
immediately rush to their rescue, take them into confidence and try to free them
from the emotional trap they are caught in. It will have positive effect.
Often people will engage in counselling when a crisis has occurred in their
lives. When searching for an appropriate counselling service, don’t be afraid to ask
the counsellor questions. Counsellors will specialise in different areas. You may like
to ask the counsellor, if they have a particular area of expertise (such as Work place
counselling, marriage counselling or grief and loss), what each session will cost the
amount of sessions that may be required to achieve your goals for counselling.
COUNSELLEE
B.J. Prasantham has rightly pointed out that, “Counselling is a relationship
between the counsellor and counsellee characterized by trust and openness, in a
one to one, or a small group relationship, whereby the counsellee is helped to work
through his interpersonal and or intrapersonal problems and crisis.
He is also helped to mobilize his inner and outer resources and to find new
options in facing life. Along with this, counselling also helps the client to discover
and develop his God given potentialities and lead an integrated life and make his
contribution for the welfare of his fellow men.” Counselling does not necessarily
relate to the jobs. It is not advising alone. Under counselling, counsellor’s job is the
most important. He has to make wholehearted efforts to understand problem and
situation facing the individual and should study the strength, weaknesses of the
problem individual and the environment at workplace and at his home.
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The counsellor has to take him into confidence and be friendly with him. He
has to console and put him at comfort. The counsellor has to take care that the
individual feels at ease and open up his mind to him so that he knows the real
problem faced by the individual. The counsellor must exercise lot of patience and
try to restore confidence in counsellee.
To ensure that you will receive a professional counselling service, ask your
counsellor or psychologist if they are member of one of the peak professional bodies
in Australia, such as the Australian Counselling Association and if they adhere to a
Professional Code of Ethics. If you would like assistance to find a therapist near
you, to find a psychologist or information on local counselling services, contact us
today.
The troublesome situation can be created at any time and due to any reason.
Some of the causes are, fear or threat, worries, anxiety, hostility. All these are the
mental processes created in the minds of people affecting their behaviour at the
workplace. The need is to make sincere efforts to remove the real causes from their
mind, restore confidence and self-respect and bring them on track. The manager
must study the causes and analyse them.
Most of them are psychological and imaginary. The people get depressed and do
not put their hundred per cent in works. The employees being human resources
and the main contributors to the productivity they should be well maintained and
due care should be taken thereof. It is, therefore, essential on the part of the
managers in general and human resource managers in particular to take care of
their employees and subordinates and provide counselling services as and when
needed by them for smooth running of the organisation and employees’ well-being.
Counsellor must be an expert in industrial psychology.
1.3.5 REQUIREMENTS OF EFFECTIVE COUNSELLING
There are many skills that are required to be an effective counsellor. First and
foremost the counsellor must be genuine and can establish rapport with their
client. For therapy to be effective the client/counsellor relationship must be
healthy, genuine, safe, non-judgmental and professional.
THREE TRAITS OF COUNSELLING
Generally, the counsellors are caring, genuine and empathic towards their
clients.
Counsellors should use evidence based treatments from their formal training.
Counsellors need to have a very large set of skills in their ‘tool box’ as every human
and their situation is so different. Counsellors need to undergo professional
development to keep their skill set current and up to date, utilizing best practice
methods.
Not every counsellor can help every client. Counsellors will need to have a
strong community network and resources as part of their skill set. They will need to
be able to recognize when they cannot help someone and refer clients to alternative
mental health supports for counselling.
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Counselling is a serious job, an executive has to perform in addition to his

routine work. He as a counsellor must therefore develops good relationship with the
counsellee.
1.3.5.1 Do’s & Don’t in COUNSELLING PROCESS
There are several ‘Do’s and ‘Don’ts to be followed in order to have effective
counselling:
Do’s
1. He should develop good relationship with counsellee.
2. Develop mutual understanding, respect for counsellee.
3. Be patient.
4. Listen to the grievances carefully.
5. Develop cooperative attitude.
6. Be simple and have sympathy with the counsellee.
7. Do make attempts to know the background of worries, threats, anxiety etc.
8. Make himself available to help the counsellee.
9. Be friendly with counsellee and be frank.
Don’ts
The counsellor should abstain from or try to avoid the following:
1. Should not develop conflict with counsellee.
2. Do not have any vested interest in counselling.
3. Do not be angry with the counsellee.
4. Don’t resist.
5. Avoid being biased, be impartial.
6. Don’t exploit the counsellee for self-interest.
7. Do not use pressure tactics?
The counsellor should act as a friend, philosopher and guide to the counsellee
in the strict sense of the phrase. The practicing of the above ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ will
make the counselling effective. There are several problems which affect the
behaviour of the person at the workplace and elsewhere.
1.3.5.2 WORKPLACE COUNSELLING
Through counselling these problems need to be removed to bring back the
person on the track of normal behaviour. The counsellor therefore has to find out
the problems which are responsible for acentric behaviour of the counsellee.
These problems may include partial treatment at the workplace, drinking
habits, drug addictions, strains in interpersonal relations, inferiority complex, sex
related problems, disputes in family, low morale etc. The counsellor tracing out
these problems has to make all out efforts to remove it. No one is born with a
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problem. Problems are created. Most of them are psychological. The counsellor
should find out the root cause and try to remove it.
Manager can very well render the counselling service but if the manager cannot
provide this service then the organisation can hire the services of the expert. He can
provide the counselling services. Many large companies hire the regular services of
counsellors. If managers are to work as counsellor then they need to be trained in
this respect. Counselling should be treated as the basic employee assistance
because it is required by many employees as well as executives.
Most of them suffer from emotional imbalance, stress, and drug, alcohol and
other such ills. Counselling is a problem oriented interaction process with the aim
of increasing learning and changing behaviour. At the workplace employees need
counselling in respect of wage problem, absenteeism, relations with superiors.
Scope of counselling should not be limited to work related problems alone. The
marital problems, financial problems, problems with children and other
psychological issues need counselling. These problems also affect employee
performance at the plant or office.
The employees who are about to retire need counselling. Counselling in respect
of career building is also necessary Career counselling programme help employees
with career transition of all kinds. Human resource manager can provide this
service through expert employed for the purpose.
Expert in career counselling require counselling skills, information inventory in
respect of counsellee such as attitudes, motive, training, experience, strength and
weaknesses, career option and path in and outside the organisation. Career
counsellor can set employees career on right path.
1.3.6 TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING
The effective counselling needs counselling skills, complete information about
the persons to be counselled i.e. the information relating to his motives; experience,
weaknesses, strength, attitudes and behaviour should be collected before
counselling.
After gathering complete information through various sources the counselling
services are provided to the person. The techniques of counselling cannot be
uniformly adopted. They vary from person to person and also depend on
circumstances.
Counselling is not a modern phenomenon it is practiced since the evolution of
mankind. Only the need of it is very severely felt in modern times. Counselling is a
two way process. Counsellor can help the counsellee if he cooperates with
counsellor and open his heart to him, otherwise counselling becomes a difficult
task. However, there are certain techniques of counselling that can be followed and
adopted as per the need of the situation and counsellee.
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The following are some of the techniques:

1. Releasing Emotional Tension:
Some people are more emotional. They become so at everything. They take
things emotionally and they come into the grip of emotions very often. The emotions
are associated with fear, respect, insult, anxiety, guilt, hostility etc. If the
counsellee is under emotional tension it is to be released. The counsellee is to be
taken into confidence and listen to him carefully as if counsellor is the only
caretaker of him. Try to know the real causes of his emotional breakdown.
When he will narrate the causes, gradually he will overcome the pain and
embarrassment related with his guilt. He is caught in emotional whirl, may be
because of guilty feeling resulting out of non-fulfilment of promises or he has been
insulted by someone. Discharging the counsellee of emotional tensions is a very
difficult job and needs patience from counsellor. Only the expert counsellor can do
the job of releasing emotional tensions. Releasing emotional tension is a process of
getting out of your mind and heart.
Release of emotional tension helps to gain power of going through or looking
into and understanding the things in their proper perspective and the reasons that
has affected his behaviour. He will then make an analysis of the situation and
overcome the emotions and whisk away the tension. Coming under the influence of
emotions is a human weakness present in almost all the human beings. When he
overcomes this weakness he realizes that he was unnecessarily caught up in the
emotional grip which was impractical and far away from the facts.
2. Effective Communication:
Effective two way communication help subordinates to narrate their difficulties
to their superiors through which many problems get automatically solved.
Supervisor can perform the job of counselling. Effective two way communication
remove fear from the minds of the subordinates and they talk freely and open up
their mind to the superior who can render necessary advice then and there and can
help him getting the tension of any kind released.
Through effective communication the superior can understand the
subordinate’s point of view and develop counselling relationship with the
counsellee. Supervisor as counsellor understand what the employee means to say
through communication with him. Communication thus is a tool and a method of
counselling. The counsellor supervisor should take a note that he should abstain
from stressing his own point of view on the counsellee employee. Through
communications, counsellor can divulge counselee’s prejudice against himself or
others. Similarly misunderstanding and misconception can be removed.
3. Clarified Thinking:
One should think positively and shun negative thinking. It is negative thinking
needs to be removed from the mind of counsellee. Negative thinking helps
developing misunderstanding, distrust and lies. Counsellor should develop new
pattern of thinking. Counsellee should be motivated and encouraged to think
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positively. Positive thinking helps building up cordial relationship with the

colleagues and superiors. Manager should develop cordial relationship with his
subordinates not only for counselling but also for his success in the organisation.
4. Performance Counselling:
As the name suggests it relates with the performance. If the employee is not
keeping his performance constant and it is below standard then counselling is
required to maintain the standard level of performance. Performance gets affected
by many reasons. Those reasons must be spotted by the counsellor and try to
remove them from the counsellee. If he is taking leaves and remaining absent citing
petty reasons from the work he should be taken into confidence and remove the
reasons for remaining absent.
5. Counselling Against Alcoholism and Drug:
Alcoholism and drugs especially alcoholism in India is the major problem. It
severely affects the productivity and cost that affects the organisation quite heavily.
Alcohol and drug users remain absent frequently and consume more sick leaves as
compared to other employees.
They feel tardiness at the workplace and make their departure early. They
cannot judge properly and cannot make decisions and very prone to accidents.
Serious efforts on the part of the organisation and the counsellors are needed to
bring back alcoholics and drug addicts on the track. They should be treated
properly. Counsellor should develop friendship with them and take them into
confidence and convince them of the benefits of not drinking and make aware
against the health hazards of alcohol and drugs.
Organisations must take lead in arranging for counselling and sponsor
programmes for treatment of alcoholics and drug addicts. Alcoholics should be
motivated not to drink and lectures by experts of religious and spiritual nature will
also help them to get rid of their bad drinking habits. It is very difficult for
alcoholics to get rid of his drinking habits. It is also equally difficult for counsellor
to convince him to abstain from drinking. But dark cloud has a silver lining. If he is
properly educated of the better life free from alcohol he will lead a normal life.
1.3.7 TYPES OF COUNSELLING
The following are the types of counselling are as follows..,
1.3.7.1 Directive Counselling
Under directive counselling the counsellor issues certain instructions to the
counsellee or he is directed to do certain things e.g.: he is asked to behave in a
particular manner, asked to abstain from alcohol or drug, asked to respect his
colleagues and superiors.
1.3.7.2 Non Directive Counselling
Under non directive counselling counsellor does not issue directions but
observe the behaviour and attitude of the counsellee towards his work and his
colleagues and superiors and subordinates. If he errs then counsellor comes to his
 12

rescue and corrects him realizing him that he was wrong. He will not issue him any
instructions or will not direct him.
1.3.7.3 Cooperative Counselling
This is a kind of counselling that can be done through extending full
cooperation to the counsellee and makes him realize his mistakes relating to his
behaviour and attitudes so that he himself will be back on the track and improve
himself. It is winning the heart of the counsellee through cooperation. His
confidence will be won by the counsellee and he in turn will extend his cooperation
and become self-disciplined.
1.3.7.4 Marital and Family Counselling
Employees need counselling in respect of marriage and family problems. The
troubled employees can discuss out their problems with the counsellor who can
take them into confidence and prescribe solutions for their ills.
1.3.7.5 OTHER TYPES
Mental Health Counselling
A mental health counsellor is responsible for providing the people with support
who are going through any emotional distress like fear of something, anxiety,
depression, or frustration. There are different causes when people need mental
health counselling that may include, extensive grief, supreme anger issues,
addiction to something, family issues, eating disorders, and so on. After talking to
the clients about the problems, mental health counsellors try and provide them
ways to overcome this situation and nurture their well-being.
Career Counselling
A little different from the traditional counselling processes, career counselling
means providing aspirants with career guidance and showing them the right path
towards a bright career according to their areas of interest and skills. The career
counselling curriculum is designed to guide people in selecting, changing, or
leaving a career and can be availed at any stage of life. A career counselling expert
assesses your aptitude, personality, and interests to suggest you the best career
option. Certified career analyst is a leading course to become a career counsellor in
India.
Rehabilitation Counselling
The rehabilitation counselling process helps people with disabilities fulfil their
goals and lead an independent life with complete participation in the community.
This is a systematic method to help people with emotional, physical, cognitive, and
mental disabilities accomplish their life goals and live a cherishable life. The
rehabilitation counsellors support the concerned people to overcome psychological
disabilities.
Relationship Counselling
Also known as couple’s therapy, people seek such counselling when something
serious affects their love life. People choose to go for relationship counselling for
various reasons including the desire to have a stronger relationship with the
 13

partner or spouse, issues emerging from disagreement, unhealthy abuses,

something hectic that affected their lives, etc. A relationship therapist helps the
couple to overcome the problems they are facing and enter into a long-term
commitment.
1.3.8 IMPORTANCE OF COUNSELLING
There are several problems with which the employees and subordinates are
infested. Some employees come across problems others do not. None is born with a
problem. Only a few are problem employees. These problems need recognition and
study.
The employees ridden with these problems need counselling. These problems
can be removed from the employees. This is very essential because problem
employees cannot work properly, commit mistakes and are usually accident prone.
This leads to low productivity and losses to the organisation. For rehabilitating and
improving problem employees counselling becomes essential.
The counsellor’s responsibility is to liberate employee from the clutches of these
problems. He has to use a suitable technique for the purpose. But here one should
remember that counselling is not the responsibility of the organisation alone,
employees’ and their unions must also shoulder the responsibility and cooperate
with the management of organisation. The main importance of the counselling is to
resolve the problems or instigating to resolve the problems on their own. The other
importance are identified that how it attempted to encounter the problems.
The following are the problems that need counselling:
1. Inferiority Complex:
Some employees suffer from inferiority complex. The employees who suffer from
this complex consider themselves as incompetent as compared to others. It is a
feeling of insufficiency. Extreme feeling of inferiority complex is bad. It affects
productivity adversely. It deprives the employee many benefits in life and puts him
to losses.
Inferiority complex arises out of comparison. If comparison is avoided, this
feeling gets vanished. If an employee is trapped under the influence of this feeling
then he needs counselling. Counsellor in this case should try to convince the
affected employee of his own strength, self-power and self-importance.
2. Drinking Habits:
Drinking or alcoholism is a very common problem faced by the employees. It
disturbs the family, social and work life of the employees. It is a serious threat to
the work environment of the organisation. It is very difficult to get rid of drinking
habits of the employee.
It requires lot of courage and determination on the part of an employee to stop
drinking. The employees start drinking on account of any reason. No strong and
reasonable cause is necessary to start this dirty habit. Once the person has
developed this habit, it is very difficult for him to get rid of it.
 14

Counsellor finds it very difficult to deal with such people. But sincere effort on
his part may yield some fruits. The counselling in such cases takes more time to
bring back the counsellee on track. Counsellor must develop good acquaintance
and friendship with drunkards.
He must then explain to them the disadvantages and ill effects of drinking and
benefits of being teetotaller. The drunkard should not be discarded. Ask him to
change the life style and try to keep him away from drinks as far as possible. Slowly
and gradually he will come on track. Though counselling in this regard is difficult
but not impossible. Sincere efforts will yield fruits someday.
3. Drug Addiction:
In modern times this is a very serious problem which has affected the young
people at the workplace. Drug addiction has led to many evils. This is more serious
a problem than drinking. It tears the fabric of peaceful life. The main reason of drug
addiction is the parents their lack love, affection and care of their children. This
drives them to drugs. There are few more causes e.g.: company of bad people, lack
of affection in the family, depression, tensions, lack of self-confidence etc. Drug
addiction changes the behaviour of the addict severely. He faces the financial
crunch.
He becomes arrogant. It is the most difficult task to deal with drug addict.
Counsellor has to face an uphill task in counselling these people. It requires
immense efforts and patience on the part of counsellor. Drug addicts must receive
timely help from the counsellor and physician both. It is actually a task of
psychiatrist to deal with such people. Changes in his behaviour are to be brought.
Drug addict is to be motivated and encouraged to leave the habit. A lot of sincere
efforts are required in this regard.
4. Disturbed Family Life:
Everyone has to face problem cropped up in his family life. Serious problems of
family disturb peace of mind. Employees facing such serious family problems
cannot work properly at the factory. They are under tensions. Counsellors should
take these employees into confidence and know the problems and their causes and
try to remove them. These problems do not pose a serious threat and can be dealt
with effectively. This is comparatively an easy task.
5. Mental Worries:
Many problems are the creation of human mind and they start worrying. These
problems disturb the mental peace of the person. The person cannot get job
satisfaction and cannot contribute his hundred per cent to the production also. In
Indian industries there are more than one union. These rival unions sometimes
victimize the members of other unions. The inter union rivalry disturbs the peace of
mind of the members and they worry all the while.
The victims of these unions get depressed. The worries of these employees can
be removed through timely counselling. They need proper guidance from the
someone who cares. Remaining unmarried for long time or to wait for marriage also
 15

become the cause of worries. There is a chance of sexual perversion in case of these
people.
Usually young people are in the grip of worries. These problems if not traced
and counselled on time may lead to alcoholism and drug addiction also. They need
timely guidance from the counsellors. These people should be closely observed and
should be kept in group or be allowed to work in a group.
Some employees get ill treatment from their superiors. These ill treatments also
become the cause of worries to the employee. They are the victims of injustice done
to them by their superiors. Sometimes on the basis of biased reporting by the
superiors get deprived of many benefits and rights.
This deprivation leads them to extreme depression and may very often become
victim of alcoholism or drug addiction. The timely interference and restoring his lost
benefits by the counsellor put back the employee on track.
Counselling is not the job of executives or employer alone, employees
themselves and their representatives in the unions should come forward for the job
and help their colleagues and themselves and keep them in good shape mentally
and physically. They should develop the skills and ability to help themselves under
crisis and get out of it.
Self-help is the best help. One should be able to develop sustainability so that
he can stand under any circumstances. Self-development is the best development.
There are many methods of self-development. One should stand on his own. Each
one has an inner urge for self-development. It will help him to build confidence,
competence and capability to cope up with any circumstances and changes within
and outside the organisation.
Change cannot be arrested. It is continuous. One should aware of the change
and face it boldly and courageously and should not lose confidence. For self-
development one should make his/her swot analysis to know one’s strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities available present and future and the possible threats in
his way.
1.3.9 SWOT Analysis:
SWOT analysis means knowing one’s strength or strong points in him,
weaknesses present in him, the opportunities available and the threats he has to
face.
STRENGTH (S)
Strength is the first ingredient in the swot analysis. Strength includes
knowledge, ability, competence, skill, experience, decision making prowess,
attitude, techniques and methods. One should make analysis of his strength.
He should know what are the areas where he is competent and can be able to
handle the things effectively or perform the jobs successfully. Strength is a precious
asset of an individual with the help of which he can fight out anything coming in
 16

his way and win over. Simply boasting on your proud possession of strengths is not
sufficient you should develop your acumen.
WEAKNESSES (W)
One should spot his weaknesses seriously and make their analysis. Some of
them can be easily improved upon. One should try to do that first and convert them
into your strength. Lack of knowledge can be improved upon by gaining it. Skills
can be acquired through training. Many things can be learned through experience
and by observing as to how seniors come over or win over the circumstances.
Discussions, reading, seeking advice can remove the weaknesses inherent in the
person.
OPPORTUNITIES (O)
The third ingredient of swot analysis is opportunities. There are several
opportunities available to the person of competence and knowledge. One should
know his potential and go ahead to grab opportunity available to him he will
succeed in his venture. One should not look back then. Opportunities should not
be missed.
The chance once lost will seldom come again. Opportunities are to be traced
and grabbed. There are many in service opportunities also. One should not miss
them. Negligence on the part of an individual lands him in trouble. Organisation
provides many opportunities to its employees to rise make their career grow.
THREATS (T)
The last ingredient of swot analysis is the threats. One should spot and identify
the real threat and not the imaginary one. Your rivals and colleagues in the
employment may be a threat to you or your seniors may deny you an opportunity
and pose a threat to you. But one should not be shaken by all these. Do not allow
yourself to be taken out by them.
Face the threats boldly and fight them out. If you are on right path success is
yours. You should plead your case before the authority and demand justice. Do not
tolerate injustice. Only cowards can do that. Prepare to face them boldly and go to
any possible and legitimate extent to fight them out.
Don’t be complacent. Don’t get satisfied with small success. Prescribe sky as
the limit. Always aspire high. Always think that the next day is the new day with
full of challenges and have to meet them. The attitude will get you high. Try to give
your best every day.
If one has done his swot analysis seriously and perfectly he will never face any
trouble, he will never come across depression, frustration and will not fall a victim
to bad habits of drinking or drug addiction etc. and he will not require any
counselling efforts by anyone but will become a role model for others. It is a sure
way to success.
1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Professional counselling is confidential and non-judgmental.
 17

2. Counselling is the psychotherapeutic relationship in which an individual

receives direct help from an adviser.
3. Counselling is an intense conversation between the two person i.e..,
counsellor and counsellee or Client.
4. For therapy to be effective the client/counsellor relationship must be
healthy, genuine, safe, non-judgmental and professional.
5. Career counselling means providing aspirants with career guidance and
showing them the right path towards a bright career according to their
areas of interest and skills.
6. SWOT analysis means knowing one’s strength or strong points in
him/her.
1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define Counselling
2. What is Talk Therapy?
3. Who is a Counsellor?
4. Who is a Client in Counselling Process?
5. What are the Types of Counselling?
1.6 SUMMARY
Time is a healer of all individual problems, but in our mechanical life we lost
our identity and valuable time to run around for the temporary one. When we are
not managing our problems by ourselves we need other’s intervention to solve or
resolve our problems. So Counselling has played a vital role to crack any sort of
individual, group, family and industry or society problems by crating the insights to
learn by ourselves. In the Words of Lord Buddha find the answer by yourselves for
any problems is greatly applicable to the counselling process. This unit giving you
an insight to understand the concept of counselling and its elements in a practical
aspect and transform to other areas in the coming units.
1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the requirements of effective counselling process.
2. Define counselling and describe its various types with practical
examples.
1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Community Health & Community Mental
Health and Counselling.
1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define the counselling and stateits elements.
2. Bring out the importance of counselling as per your field work
placement.
 18

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS

1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology-6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Guidance,Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd.,New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage
4. Publications, New Delhi
5. ZastrowH.Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study your near by community and find yourself where it may require
the counselling practice?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on mental health
and Community Mental Health conducted by your university or any
other educational Institutions.
1.12 KEY WORDS
Counselling, Counsellor, Counsellee, Client, Talking Therapy, Work place
counselling, Family counselling

 19

LESSON - 2
COUNSELLING: CHARACTERISTICS & GOALS, EVOLUTION OF
COUNSELLING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling is distinguished from other mental health disciplines by both its
history and its emphasis. It focuses on development and the prevention of serious
mental health problems through education and short term treatments. It
emphasises on growth as well as remediation. It focuses on providing therapeutic
treatments to clients who experience a wide variety of symptoms. It is also one of
the largest specialty areas within psychology.
Counselling as a profession is relatively new. It grew out of the guidance
movement, in opposition to traditional psychotherapy. In order to understand what
counselling is, you must first understand these concepts. Counselling is often
performed face to face in confidential sessions between the counsellor and client(s).
However, counselling can also be undertaken by telephone, in writing and, in
these days of the Internet, by email or video conferencing. Counselling can and may
take many different formats to bring a person to a better understanding of himself
and others. It can therefore be seen that counselling can be of benefit to a person
experiencing problems in finding, forming, and maintaining relationships. It is the
ability to listen and respond in a way that will help others solve their own problems
and attain their potential. It is the art of helping others arrive at the right answer by
their own analysis of the situation and the facts. It has to be done skilfully without
an attempt to influence the values and beliefs of the client.
Counselling involves talking with a person in a way that helps the person solve
a problem or helps to create conditions that will cause the person to understand
and/or improve his behaviour, character, values or life circumstances. It is a
process that enables a person to sort out issues and reach decisions affecting their
life. Often counselling is sought out at times of change or crisis, however it need not
be so as counselling can also help us at any time of our life.
Emotions are part of the nature of human beings and emotional upsets are part
of their life. It is sometimes more disastrous to suppress emotions. The emotional
problems affect the interest of the employees himself and the organisation in which
he is working for. The problems may reduce their productivity, morale and increase
absenteeism. Hence the managers should take steps to maintain a reasonable
emotional balance of their employees and channelize their emotions on the
constructive lines. The instrument with which the managers can achieve such
balance is called counselling.
Counselling is a method of understanding and helping people who have
technical, personal and emotional or adjustment problems that usually has
emotional contents that an employee with the objective of reducing it so that
performance is maintained at adequate level or even improved upon.
 20

The counsellor allows the counselee to talk about anything even apparently
unrelated to the issue. It is important for the counsellor to achieve a free flow of
expression-often through rumblings of the employee. The counsellor will need an
alert and receptive mind for this. The counsellor, however, sees to it that the
counsellor eventually concentrates his thoughts on his problem rather than stray
away from it. The counsellor has to help the counselee in concentrating more on
the problem and getting deeper into it and to discover the basic problems by
himself. Formulation of action plan this involved exploring possible solutions and
formulating action plan for implementing them to make the counselee the normal
person.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
 To enable the students of Social Work to observe the features and
characteristics of counselling into their social work professional
practice.
2.3 CONTENTS
2.3.1 Characteristics of Counselling
2.3.2 Goals of Counselling
2.3.3 Objectives of Counselling
2.3.4 Aims of Counselling
2.3.5 Evolution of Counselling
2.3.6 Factors deciding the Counselling
Counselling is interviewing the person being counselled and helping to solve his
problems through human approach of sharing and guidance. Counselling is sitting
down in private setting for an open discussion with an employee. Sometimes it is to
pay a sincere compliment, sometimes it is to solve a problem that is hurting
productivity/effectiveness, sometimes it is because an employee violated your
discipline line and you need to talk about improvement in his behaviour.
It is communicating one to one, in private. It is interviewing- it's a two way
dialogue and not one way sermonizing or advising. It is encouraging the other
person to talk about himself so that the problem and it's reasons emerge clearly
and solutions can be worked out. In an organization, counselling can be done by
the team leader, supervisor or manager or one can seek the expertise and
assistance of an in-house or external professional counsellor.
2.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING
According to CATTLE counselling has the following characteristics:
1. Counselling is highly personal process. It has close contact of two
persons.
2. It is joint quest of counsellor and counsellee.
3. The counsellor brings change in his feelings and emotions.
4. The counsellor should have full understanding of his task.
 21

5. It has very intense conversation between the two persons-counsellor and

counsellee.
6. The interview is the basic technique for counselling process.
7. Counselling deals the problems of abnormal behaviour and emotional
problems.
8. Counselling releases him from the feeling of inferiority and compulsion.
9. The purpose of counselling is to make counsellee cheerful, to gain
confidence for social responsibility.
10. Group counselling is an anomaly.
The general characteristics are
1. It is a purposeful learning experience for the counsellee.
2. It is the purposeful oriented and private interview between the
counsellor and counsellee.
3. Based on mutual confidence satisfactory relationship will be
established.
4. Counselling process is structured around the felt needs of the
counsellee.
5. Main emphasis in counselling process is on the counsellee’s self-
direction & self-acceptance.
2.3.2 GOALS OF COUNSELLING
The goal of the counselling is to enable the individual to make critical decisions
regarding alternative courses of actions without outside influence. Counselling will
help individuals obtain individuals obtain information and to clarify emotional
concern that may interfere with or be related to the decision involved. Different
individuals have different perceptions of what can be expected of counselling.
However there are five commonly named goals of counselling are as follows..,
Facilitating Behaviour Change
The goal of counselling is to bring about change in behaviour that will enable to
the client to be more productive. Goals can be measurable so that client can
measure that program. According to Rogers (1951) behaviour change is a necessary
result of the counselling process although specific behaviours receive little or no
emphasis during process.
Improving Relationship
Many clients tend to have major problems relating to others due to poor self-
image. Likewise inadequate social skills cause individuals to act defensively in
relationships. The counsellor would then strive to help the client improve the
quality of their lives by developing more effective interpersonal relationships.
Facilitate Client’s Potential
Helping individuals to cope with new situation and challenges. We will
inevitably run into difficulties in the process of growing up. Most of us do not
 22

completely achieve all over our development tasks within a life time. All of the
unique expectations and requirements imposed on us by others will eventually lead
to problem learning coping patterns, however may not always work.
Promoting Decision Making
The goal of the counselling is to enable the individual to make critical
decisions regarding alternative courses of actions without outside influence.
Counselling will help individuals obtain individuals obtain information and to
clarify emotional concern that may interfere with or be related to the decision
involved. These individuals will acquire an understanding of their capabilities and
interests. They will also come to identifying emotions and attitudes that could
influence their choice and decisions.
Enhance Potential and Enrich Self Development
Help individuals to cope with new situations and challenges. Counselling seek
to maximize an individual freedom by giving him or her control over their
environment while analysing responsiveness and reach to the environment.
Counsellors will work to help people learn how to overcome. Counsellors will also
assist to overcoming sexual dysfunction, drug addition, gambling and obesity as
well as anxiety shyness and depression.
Categories of Counselling Coals
Counselling Goals may be simply classified in terms of counsellor goals and
client goals or the immediate, intermediate, or long-range goals of therapy.
As per the professional practice, counselling goals may also be separated into the
following categories:
DEVELOPMENTAL GOALS
Developmental Goals are those wherein the client is assisted in meeting or
advancing her or his anticipated human growth and development (that is socially,
personally, emotionally, cognitively, physical wellness and so on)
PREVENTIVE GOALS
Prevention is a goal in which the counsellor helps the client avoid undesired
outcome.
ENHANCEMENT GOALS
If the client possesses special skills and abilities, enhancement means they can
be identified and/or further developed through the assistance of a counsellor.
REMEDIAL GOALS
Remediation involves assisting a client to overcome and/or treat an undesirable
development.
EXPLORATORY GOALS
Exploration represents goals appropriate to the examining of options, testing of
skills, and trying new and different activities, environments, relationships and so
on.
 23

REINFORCEMENT GOALS
Reinforcement is used in those instances where clients need help in recognizing
that what they are doing, thinking, and/or feeling is okay.
COGNITIVE GOALS
Cognition involves acquiring the basic foundation of learning and cognitive
skills.
PHYSIOLOGICAL GOALS
Physiology involves acquiring the basic understandings and habits for good
health.
PSYCHOLOGICAL GOALS
Psychology aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning emotional
control, developing a positive self-concept, and so on.
Goals Serve Three Important Functions in the Counselling Process
I. Goals can have a motivational function in counselling
II. Goals can also have an educational function in counselling in that they
can help clients acquire new responses.
Goals can also meet an evaluative function in counselling where by the client’s
goals help the counsellor to select and evaluate various counselling strategies
appropriate to the client’s goals.
2.3.3 OBJECTIVES OF COUNSELLING
1. To help the client to accept actual or impending changes that are resulting
from stress, it involves psychological, emotional, and intellectual.
2. To encourage the client to examine the available alternatives decide
choices are appropriate and useful for problem solving.
3. To relieve distress among people who are reacting to difficult
circumstances.
4. To change the behaviour by reducing the stress or risk.
5. It helps the counselee to acquire independence & sense of responsibility.
6. It helps the client to explore and fully utilize his potentialities and actualize
himself.
7. To encourage & develop special abilities and right attitudes.
8. To assist the student in planning for educational & vocational choices.
9. To help student to work out a plan for solving his difficulties.
10. To help student to grow explore & maintain or develop their overall
personality.
11. To help student in checking wastage and stagnation.
12. To minimize the incidence of indiscipline.
13. To motivate the students for self-employment.
 24

2.3.4 AIMS OF COUNSELLING

Anyone in a state of indecision or who is distressed in any way, whether
psychologically, physically, spiritually or practically is a possible candidate for
counselling. Counselling is directed towards dealing with life’s problems.
When people are experiencing distressing difficulties in their lives, they
sometimes turn to another person for help. This could be a trusted friend, family
member or religious leader.
They could also meet with a person who has been trained to effectively help
them. A counsellor is trained to listen and respond to people in emotional distress,
and to empower them to deal with their difficulties.
Counselling focuses on assisting the client to identify, talk about, explore and
understand their thoughts, feelings and behaviours and to work out what action
they want to take and why they have concerns or problems.
Each client is unique and the goals which are finally agreed upon between
client and counsellor need to be realistic and governed by the presenting concern(s)
or problem(s) of the client and the limitations of the services which are available.
The main aim of counselling is thus to create an emotionally safe space and an
accepting, caring relationship in which the client can explore, discover and clarify
ways of living more satisfyingly and resourcefully. Throughout the counselling
process, the responsibility for growth and change remains with the client.
Essentially, it is about helping others to help themselves, and helping them
grow in the way that they choose. The main aims of counselling are as follows..,
1. Reducing tension, Stress & Strains
2. Resolving conflict& Misunderstanding
3. Increasing understanding
4. Increasing self-acceptance
5. Exploring problem-solving options improving interpersonal relationships
providing information, when appropriate
THE ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD COUNSELLOR
A “good” counsellor is a mental health professional who supports you in
making progress in your life and goals, whether that’s helping you overcomes fears
or improving your sense of self. According to an American Psychological
Association’s article on continuing education, there are various qualities that can
set a counsellor a part from others to create better outcomes in therapy.
These characteristics include:
1. being flexible and tailoring treatment to each person based on their
cultural background, preferences, gender and sexual identity, and
religious beliefs
2. empathizing with the client or being sensitive to their emotions and
experiences
 25

3. gathering feedback from the client and using that information to change
up and improve treatment
4. being genuine and consistent in their words and emotions
5. expressing their genuine emotions, when appropriate
6. managing their own emotions during therapy
A mental health professional can be a good counsellor for one person — but not
a good fit for someone else. At its core, therapy is about a genuine connection
between you and your therapist.
When trying to figure out whether a counsellor is good for you, consider asking:
1. Do I feel comfortable with this person?
2. Do I feel heard and understood?
3. Does the therapist interrupt me when I’m talking?
4. Do they make critical or judgmental comments?
5. Do they take my feedback into account or brush off my concerns and
perspective?
6. Can I make the changes I’d like to make with this counsellor’s help and
support?
THE ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD CLIENT
Therapy is going to benefit you the most when you’re an active participant in
your treatment. So, you might find therapy more effective when you:
1. Show up to almost all your appointments, and on time
2. Are honest with your therapist, even about what you’re afraid to say
3. Give your therapist feedback about the therapy process, including what
you find helpful and not so helpful
4. Work with your therapist to set goals for change
5. Work on the skills you’re learning in therapy outside of therapy
6. Keep going to therapy, even when it becomes difficult or uncomfortable
Some of these things can be heard from time to time. That doesn’t mean you’re
a “bad” client, unmotivated, or that there’s anything wrong with you.
You likely have a good reason for why you’re not making as much progress as
you would like, such as:
1. a past bad experience in therapy
2. history of trauma that makes it tough to open up to anyone
3. an undiagnosed mental health condition, such as depression, an anxiety
disorder, or substance use disorder
4. feeling overwhelmed about making changes
 26

If you find yourself getting stuck in therapy, consider exploring why. When you
can name what’s standing in your way, you can address it and move forward. That
might mean talking with your therapist about changing your goals or finding a
different therapist that’s a better match for you. Just because one therapist is not
right for you, it does not mean another one won’t be a good fit. Either way, tries to
be honest with yourself and your therapist. This is not easy, but even taking the
smallest step toward expressing what’s going on can lead to tremendous growth.
1.3.5 EVOLUTION OF COUNSELLING
The history of counselling field is a relatively new and rich. It is important to
note the influence of the broad field of psychology, and though much of the history
of each is unique, counselling and psychology are branches of the same mental
health tree. The counselling field developed from the guidance movement in
response to recognition of a need for mental health and guidance counselling for
individuals facing developmental milestones. This article provides a historical
context for the development of the counselling profession, the key contributors to
the profession, and the development of organizations providing professional context
and accountability. An overview focuses on three threads: societal changes that
influenced the profession in response to human need, changes in psychological
theory, and educational reform.
The term "counselling" is of American origin, coined by Carl Rogers, who,
lacking a medical qualification was prevented from calling his work psychotherapy.
In the U.S., counselling psychology, like many modern psychology
specialties, started as a result of World War II.
th
COUNSELLING IN EARLY 20 CENTURY
The counselling profession developed in many ways from responses to changes
in society. In the early 20th century, when counselling was first emerging,
humanistic reform, with an increased emphasis on the value of all human beings,
was also emerging. Human qualities such as choice, creativity, self-realization, and
ultimately the value of all people became the focus of human change and
intervention. During this period of humanistic reform, society saw changes in
conditions of prisons, asylums, and factories based on the humanistic principles
noted above. The focus was toward treating all clients, regardless of circumstance,
in a way that regarded and supported their potential for success and remediation.
Concurrently, the school system was taking a lead in this transformation through
its focus on humanistic education, including student-centered learning with the
teacher as a facilitator, development of the self-actualized student, and student
cooperation. Humanistic reform led to a new way of viewing the individual and the
facilitation of human well-being.
Also during this time, America was in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, a
time of great change resulting in a shift in human need. One of the primary
consequences of the dramatic changes occurring in American society was the
movement from farms to the city. As a great influx of people moved to cities to work
in industry and in the factories, people were severely overcrowded, which ultimately
 27

resulted in an increase in disease and the beginning of slums and poverty. An

additional consequence was the disorganization of the family. Before the industrial
revolution, families lived close to one another, worked together, and relied on one
another for support. Once families moved to the cities to work in the factories, the
family structure changed, and the human population became increasingly isolated.
These changes created new needs for the individual and the family.
In education, this time period saw the ongoing development of progressive
education led by John Dewey. The focus of this movement was child learning
through real-world experience and an emphasis on schools reflecting the overall life
of society. Also part of this movement was respect for the child and the
implementation of a curriculum that allowed for children to develop personal
interests; this curriculum included agricultural education, industrial education,
and social education with an emphasis on the acculturation of immigrants.
Progressive education coupled with the humanistic movement shed light on the
growing need to attend to the overall well-being of children, beyond the walls of the
school. Another key figure in the change of American schools was Horace Mann,
who is often referred to as the father of American education. Mann believed in the
development of a system of common schools: universal, free, and non-sectarian
education.
These early forerunners (Dewey and Mann) were focused on training and
advice, in particular education and vocational guidance, and on interpersonal
relationships. To this point in history, the helping professions were dominated by
mental health giants such as Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, and Viktor Frankl.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory had, and continues to have, a profound impact on
counselling and psychotherapy.
The early 1900s saw the beginning of political support for compulsory
education. Compulsory education allowed for education for all and is based on the
fundamental principle that education is a basic human right. Specifically,
compulsory education requires by law that children receive education and that
government provide education to all. Educating children decreased the number of
children in the labor force and was a primary force in the change of society.
During this time in France, Alfred Binet was part of a commission concerned
with retardation in school children. Binet rejected some original tenets of
intelligence testing and worked on the development of intelligence scales. With the
changes in the educational system driven by education reform in a response to
urbanization and industrialization, schools needed assistance to handle diverse
learning capabilities. Binet developed a scale to differentiate children struggling to
learn from those more capable of school demands. Binet collaborated with Theodore
Simon, a physician, and together they developed a measure of intelligence. The
primary intent of this 1905 intelligence scale was to discriminate between slightly
“retarded” children and the normal school population.
 28

Three key figures influenced the early roots of the counselling profession,
specifically Jesse B. Davis, Frank Parsons, and Clifford Beers. A front-runner in the
response to educational reform, Jesse B. Davis, was the first person to develop
public school counselling and guidance programs. As a principal, Davis required
his students to write about their vocational interests on a weekly basis. Davis
believed that character development was central to preventing behavioral problems
and to creating good relationships with other students. Davis was strongly
influenced by Mann and Dewey and believed that if children were given proper
guidance, the challenges of an increasingly industrialized society could be met.
Therefore he advocated for the infusion of vocational development into traditional
curriculum. The goals of the vocational focus were to assist students in
understanding their character and in becoming socially responsible workers.
Parsons, often called the father of GUIDANCE, founded Boston’s Vocational
Bureau in 1908. Parsons believed the more people understood themselves and the
career choices available to them—specifically their aptitudes, interests, and
resources, the more capable they were of making informed and reasonable
occupational choices. In 1909 Parsons wrote Choosing a Vocation, a highly
influential book that called for the designation of school teachers as vocational
counsellors. Other schools took Parsons’s example and began implementing their
own vocational guidance programs.
During this same time Beers, author of A Mind That Found Itself in 1908, was
the impetus for the mental health movement. This book was an autobiographical
account of his experience with institutionalization following a suicide attempt. After
discovering the condition of these facilities and finding the treatment of mental
illness ineffective, Beers committed himself to changing the treatment of the
mentally ill. In this book, he exposed the conditions of mental health facilities and
eventually prompted national reform in the treatment of persons with mental
illness. His work was the forerunner of mental health counselling.
The above professional forces were working toward the development of the
counselling profession. Early changes across three professional movements—
guidance counselling and educational reform, mental health reform, and the
psychometrics movement— came together to create the foundation of the
counselling profession.
As the 1900s progressed, several events occurred that impacted the profession.
The first event was the founding of the National Vocational Guidance Association
(NVGA) in 1913. In 1915, the NVGA published the first National Vocational
Guidance Bulletin, and by 1921 it was publishing it regularly. In 1924, the title was
changed to the National Vocational Guidance Magazine. The publication evolved
over the years to eventually become the Journal of Counselling and Development,
the publication’s current title. The development of the NCGA signified the first effort
toward unifying those invested in the pursuit of scholarly information related to
vocational guidance. Also during this time, the Smith Hughes Act of 1917 was
 29

passed by Congress. This act provided funding for public schools to provide
vocational guidance programs and allowed schools to separate their vocational
guidance programs from standard curriculum courses.
The beginning of World War I brought many new challenges to the United
States and other countries involved in the war. The U.S. Army, in response to one
of their challenges, commissioned the development of the Army Alpha and Army
Beta intelligence tests. During this time, counselling became increasingly
recognized as the army implemented these instruments to assist in selection,
placement, and training practices for army personnel. After the war ended, these
instruments were used with the civilian population; this marked the beginning of
the psycho-metrics movement, one of the professional origins on which the
counselling field was largely based.
Counselling in The 1920s
The 1920s saw the emergence of an even greater influence of school guidance.
During this time, the profession was becoming increasingly focused, and vocational
guidance became the primary focus of training programs, starting with Harvard
University. The major influences on the profession at this time were theories of
education and governmental support of guidance service for war veterans.
Recognition of the importance of vocational assessment and guidance continued to
pull the counselling field into more solid development and recognition of the need
for increased professionalism. In response to this pull came the development of the
first standards for occupational inventories and guidelines for their development
and evaluation, providing further impetus for psychometric evaluation. The primary
orientation during this time was the medical model and testing.
With the standards for development and evaluation of psychological
instruments came an increase in the publication of these materials, most notably
the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB), created and published by Edward
Strong in 1927 (now called the Strong Interest Inventory). The Strong Vocational
Interest Blank was developed based on the assumption that patterns of individual
interests indicate likely occupational choices. The inventory indicated the
occupations in which a person will be more likely to be satisfied and perhaps even
continue with long-term employment.
Counselling in the 1930s
The Great Depression in the 1930s had a profound influence on both
researchers and practitioners; specifically there was an increased need for helping
processes and counselling for employment placement. During this time period, E.
G. Williamson developed the trait-factor theory based on modifications of Parson’s
theory. Williamson’s theory was direct and focused on the counsellor’s direction,
primarily through teaching and mentoring. The focus of trait-factor counselling was
to define behavior by traits such as aptitudes, achievements, personalities, and
interest, and based on these and a variety of factors, statistically evaluate them to
assist an individual toward becoming an effective and successful individual.
 30

Williamson’s theory was most popular in the 1930s and 1940s when it was used by
the military in World War II for selection.
In addition to the influence of the economic climate, the greatest influence on
the counselling profession during this time may have been the government’s
interest in supporting guidance and counselling efforts. In 1936, the George-Deen
Act was approved by Congress; this act allowed for the creation of the Vocational
Education Division of the U.S. Office of Education. An extension of this act was the
introduction of the position of state supervisor of guidance in state departments of
education. The George-Deen Act represented the first time funds were directly
allocated for vocational guidance counselling, and guidance counsellors saw an
increase in support for their work.
Also during this time, the U.S. government instituted the U.S. Employment
Service, which published the first edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(DOT). The DOT was the first publication to define jobs of all types. The DOT
continues to serve individuals seeking employment to this day.
Despite great strides in the counselling profession during this time, some
professionals in the fields of education and psychology were criticizing the narrow
focus on the guidance movement. In particular, Edward Thorndike felt that the
focus of the guidance movement was too narrow.
Counselling in the 1940s
The 1940s represented another decade of increased recognition for counselling
and the on-going development and definition of the profession. One of the most
significant events was World War II. During the war, the U.S. government employed
counsellors and psychologists to assist in selection and training of specialists for
both the military and industry. The war also brought with it a necessary increase in
the number of women in the workforce. With so many men fighting in the military,
women were needed to fill the vacant positions. The role of women in the workplace
during such an important time for the United States radically changed the
traditional sex roles formerly dominating the workforce.
Another significant event for the field of counselling that occurred during the
1940s was a growing interest in psychotherapy. There was an emergence of diverse
theories—Carl Rogers’s client-centered and nondirective theory in particular.
Rogers grew in popularity after the publication of his book Counselling and
Psychotherapy. He challenged Williamson’s directive way of working with clients
and focused on the clients’ responsibility for their own growth. As is evident from
the history to this point, the focus of counselling and guidance prior to Rogers was
on testing, assessment, and vocations. Through Rogers’s influence, the focus of
counselling shifted to relationship dynamics, counselling technique, training of
counsellors, and refinement of the goals of the counselling relationship. Rogers’s
theory came to the forefront of counselling and psychology theories, but new
counselling theories emerged as well.
 31

Following the war, several events occurred that further promoted the
counselling profession. The George Barden Act of 1946 was passed, which allocated
vocational education funds for counsellor training programs: This included funding
for counsellor educators, research, state program supervision, local guidance
supervisors, and school counsellors. Also during this time, the U.S. Department of
Veterans Affairs (VA) gave grants for counsellors and psychologists and paid for
internships for graduate students. With the combination of the George Barden Act
and support from the VA, graduate training programs began defining their
curriculum more clearly.
Counselling in the 1950s
Building on the major changes that occurred during the 1940s, the 1950s saw
great changes and the professionalization of counselling. As mentioned previously,
the counselling profession developed in the context of historical events. The 1950s
were a time of great change with such historical events as the launch of Sputnik,
the baby boom, the women’s rights movement, and the civil rights movement. While
these events were drastically changing the country, additional simultaneous events
were occurring that changed the counselling profession. Specifically, these events
were the passing of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), professional
developments, the introduction of new guidance and counselling theories, and the
emergence of diverse marriage and family counselling theories.
The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was initiated in response to
Sputnik, a space satellite launched by the Soviet Union. The purpose of the NDEA
was to promote studies in math, science, and foreign languages. The NDEA sought
to identify children with particular abilities in these academic areas. Although this
was the original intent of NDEA, this act also provided funding for improving school
counselling programs and for training counsellors. This decade saw the greatest
increase in the number of school counsellors in a decade.
Concurrent to the growing numbers of counsellors nationwide, the profession
itself was growing and changing. 1952 saw (1) the establishment of the American
Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA), (2) the establishment of Division 17,
the Division of Counselling Psychology of the American Psychological Association,
and (3) the founding of the American School Counsellor Association (ASCA). A year
after ASCA was founded, it became a division of the APGA.
Finally, the 1950s saw the emergence of many different theories. Prior to this
time there were essentially four primary theoretical orientations: psychoanalysis,
trait-factor theories, client-centred theories, and behavioural theories. Within these
four primary orientations, practitioners worked with either nondirective or directive
counselling, but during this time, new theories emerged, including cognitive
theories, behavioural theories, learning theories, and career theories. Also, marriage
and family therapy emerged to an even greater extent, and major theorists in the
marriage and family therapy field, such as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, Jay
 32

Haley, Murray Bowen, Carl Whitaker, and Salvador Minuchin were solidifying the
marriage and family movement.
Counselling in the 1960s
In the 1960s, the baby boomers were growing up, and the conservatism of the
1950s was changing to reflect a new way of thinking, thus radically changing
American culture. The civil rights movement saw sit-ins, protests, and
assassinations. During this time, women were entering the workforce in greater
numbers, and the National Organization of Women was exposing the “glass ceiling.”
Also during this time, crime and drug use were increasing, and the United States
was once again at war, this time in Vietnam. The societal changes of the times
contributed to many changes in the counselling profession, in particular a
solidification of the profession and a focus on the needs created by the societal
changes during this time.
In 1963, the Community Mental Health Act was enacted. This act provided
federal funding for community mental health centres and was pivotal in changing
the dissemination of services for the mentally ill. It allowed for individuals who
would formerly have been institutionalized to live in the community and receive
mental health support and services. The Community Mental Health Act also
provided funding for building new community mental health centres through the
National Institute of Mental Health, thus providing additional support for the
provision of community-based care. In addition to major developments in the care
for the mentally ill, this act provided employment opportunities for counsellors.
This decade also saw increased professionalism in the field of counselling.
Specifically, the APGA published its first code of ethics, providing guidelines for
ethical practice and ultimately protecting the public and increasing
professionalism. Also during this time, an APGA report was edited that defined the
role of and the training standards for school counsellors. The American
Psychological Association, Division 17, continued to clarify the definition of the
counselling psychologist and published its first professional journal, The
Counselling Psychologist.
Another influence of the government on the development of the counselling
profession was the 1966 establishment of the Education Resources Information
Clearinghouse (ERIC). Specifically related to the counselling profession was the
ERIC section on Counselling and Personnel Services (ERIC/CAPS) at the University
of Michigan. The ERIC was funded by the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement through the U.S. Department of Education. The ERIC/CAPS provided
a comprehensive resource on counselling activities and trends in the United States
and internationally. In addition to the development of the database, conferences on
counselling were sponsored, bringing together leaders in the profession.
In 1962, Gilbert Wrenn wrote a seminal piece that further defined the role of
the school counsellor. Specifically, Wrenn wrote that the school counsellor should
fill four functions: counsel students; consult with parents, teachers, and
 33

administrators; study the changing student population and interpret this

information for administrators and teachers; and coordinate counselling services in
the school and between the school and the community.
As the profession grew and training standards became more rigorous, the
provision and regulation of quality services also increased. This decade saw
considerable growth in the group movement and a shift toward small group
interaction and interpersonal growth and awareness. Other major influences on the
profession during this time were the emergence of Maslow’s humanistic counselling
theory and of behavioural counselling, which emphasized learning as the root of
change.
The counselling profession was paralleling the societal changes of the times.
Specifically, counsellors were being employed in more diverse settings, such as
mental health centers and community agencies. Counsellor training programs were
also increasing in number, meaning that more counsellors were competing for jobs
as the programs graduated students. Along with the increased availability of
training and more diverse employment opportunities, counsellors were seeking and
receiving specialized training. The term community counsellor began to be used,
paralleling the diversification of employment opportunities, with the new title
implying a professional with diverse roles and responsibilities.
A pivotal movement in the counselling profession during this decade was for
state and national licensure. Restrictions on counsellors’ ability to acquire
psychology licensure led to this movement. The APGA started a task force to
address licensure for counsellors, and a benchmark for its success was the passing
of successful licensure legislation in Virginia in 1976. Two additional states,
Alabama and Arkansas, also had licensure legislation by the end of the decade.
Counselling in the 1970s
In the 1970s the profession became increasingly strong. Headquarters for the
APGA were established in Alexandria, Virginia, and several strong divisions were
chartered, including the Association of Counsellor Education and Supervision
(ACES), the American Mental Health Counselling Association (AMHCA), the
Association for Religious and Value Issues in Counselling (now ASERVIC), the
Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW), the Association for Non-White
Concerns in Personnel and Guidance (ANWC), and the Public Offender Counsellor
Association. During this time, ACES published its first standards for master’s
degree programs in counselling, and it approved guidelines for doctoral education
in counselling. As the profession became stronger, the APGA began questioning
professional identity, as the personnel and guidance focus seemed increasingly
outdated and narrow.
Counselling in the 1980s
The 1980s saw divorce rates increasing, violent crime increasing, and prisons
overflowing. Drug use was considered an epidemic with the emergence of crack
cocaine, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was claiming lives and
 34

demanding attention. The counselling profession continued to grow and to become

a distinct profession, ultimately changing in response to divergent societal needs.
In 1981, the Council for Accreditation of Counselling and Related Education
Programs (CACREP) was formed. CACREP revised the original standards developed
by ACES in the 1970s. With those standards, they standardized counsellor training
(counsellor education) programs for both master’s and doctoral students in the
areas of school, community, mental health, marriage and family counselling, and
personnel services.
At the same time, the National Board for Certified Counsellors (NBCC) was
formed in 1983. The initial intent of the NBCC was to certify counsellors on a
national level. A large part of this process included developing a standardized test
covering eight major subject areas: (1) human growth and development, (2) social
and cultural foundations, (3) helping relationships, (4) groups, (5) lifestyle and
career development, (6) appraisal, (7) research and evaluation, and (8) professional
orientation. Passing the exam, meeting experiential and educational requirements,
and character references allowed a person to earn the National Certified Counsellor
(NCC) credential. Accreditation and certification standards attracted many to the
profession.
A conversation continued from the late 1970s became more prevalent during
the 1980s, as leaders in the APGA recognized that “personnel and guidance” no
longer fit in describing the work of the members. In response, the APGA was
changed to the American Association for Counselling and Development (AACD).
Professional identity and commitment was increasingly important to members of
AACD. Representative of this commitment was the formation of Chi Sigma Iota, the
academic and professional honors society for counsellors. Chi Sigma Iota was
formed by Thomas J. Sweeney to promote excellence in the counselling profession.
AACD saw an increase in membership and an increase in the number of
divisions, highlighting the diversification in the counselling field. Throughout this
decade, the focus on developmental issues across the life span was led by
developmental theorists such as Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg. A new
division of the AACD, the Association for Multicultural Counselling and
Development (AMCD) represented an increased focus on recognizing the challenges
of counselling individuals from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
Counselling in the 1990s
The technology boom, low unemployment rates, and highly publicized violence
(the Los Angeles riots, the World Trade Center bombing, the O. J. Simpson trial, the
Oklahoma City bombing, and school shootings) marked the 1990s. During this time
the counselling profession was continuing to define itself professionally, was
demanding appropriate supervision in response to the diverse needs of counselling
consumers, and was dealing with restricted funding. Two primary influences in the
1990s, in addition to advances in technology, were managed care and an increase
in accountability.
 35

In 1992, the AACD instituted another name change, this time to the American
Counselling Association (ACA). Also in 1992, counselling was included in the
healthcare human resource statistics compiled by the Center for Mental Health
Services and the National Institute of Mental Health, marking counselling as a
primary mental health profession. A final key event that occurred in 1992 was the
writing of multicultural counselling standards and competencies by Derald Wing
Sue, Patricia Arredondo, and Roderick McDavis.
Finally, during this time there was a return to emphasizing counselling the
whole person; this meant counsellors took into consideration the importance of
societal influences and the context of a client’s life, such as his or her spirituality,
family, and occupation. Organizations established in the 1970s and 1980s such as
CACREP, Chi Sigma Iota, and NBCC experienced continued growth during this
time, more states were passing licensure legislation for counsellors, and both ACA
and APA were publishing articles and books on counselling.
EVOLUTION OF COUNSELLING – IN A NUTSHELL
Counselling as a profession started to emerge in the 1900s when psychologists
and medical professionals tried to understand what factors caused low mood and
depression and how it could be treated
Below are significant milestones in the history of Counselling and psychotherapy
 1886 – Sigmund Freud started practising in Vienna. He went on to
develop Psychoanalysis
 1951 – Carl Rogers outlined his person-centred approach in his book, Client-
Centered Therapy.
 1951 – Fritz Perls, Paul Goodman, and Ralph Hefferline.outlined Gestalt therapy
in the book Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality
 1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic psychology and later
developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs.
 1955 – Albert Ellis began the first form of cognitive behavioural therapy which
he called Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy ( REBT)
 1959 –Viktor Frankl published the English edition of his book Man's Search for
Meaning, which provided an existential account of his experiences as a prisoner
in Nazi concentration camps during World War II. The book also outlines an
existential approach to counselling known as Logotherapy
 1967 Aaron Beck developed Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) suggesting
that in terms of depression the way we think contributes to our emotional well-
being.
 36

Post-Modern Approaches to Counselling

The term 'Post Modern' in counselling refers to questioning the assumptions of
previous theories. Proposing there is no truly objective way of measuring mental
well-being.
There are three types of postmodern therapies:
i. Narrative Therapy was developed through the 1970s and 1980s, by
Michael White and David Epston who proposed that cultural influences
and unconscious processes shape human behaviour.
ii. Solution-Focused Therapy is a future-focused, goal-oriented approach
which helps clients replace problems for solutions. American
researchers Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg developed the theory in
the late 1970s.
iii. Collaborative Language systems were developed by Harlene Anderson
Harry Goolishian during the 1980s. They propose the client works
through their difficulties in the conversations they have with the
therapist.
2.3.6 FACTORS DECIDING THE COUNSELLING
The counselling process is influenced by several factors. The counsellor need to
know these so that he can help it best make the counselling time a productive one
both for the client and counsellor. The major factors which influence the
counselling process are as follows.
1. Structure
Structure in counselling is defined as the “joint understanding between the
counsellor and client regarding the characteristics, conditions, procedures, and
parameters of counselling” (Day &Sparacio, 1980, p.246). It helps in clarify the
counsellor client relationship and give it direction.
It protects the rights, roles and obligations of both counsellors and clients and
ensures the success of counselling. Structure gives form to what the formal process
will look like. Practical guidelines are part of building structure. They include time
limit of the session, action limits for the prevention of destructive behaviour, role
limits and procedural limits.
Counselling moves forward when client and counsellor know the boundaries of
the relationship and what is expected. Structure is provided throughout all stages
of counselling but is especially important at the beginning. Its importance is most
obvious when the client arrives for counselling with unrealistic expectations or with
no idea what to expect. Counsellors need to stay flexible and continually negotiate
the nature of structure with their clients.
2. Initiative
Initiative can be thought of as the motivation to change. Majority of the clients
who visit the counsellors are reluctant to some degree. Such clients lack initiative.
Some counsellors become impatient, irritated and insensitive and may ultimately
 37

give up trying to work with such clients. Many counsellors end up blaming either
themselves or their clients. A role reversal exercise can help the counsellor to
understand the mental state of the involuntary, reluctant and resistant client.
A reluctant client is one who has been referred by the third party and is
frequently unmotivated to seek help. They do not wish to be in counselling. Many
reluctant clients terminate counselling pre maturely and report dissatisfaction with
the process. A resistant client is one who is unwilling or opposed to change. Such
an individual may actively seek counselling but does not wish to go through the
pain that change demands. There are several ways in which counsellors can help
clients to win the battle for initiative and achieve success in counselling. One way is
to anticipate the anger, frustration and defensiveness that some clients display.
A second way is to show acceptance, patience, and understanding as well as
non-judgmental attitude. A third way is to use persuasion and the fourth way is
through confrontation.
3. Setting
Counselling can happen anywhere, but some physical settings promote the
process better than others. Among the most important factors that help or hurt the
process is the place where the counselling occurs. The room should be comfortable
and attractive with soft lighting, quiet colours, an absence of clutter, and
harmonious and comfortable furniture. The professional generally works in a place
that provides Privacy, Confidentiality, Quiet and Comfort. When working with a
client, youth counsellor must want to send a message that he is listening. This can
be done by being attentive both verbally and nonverbally. A distance of 30 to 39
inches is the average range of comfort between counsellor and clients of both
genders.
In addition to the above arrangements the counsellors should not be
interrupted during sessions. The counsellor should keep in mind the SOLER
technique.
SOLER is an acronym which serves to remind the counsellors how to listen:
S: Face the client squarely; that is, adopt a posture that indicates involvement.
O: Adopt an open posture. Sit with both feet on the ground to begin with and
with your hands folded, one over the other.
L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be aware of their space
needs.
E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down suggests that you are bored or
ashamed of what the client is saying. Looking at the person suggests that you are
interested and concerned.
R: As the counsellor incorporates these skills into the attending listening skills,
relax
 38

4. Client Qualities
Counselling relationship starts with first impressions. The way the counsellor
and the client perceive one another is vital to the establishment of a productive
relationship. Counsellors generally like to work with clients who are most like them.
They are influenced by the physical characteristics of one’s best work to all clients.
The client: Clients come in all shapes and sizes, personality characteristics, and
degree of attractiveness.
The most successful candidates are said to be YAVIS: Young, Attractive,
Verbal, Intelligent, and Successful (Schofield, 1964). Less successful clients are
seen as HOUND: Homely, Old, Unintelligent, Nonverbal, and Disadvantaged; or
DUD: Dumb, Unintelligent and Disadvantaged (Allen, 1977). A counsellor must
consider a client’s body gestures, eye contact, facial expressions and vocal quality
to be as important as verbal communication. Cultural background of the client
should keep in mind while evaluating the non-verbal communication.
5. Counsellors Qualities
The personal and professional qualities are very important in building up
relationship with the client.
Okun (1992) lists five important characteristics that counsellors must possess:
1. Self-awareness,
2. Honesty,
3. Congruence,
4. Ability to communicate, and
5. Knowledge.
Clients depending on their culture initially like to work with counsellors who
are perceived as Experts, Attractive and Trustworthy. Expertness is the degree to
which a counsellor is perceived as knowledgeable and informed about his or her
specialty. Attractiveness is a function of perceived similarity between a client and a
counsellor. Counsellors can make themselves attractive by speaking in clear,
simple sentences and offering appropriate self-disclosure. Trustworthiness is
related to the sincerity and consistency of the counsellor. The counsellor is
genuinely concerned about the client and shows it over time by establishing a close
relationship with the client.
2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. It is important for the counsellor to achieve a free flow of expression-
often through rumblings of the employee.
2. Counselling focuses on assisting the client to identify, talk about,
explore and understand their thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
3. The counsellor needs to know the factors deciding the Counselling to
ease the functions and helping the client to resolve the problems on
his/her own.
 39

4. The goal of the counselling is to enable the individual to make critical

decisions regarding alternative courses of actions without outside
influence.
5. A Counsellor has to follow the SOLER technique
6. Counselling moves forward when client and counsellor know the
boundaries of the relationship and what is expected.
2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the characteristics of Counselling?
2. What are the goals of counselling?
3. List the aims of counselling process.
4. What are the objectives of Counselling?
5. Narrate the Evolution of Counselling.
2.6 SUMMARY
In this Unit the Learner identifies the salient features, characteristics of the
counselling and Learnt that how to become a counsellor after the attainment of this
course. This Unit visualizing them to be a Good Counsellor in a Micro and Macro
Level. So the Learners are asked to read this Unit carefully and experiment in the
field during their filed work practicum. If there is any modalities are advised to
discuss with their field work supervisor or course teacher in this connection.
Evolution of counselling mainly discussed in foreign perspectives, the main reason
is, it’s a age old process widely discussed in our Vedas, i.e. as a mentor, guide,
counsellor, teacher, preacher and many more roles. During the Pandemic
Lockdown it plays major role for abstaining the suicidal problems across the world.
So this is a noble profession to resolve the individual and social problems and save
the lives of the individuals.
2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the Major Characteristics of Counselling.
2. Enumerate the evolution of counselling
2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Counselling and Psychiatric Social Work.
2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Write the essential requirements for a Good Counsellor?
2. Validate the aims of counselling during the Pandemic Period.
3. Draft the goals of counselling in your employment setting.
2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Aubrey, R. (1977). Historical development of guidance and counselling
and implications for the future. Personnel and Guidance, New York.
2. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology - 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
 40

3. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Guidance,Tata McGraw Hill

Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
4. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, SagePublications, New Delhi
5. Zastrow H. Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Suggest the important requirements of counselling based on your field
work learning.
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Counselling &
Guidance conducted by your university or any other educational
Institutions.
2.12 KEY WORDS
Counselling, Counsellor, Counsellee, Client, Aims of Counselling, Goals of
Counselling, Objectives of Counselling


 41

LESSON – 3
FOUNDATIONS OF COUNSELLING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling as a profession has an interesting history and encompasses a
number of basic premises and foundational perspectives in which the counsellor
needs to be educated. This section provides the beginning to the Social Work
student with an overview of both the historical context of counselling and the
philosophical basis on which the counsellor operates. It introduces the counselling
to the student not only the process of counsellor–client interaction, the helping
relationship, but also information dealing with diversity issues in counselling and
with ethical and legal considerations. It also provides the student with important
information on research and writing in counselling, as well as on technology and
counselling.
If one assumes that counselling is advising, counsellors have existed since
people appeared on earth. Mothers, fathers, friends, lovers, clergy, and social
leaders all provide such counsel whether sought after or not. The idea of a
professionally trained counsellor is relatively new. This idea did not, however,
emerge because of the recognition of a “deep need within human development”
(Stripling, 1983, p. 206). The counselling profession evolved in response to the
demands made by the industrialization and urbanization of the United States. At
the turn of the 20th century, America faced a confluence of social and economic
problems, such as the proper distribution of a growing workforce, an increasingly
educated population, the needs of immigrants, and the preservation of social values
as family connections were weakened (Aubrey, 1982; Herr, 1985). A representative
democracy demands an educated citizenry taking responsibility for the government
itself. As the new democracy developed, so did the ideal of education for all citizens.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the curriculum of schools began to change,
and choices among school subjects became available. Help with such choices was
necessary.
Jessie Davis, one of the pioneers in counselling, declared in his autobiography
that he had graduated from school “fairly well prepared to live in the Middle Ages”
(Davis, 1956, p. 57). His experiences led directly to the establishment of counselling
and counselling services in schools. Other factors were providing pressures that
made the evolution of professionally training individuals to help people make
choices inevitable. The industrial revolution and its attendant job specialization and
technologic advances were some of those pressures. There was also an increase in
democracy after the Civil War ended in 1865. If the United States had continued to
exist as a slave society or a closed class society, there probably would have been
little need for the development of counselling services. The population of the
country was on the increase, and the census of 1890 revealed that the frontier was
essentially closed.
 42

Larger cities were growing increasingly more crowded, and immigrants to the
United States and other citizens could no longer move westward without regard for
others. “Free” land was all but gone. It became necessary to remain near the cities
to work, to live, and to get along with one’s neighbours. Providing assistance in the
choices necessary to live in the large industrially based cities became necessary.
During the 20th century, the development of professional counselling in the United
States was influenced by a variety of factors. The newly developed science of
psychology began, and continued, studying the differences among individuals.
Instruments for appraising people were in their infancy but were known to pioneers
in the field, who noted the need for counselling services.
As these tools developed more sophistication, they were adapted and/or
adopted by counsellors. Other factors contributing to the evolution of counselling
included the work of leaders of the early settlement house movement and other
social reformers; the mental hygiene movement; the extent to which Americans
value personal success; the emphasis placed on the awareness and use of one’s
talents, interests, and abilities; the on-going industrialization of the country; the
continued growth of career education and career counselling; the development of
psychology as a profession; and the rapid changes in all fields due to the increased
availability of technology (Shertzer & Stone, 1986).
3.2 OBJECTIVES
 To facilitate the students of Social Work to understand foundations of
counselling and to apply all those concepts into the Social Work Practice.
3.3 CONTENTS
3.3.1 Sociological Foundations
3.3.1.1 Influence of Social System
a) Concept of Systems Theory
b) Systems Theory and Family Systems Therapy
c) Systems Theory and Systemic Psychotherapy
3.3.2 Philosophical Foundations
3.3.2.1 Dignity of the Human Person
3.3.3 Psychological Foundations Counselling
3.3.3.1 Concept of Self
a) Psychoanalysis
b) Level of Human Functioning
c) Important Psychological Needs
d) Goal Directed Behaviour
e) Learning Principles
f) Developmental needs at different stages
3.3.4 Socio-Cultural Foundations
 43

3.3.1 SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

It focuses on understanding social rules & process that connect & separate
people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and
institutions. It helps counsellors understand human groups and their influence on
human behaviour.
Its main focus is the process of interpersonal relationships as a method of
facilitating healthier living, rather than diagnosing intrapsychic psychopathology,
and attempting to change it through coercion and analysis (psychology and
psychotherapy).
Sociological of Counselling are practiced through the socio-therapy.
Sociotherapy is a social science and form of social work, and sociology that involves
the study of groups of people, its constituent individuals, and their behaviour,
using learned information in case and care management towards holistic life
enrichment or improvement of social and life conditions.
Systems theory, also called systems science, is the multidisciplinary study of
systems to investigate phenomena from a holistic approach. Systems, which can be
natural or man-made and living or non-living, are found in many aspects of human
life.
People, who adhere to systems thinking, or the systemic perspective, believe it
is impossible to truly understand a phenomenon by breaking it up into its basic
components. They believe, rather, that a global perspective is necessary for
comprehending the entire phenomenon.
3.3.1.1 INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL SYSTEM
Systems theory finds some of its roots within the biological sciences, as some of
the founders of its core concepts, including Ludwig Bertalanffy and Humber to
Maturana, were biologists. One of the main perspectives of systems theory is
viewing an individual or group as its own ecosystem with many moving parts that
affect each other. Principles of systems theory have been applied to the field
of psychology to explore and explain behavioural patterns. This approach was
spearheaded by several individuals, including Gregory Bateson, Murray Bowen,
Anatol Rapoport, W. Ross Ashby, and Margaret Mead.
a) CONCEPTS OF SYSTEMS THEORY
A system is characterized by a group of parts that interact to form a coherent
whole. Systems have distinct boundary separating them from external elements
and distinguishing between inputs, or factors that impact the system, and outputs,
or effects and products of the system. Systems may also have feedback loops, which
occur when outputs of a system return as inputs, forming a circuit. Changes in one
component of a system will affect other components as well as the overall entity.
This dynamic makes it possible to predict what might happen when a system
experiences a known change.
Systems theory has been applied in the field of psychology, where it is called
systems psychology. People who view psychology through the lens of systems
 44

theory see individuals as seeking homeostasis within their systems or groups. To

create a system that works for all members, the expectations, needs, desires,
and behaviours of each person within it must be considered. When issues arise,
these are attributed to breakdowns in systemic interactions rather than deficiency
of one person.
b) SYSTEMS THEORY AND FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY
In the late 1960s, Dr. Murray Bowen applied systems thinking to
the family unit and developed family systems theory. This theory views the family
as an emotional unit and assumes individuals cannot be fully understood in
isolation. Instead, Bowen theorized, individuals must be viewed as part of
their family of origin. Bowen’s concept later developed into an effective and widely
popular form of treatment, called family systems therapy.
In family systems therapy, familial relationships, patterns, communication, and
behaviours are examined within and beyond the therapy session, allowing the
therapist and other family members to observe how certain behaviours could be
impacting the family. Once these behaviours are recognized and understood, family
members can learn new behaviors that have benefits for themselves and the rest of
their family.
c) SYSTEMS THEORY AND SYSTEMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY
The efficacy of family systems therapy has motivated researchers and mental
health experts to apply its primary principles to other groups of people. This new
approach, called systemic psychotherapy or systemic therapy, helps groups gain
insight into how each member’s role within a group may affect its functionality. It
can be applied to organizations, communities, or businesses. Systemic
psychotherapy has expanded into a nondirective, multifaceted treatment method
currently applied in a variety of circumstances. Systemic psychotherapy has been
found effective in addressing issues including:
1. Anxiety
2. Body image issues
3. Eating issues
4. Depression
5. Substance abuse
6. Relationship issues
A notable dynamic of systemic psychotherapy is its emphasis that a family or
community plays a vital role in its own recovery and psychological health. As a
result, families, couples, or members of an organization are directly involved in
their own therapy to resolve an issue, and individual participants can begin
transforming their own behaviours to be more adaptive and productive.
Systemic psychotherapy helps members of a group attain positive
relationships, secure interrelationships, and overall well-being.
Effective communication is a key tool in this treatment approach. Dialogue is
 45

constructed to build knowledge, strength, and support for an entire entity. It is

important to note that the close relationship between systemic psychotherapy and
family systems therapy has led many people to use these terms interchangeably.
3.3.3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS:
The philosophy deals with human values and the counselling gives importance
to human value. The philosophy tells about the sense of purpose in life, while
counselling helps to attain or make him understand about the purpose of life.
Philosophy tells about values, sensible, being considerable, being right and wrong
etc. On the other hand, all these are practiced in counselling. Counselling beliefs in
man’s faith, his abilities and this is what philosophy teach us
Smith’s Philosophical Foundation of Counselling:
 Faith in humanity
 Concern for other person
 Belief in potentiality and inner strength of man
 Self responsibility
 Freedom to choose sovuergnity
 Cherishing values of life.
Human dignity is the recognition that human beings possess a special value
intrinsic to their humanity and as such are worthy of respect simply because they
are human beings.
3.3.2.1 Dignity of the Human Person
Emile Durkheim suggests that dignity is a universal rather than particular
property and its perception is the means to penetrate to the nature of one's own
being. In fact, dignity is itself contingent upon perception of ‘the other’ it is a
property of an inter-subjective dialectic.
Human dignity is the abstract, universal quality of value that belongs to every
human being simply by virtue of being human. It is held by the species, by
collectives (groups or peoples), and by individuals.
Some people hold that all human beings have a special type of dignity which is
the basis for (1) the obligation all of us have not to kill them, (2) the obligation to
take their well-being into account when we act, and (3) even the obligation to treat
them as we would have them treat us.
Modern education aims at the best development of personality (Physical,
Intellectual, Emotional, Social, Morally, Spiritually, Educationally & Vocational) of
the pupils. Counselling plays an important role in achieving this aim of education.
Philosophy is the mother of all sciences &education or counselling is no
exception to it. Philosophically, the aim of counselling is self-realization &self-
direction. Respect & Dignity for each individual has been enshrined in our
constitution under “Fundamental Rights”. Therefore it is mandatory for the state to
provide each individual the freedom of choice &equal opportunity. This is possible
 46

through Counselling since all the counselling programs are based on the
assumption of freedom of choice.
Some of the important bases are described as:
1. Inherent Inadequacy: Need for counselling&Guidance is inherent in the
very nature of human life. Every individual is born incomplete &inadequate
in himself. No person is self-sufficient at any stage of life. Right from the
beginning of his life till the end of life he depends on others for having a
happy &peaceful life. Organized counselling&counselling programme fulfil
this need.
2. Potentialities: Every individual is gifted with certain potentialities,
capacities &talents. These potentialities are innate in nature. Different
individuals are endowed with different potentialities &these potentialities
can be developed with the help of counselling.
3. Excellency: Excellency is required in the development of talents.
Counselling helps the individual in knowing his talents, making the
maximum development of the talents &attaining Excellency, satisfaction &
happiness.
4. Problems &adjustment: Life is full of problems. A person faces many
problems in life. Problems of the person can be solved with the help of
counselling .Solution of problems helps in making adequate adjustments-
educational, vocational, social & psychological.
5. Dignity of the individual: Every individual has a source of self-respect.
Philosophy believes in the dignity of all human beings. Every individual
occupies the dignified position in the cosmic universe. Dignity of the
individual is to be respected.
6. Freedom: The individual wants freedom .We must provide each individual
the freedom to choose an equal opportunity. Freedom includes awareness of
the alternative to choose from, which education must provide for, which
students learn by operating in a truly democratic atmosphere. All
Counselling is postulated upon the freedom of choice. Counselling is based
on freedom i,e. freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, choice
&vocation of the movement.
3.3.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF COUNSELLING
Counselling deals with human behaviour and psychology is the scientific study
of human behaviour. Counselling has roots in psychoanalysis ( ego stages, free
association, dream analysis). Functionalism in 1990’s is an important aspect in
counselling.
Psychology also talks about the primary interest of the client. It deals with
Motivation, Personality, Development stages, Memory, Nature and Nurture, defence
Mechanism etc. It also talks about code of ethics which is applied in counselling.
Concept of self and goal directed behaviour is very important in counselling.
 47

3.3.3.1 Concept of Self

Our unconscious self embodies a mode of operation that precedes the
development of all other forms of our mental functioning. It includes throughout
our lives the primitive rock-bottom activities, the primal strivings on which all
human functioning is ultimately based.
Sigmund Freud’s view of the self leads to an analogous dualistic view of the
self, though the contours and content of his ideas are very different from Kant’s.
Freud is not, strictly speaking, a philosopher, but his views on the nature of the self
have had a far-reaching impact on philosophical thinking, as well as virtually every
other discipline in the humanities and social sciences. Naturally, his most
dominant influence has been in the fields of psychology and psychoanalysis.
Freud’s view of the self was multitiered, divided among the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious. He explains his psychological model in the
following passage from his An Outline of Psychoanalysis.
a) PSYCHOANALYSIS.
There is no need to characterize what we call conscious: it is the same as the
consciousness of philosophers and of everyday opinion. Everything else that is
mental is in our view unconscious. We are soon led to make an important division
in this unconscious. Some processes become conscious easily; they may then cease
to be conscious, but can become conscious once more without any trouble: as
people say they can be reproduced or remembered. This reminds us that
consciousness is in general a very highly fugitive condition. What is conscious is
conscious only for a moment.
Everything unconscious that can easily exchange the unconscious condition for
the conscious one is therefore better described as “capable of entering
consciousness,” or as preconscious. Experience has taught us that there are hardly
any mental processes, even of the most complicated kind, which cannot on
occasion remain preconscious, although as a rule they press forward, as we say,
into consciousness.
There are other mental processes or mental material, which have no such easy
access to consciousness, but which must be inferred, discovered, and translated
into conscious form in the manner that has been described. It is for such material
that we reserve the name of the unconscious proper. Thus we have attributed three
qualities to mental processes: they are conscious, preconscious, or unconscious.
The division between the three classes is neither absolute nor permanent. What is
preconscious becomes conscious, as we have seen, without any activity on our part;
what is unconscious can, as a result of our efforts, be made conscious, though in
the process we may have an impression that we are overcoming what are often very
strong resistances.
A lowering of resistances of this sort, with a consequent pressing forward of
unconscious material, takes place regularly in the state of sleep and thus brings
about a necessary precondition for the formation of dreams.
 48

It is by no means an exaggeration to assert that the concept of

the unconscious forms the central core in Freud’s theory of the structure and
dynamics of the human personality. And though the conscious self has an
important role to play in our lives, it is the unconscious self that holds the greatest
fascination for Freud, and which has the dominant influence in our personalities.
Freud’s focus on the unconscious self marks a significant departure from previous
efforts in philosophy to understand the nature of the self, and in so doing, it
challenges the traditional philosophical assumption that the self can be explored
and understood primarily through rational reflection and analysis.
b) LEVEL OF HUMAN FUNCTIONING
According to Freud, these two levels of human functioning the conscious and
the unconscious differ radically both in their content and in the rules and logic that
govern them. The unconscious contains basic instinctual drives including sexuality,
aggressiveness, and self-destruction; traumatic memories; unfulfilled wishes and
childhood fantasies; thoughts and feelings that would be considered socially taboo.
The unconscious level is characterized by the most primitive level of human
motivation and human functioning. At this level, the most basic instinctual drives
seek immediate gratification or discharge. Unheedful of the demands and
restrictions of reality, the naked impulses at this level are governed solely by the
“pleasure principle.”
Our unconscious self embodies a mode of operation that precedes the
development of all other forms of our mental functioning. It includes throughout
our lives the primitive rock-bottom activities, the primal strivings on which all
human functioning is ultimately based. Our unconscious self operates at a
prelogical and pre-rational level. And though it exists and influences us throughout
our lives, it is not directly observable and its existence can only be inferred from
such phenomena as neurotic symptoms, dreams, and “slips of the tongue.”
In contrast, the conscious self is governed by the “reality principle” (rather than
the “pleasure principle”), and at this level of functioning, behaviour and experience
are organized in ways that are rational, practical, and appropriate to the social
environment. Although the ultimate goals of the conscious self are the same as the
unconscious self the gratification of needs and the reduction of tensions to optimal
levels the means of achieving these goals are entirely different. Instead of seeking
these goals by means that are direct, impulsive, and irrational, the conscious self
usually takes into account the realistic demands of the situation, the consequences
of various actions, and the overriding need to preserve the equilibrium of the entire
psychodynamic system. To this end, the conscious self has the task of controlling
the constant pressures of the unconscious self, as its primitive impulses
continually seek for immediate discharge.
What is the evidence for this split-level, “two-self” model of functioning? Freud
believes that evidence of a powerful unconscious self can be found in the content of
our dreams, inadvertent “slips of tongue,” and techniques such as free association
 49

used by Freudian psychoanalysts in clinical treatment. However, the most

compelling evidence for an unconscious self is to be found in pathological, neurotic
behaviour.
From Freud’s standpoint, the neurotic symptom has three essential aspects: it
is a sign that the balance of forces within the personality system is disturbed; it is a
sign that infantile conflicts have been reactivated; and it is itself an attempt at a
spontaneous cure, an attempt at adaptation, although the individual may be worse
off with his or her neurotic adaptation than without it.
For example, an individual who experienced traumatic frustration, conflict, and
guilt cantering on his toilet training may “adapt” to this potentially threatening
situation by compulsively washing his hands several hundred times a day in an
effort to assuage his guilt and resolve his emotionally charged conflicts. Although
such an adaptation may forestall the disruption of his conscious level of
functioning by the anxiety generated by his unconscious conflicts and painful
emotions, from the standpoint of normal overall functioning, it could not be
considered to be a particularly successful one.
The following are the important psychological foundations of counselling:-
Individual difference: No two individuals are alike they differ in physical,
intellectual, emotional &social characteristics. It means that they differ in physical
strength, endurance, sensory capacities, intelligence, interests, aspirations, habits,
philosophy of life and other traits of personality. Everybody cannot do everything
with equal efficiency. To provide for maximum development of individual,
counselling is essentially required for all and particularly for exceptional children.
Variations within the Individual: Variations within the individual are
significant. Not only is each individual different from other individuals, he is
variable in many characteristics within himself. He may have higher degree of
intellectual maturity &still be immature socially, morally and in certain intellectual
traits. Moreover individuals vary from day to day. The responsibility rests upon the
teacher who has daily and hourly contact with him. Because of variations within
the individual, organized counselling programme is essential.
Complexity of Individual: Personality of the individual is complex. The
complexity of the individual as well as that of educational courses, activities & jobs
makes it imperative that there should be some reliable and well organized service
which guides the individual and helps him in knowing which course. Job or activity
is most suitable to him.
Psychological Problems: Psychology has revealed that failures,
disappointments, blocks, barriers and problems in life generate frustrations,
conflict, tensions, stresses, strains which result into maladjustments &several
kinds of behavioural problems. It is essential to provide counselling to youth & save
them from stresses & strains of a developing society.
 50

Psychological needs: A person is not a merely biological organism with

physical needs of food, clothing &shelter but he is also a social & psychological
being, having social and psychological needs. If these needs are not satisfied he
becomes the victim of conflicts, frustrations &maladjustments.
c) IMPORTANT PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
1. Need independence & self-esteem.
2. Need of belongingness &love.
3. Need for information.
4. Need for association with opposite sex.
5. Need for self-support.
6. Need for Success.
7. Need for self-actualization.
d) Goal directed Behaviour
Goal-directed behaviour is based on representations of contingencies between a
certain situation (S), certain (re)action (R) and a certain outcome (O). These S-R-O
representations enable flexible response selection in different situations according
to the currently pursued goal.
Goal-directed behaviour depends on our capacity to evaluate the consequences
of our actions so that we can choose an optimal plan. Evidence that certain types
of PREFRONTAL CORTEX(PFC) damage impair this process comes from a gambling
task. The subject has to choose cards from four different decks. Some cards win the
subject some money, but others cause the subject to lose money. Unbeknownst to
the subject, cards from two of the decks will occasionally win large amounts of
money but are also occasionally associated with very large losses. Thus,
consistently choosing from these decks will lead to a net loss. In contrast, if the
subject chooses from the other two decks, he or she will win smaller amounts, but
the losses are also smaller, so that overall the subject will obtain a net profit.
Control subjects quickly learn to limit their choices to the profitable decks, whereas
patients with PFC damage, particularly of the orbital region, continually choose
from the decks associated with large rewards and larger losses until they lose all
their money.
e) Learning Principles
Principles of learning include readiness, exercise, effect, primacy, recency,
intensity and freedom. Readiness implies a degree of willingness and eagerness of
an individual to learn something new. Exercise states that those things most often
repeated are best remembered.
One criticism of systemic psychotherapy is that it neglects the past perspective
when addressing issues. In some cases, looking at an individual’s history with a
mental health concern may be crucial to reaching a solution.
 51

The LAWS OF LEARNING, which seem generally applicable to

the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested, and used in
practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn
most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws of
learning:" readiness, exercise, and effect. Since Thorndike set down his basic three
laws in the early part of the twentieth century, five additional principles have been
added namely.., recency, intensity, freedom and requirement.
The principles of learning have been presented as an explanation for why
learning games (the use of games to introduce material, improve understanding, or
increase retention) can show such incredible results.This impacts flow and
motivation and increases the positive feelings toward the activity, which links back
to the principles of exercise, readiness, and effect. Games use immersion and
engagement as ways to create riveting experiences for players, which is part of the
principle of intensity. Finally, part of the primary appeal of games is that they are
fun. Although fun is hard to define, it is clear that it involves feelings such as
engagement, satisfaction, pleasure, and enjoyment which are part of the principle
of effect.
f) Developmental Needs at different stages
Developmental needs/disabilities are a group of conditions involving
impairment in physical, learning, language, or behaviour areas. The conditions we
list below can affect everyday living and some may last throughout a person's
lifetime.
The eight developmental needs of the Child are.., 1) Security. Kids must feel
safe and sound, with their basic survival needs met: shelter, food, clothing, medical
care and protection from harm. 2) Stability. Stability comes from family and
community. 3) Consistency. 4) Emotional support, 5) Love, 6) Education, 7) Positive
role models, 8) Structure.
Positive youth development research emphasizes the importance of meeting the
four basic human needs of belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity.
Identify Development Needs
a) Examine Ratings. The supervisor and employee should review the
performance ratings for each of the areas on the HR form and identify
those areas that are below expectations.
b) Discuss Weaknesses.
c) Identify Assignments.
d) Determine On the Job Training Needed.
e) Identify Training Programs.
f) Create an Action Plan.
3.3.4 SOCIO- CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF COUNSELLING
It studies about how a man functions in social settings. In counselling, we deal
with individual and their problem. Unless, we know about the society, we cannot
 52

solve the problem. Thus, the counsellor should know the culture and values of the
society in which he is practicing counselling. Values, beliefs, systems acquired from
the society can be useful in providing counselling.
Counselling respects values, beliefs, systems of the client. Sociology teaches
about the uniqueness about all these aspects. It also teaches about the various
aspects of life.
Each culture and system is different from the other; hence what is right in one
culture may be wrong in another culture. Hence counselling must be based on the
values of the client and not of the counsellor. Eg: Children sleeping with parents is
accepted in India. But in the west it is not accepted.
The society is fast changing. Traditional mores, modes of living, conventions,
costumes, values, norms & ideology are breaking down. Human interrelations are
in a state of flux. Although need of help has always been there but social and
economic changes for the past one century and especially past six decades have
intensified the need of systematic counselling. The following are the important
socio-cultural foundation of counselling
Democratic Socialistic pattern of society: India has opted for a secular &
democratic socialistic pattern of society. The success of secularism & democracy
depends on reshaping & reconstructing people of the society
Land of diversities: India is a land of different castes, communities’ languages,
religions & cultures. The need of the country is to help her citizens to find out
‘Unity in diversity’ & to develop a sense of national solidarity transcending narrow
loyalties.
Changes in the world of work: The world of work is also changing at a very
fast speed. New and new kinds of jobs are being created. Even traditional jobs are
changing their nature. They call for different qualifications & skills. For example..,
Computerization, I.T and management training have changed the requirement of
employments in various offices & industrial organization.
Complex nature of society: Startling changing have taken place in our entire
social, economic, educational & political system. The process of consumption,
production, distribution &exchange has become very complex & intricate & we are
beset with problems &problems. It has become difficult for an individual to achieve
satisfactory results without the help of counselling.
Changed family patterns: The socio economic problems of the home, the
philosophy of parents, the attitudes and fears of parents about children, parental
desires and ambition, parental treatments given to children, parental emotional and
social maturity all have a strong bearing on the development of young high school
pupils. Their problems grow from these components of home.On the other hand
philosophy of parental life is also changing. The changes in the parental attitudes &
philosophy are seen in the form of lack of supervision &control of their wards. The
home influences the emotional developments of students in many ways.
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Changes in social conditions: Government policies increasing the cost of

living, increasing unemployment etc. Counselling is required to help them to face
these problems and challenges squarely without expression of stress & Strain.
3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Systems theory has been applied in the field of Social Work.
2. Dialogue is constructed to build knowledge, strength, and support for
an entire entity.
3. All human beings have a special type of dignity
4. Counselling helps the individual in knowing his talents
5. Freud’s view of the self was multitiered, divided among the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious.
6. The Basic instinctual drives seek immediate gratification or discharge.
Unheedful of the demands and restrictions of reality, the naked
impulses at this level are governed solely by the “pleasure principle.”
3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is Social System?
2. Define the Self.
3. What is Super Ego?
4. What is Pleasure Principle?
5. Explain is Dignity?
6. What are the developmental Needs?
3.6 SUMMARY
The father of Psychology Sigmund Freud has contributed more in the
theoretical foundations of psychiatric social work. The concept of self is still used in
social work practice in the social work aspects. Conscious of Mind also using in the
Case Work practice for understanding the Individuals better in the short period
time. The systems theory directs the professional towards earmarking the peaceful
environments and removing the blocks in the behaviours and attitude for adjusting
with the all members. It is not a easy task to create the environment unless one
who sound in the knowledge aspects of Social Systems.
3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the Psychological Foundations in Counselling with a field
examples..
2. How to secure the individual dignity when he/she is under stress?
3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Community Health & Community Mental
Health and Counselling.
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3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define the Pleasure Principle as per Freud and its applicability in
Medical & Psychological Social work practice.
2. Bring out the important Psychological needs and state its usages.
3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Adams, K. M., Hester, P. T., & Bradley, J. M. (2013). A historical
perspective of systems theory. Industrial and Systems Engineering
Research Conference.
2. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology - 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
3. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Counselling,Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
4. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, SagePublications, New Delhi
5. Zastrow H. Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study your client when you reporting for field practicum as per this
Chapter?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Counselling
and conducted by your university or any other educational Institutions.
3.12 KEY WORDS
Concept of Self, Social System, Dignity, Goal-Directed Behaviour,
Developmental Needs,


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LESSON – 4
PERSONAL GROWTH AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE COUNSELLOR
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Personal growth is a process that takes place over the course of your life. As
you grow and evolve, you learn to adjust to changes in yourself. Some people never
want to change. However, change promotes happiness, mental strength, and
emotional resilience. Therefore, gradual change must be part of your life. If you are
open and honest with yourself each day you will learn more about yourself and the
world you live in. Your personality will adjust and adapt in order to cope with
yourself and your environment. Change is a necessary part of living.
Aspects of the self that develop over time and may need your attention are self-
esteem, perfectionism, and impulsive behaviour. The adjustment to college life is
also a catalyst for personal growth and change.
Some people want to change too fast, but real change takes time. Just as a tree
needs a root system to stand firm and tall, your personality needs roots in
experience that help you to decide the kind of person you would like to be. Be
patient when you wish for changes in yourself. It takes time to amass enough
experience to draw upon in order to decide what you like about yourself and what
you would like to change. Changing too much too fast or not changing at all may
not help you develop your personality. When you become aware of a need to
change, be flexible enough to change, but be gradual about it.
Personal development helps ensure that the counsellor is competent and
ethical in dealing with his/her client. (Johns, 1996). Through ongoing self-reflection
and self-care, he is more capable of building relationships with his clients that are
beneficial to them rather than to his own self.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
 To facilitate the students of Social Work to understand the personal
growth and effectiveness of the counsellor.
4.3 CONTENTS
4.3.1 Personal Growth and Effectiveness of the counsellor.
4.3.1.1 Personal Growth
4.3.1.2 Effectiveness of the Counsellor
4.3.1.3 Factors Influencing Personal Growth and Effectiveness of the
Counselling
1. Attitudes
2. Values
3. Beliefs
4. Relationships
5. Self-Esteem
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6. Openness to Others
7. Other Factors
4.3.1 PERSONAL GROWTH AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE COUNSELLOR
4.3.1.1 Personal Growth
Personal growth is a process of self-exploration and skill building which can
improve a persons’ overall quality of life. It can be applied to all aspects of a person;
emotional, social, mental, physical and spiritual, and these skills can be used at
any point throughout life. It uses many aspects of coaching and counselling to
improve awareness, self-understanding, nurture relationships and sharpen
abilities. Personal growth is about uncovering exactly what is important to you and
developing skills that will contribute to these values.
Many people feel stuck at different points in their lives. This can mean trapped
in a career or a life situation, or simply stuck with a feeling of discontentment. It
can be confusing and frustrating, and the reasons for these feelings can be
unknown. Sometimes a person may be accomplishing all that they set out to
accomplish, but are not experiencing the enjoyment they previously assumed they
would. This can be relevant to relationships, career, personal identity, spirituality,
sports and fitness, and personal finance. Personal growth counselling is
appropriate for anyone experiencing a lack of fulfilment. It can also be of great
benefit to anyone wishing to improve their effectiveness and maximize their
capacity for the enjoyment of life.
The Personal growth counselling will do the 1) Improving self esteem 2)
Developing assertiveness 3) Building confidence 4) Improving effectiveness 5) Self-
understanding 6) Anger management techniques 7) Dealing with loneliness 8)
Overcoming confusion
Each person is shaped by a different set of skills, beliefs, and experiences. It is
important that individuals strive toward personal definitions of success and not
those set by others or by the environment. By bringing into cons what truly gives
you fulfilment and happiness into conscious light, we can develop goals that will
maximize your experience. It is also important for people to continually step outside
themselves and analyze objectively, which can be difficult.
Personal growth counselling will help a person maximize congruence: a state of
being where beliefs and values are aligned with speech and action. It will help a
person with self-understanding, capacity for achievement, and the ability to better
enjoy life at any instant. It is a lifetime journey, and by working on personal growth
in a professional environment, each person will take away skills that can be used at
any point in the future.
All counsellors and their Associates are able to work on personal growth issues
with their clients.
Personal growth is enhanced through a) Understanding self with relation to
others through social relationships (Zulu concept – a person is a person through
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other person) b) Loving and being loved (social, sexual, spiritual) c) Sense of
potential of self actualisation d) Creativity e) Mindscape to landscape
Personal growth as per the Concerns of Self
With regard to the self, the exploration and delineation of the nature of growth
and development is paramount to the foundation of humanistic theories. Rogers
(1951) posited that all organisms have a tendency to move in the direction of
growth, self-enhancement, and maturation, and all needs arise from this
fundamental need to grow. This striving leads to better functioning in life, and
represents movement towards greater autonomy and movement away from control
by external forces (Rogers, 1951).
According to Maslow’s theory of motivation, human beings have different kinds
of basic needs in life for which they seek satisfaction: (a) physiological needs, (b)
belongingness and love needs, (c) esteem needs, and (d) self-actualization. In order
for one to reach self-actualization, one must also have met his or her needs for the
earlier levels in the prescribed order.
Self-actualization as described by Maslow involves a person being true to his or
her own nature and reaching self-fulfilment via achieving greater levels of
congruence and consolidation. Maslow viewed healthy or self-actualized people as
embodying several characteristics, such as self- and other- acceptance (accepting of
all aspects of themselves and others, good or bad), spontaneity of expression,
having a continued appreciation and awe for the world around them, and
experiencing a general sense of goodwill and sympathy toward everyone, among
other desirable traits. In this view, humans are innately motivated to achieve their
potential and grow toward self-actualization.
More recently, Ryff (1989) stated: “optimal psychological functioning
requires…that one continue to develop one’s potential, to grow and expand as a
person. The need to actualize oneself and realize one’s potentialities is central to the
clinical perspectiveson personal growth”. Further, a fully-functioning individual is
seen as continually developing rather than reaching an end result of all problems
being solved. Counsellor Personal Growth and Personal Development Counsellor
training programs have long encouraged personal growth and development among
trainees.
Several books have been published that specifically address counsellor
personal development in relation to training. The underlying belief in many training
programs is that a counsellor needs to engage in self-awareness work and self-care
in order to help others do the same. However, despite the frequent mention of
personal development and personal growth in the literature, these terms have
historically been illdefined and are often used interchangeably.
Irving and Williams (1999) conceptually compared the terms, suggesting that
development was a neutral term that implies measurable changes relevant to
training experiences, and that growth implies positive change that is, by nature,
immeasurable. They further posited that personal development is a purposeful,
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specifiable, and structured activity that seeks to develop skills or qualities for the
purpose of increasing a trainee’s effectiveness professionally.
Irving and Williams (1999) argued that although personal growth also includes
a directional change toward a future outcome, it is a holistic process that focuses
on becoming a certain kind of person (i.e. a self-actualized person as described by
Maslow or Rogers) rather than gaining abilities or skills. Because the focus of this
study is personal growth, for the purposes of this study and for parsimony, the
definition of personal growth by Irving and Williams (1999) was adapted.
Thus, personal growth is seen as a holistic process of positive change
throughout the lifespan that is nonspecific in nature and encompasses all domains
of life (e.g. career, academic, interpersonal, emotional, spiritual, etc.). Personal
development is further seen as a facet of personal growth.
Professional Growth and Development several scholars and researchers have
suggested that personal and professional development and growth are inextricably
linked. Indeed, Wilkins (1997) attested that personal development and professional
development are related and sometimes inseparable elements of the process of
counsellor development.
Donati and Watts (2005) defined professional development as a range of
specific activities directed at the maintenance and development of therapeutic
effectiveness, such as conferences, workshops, continuing review of developments
in the field, supervision, and other practices. Because the current study aimed to
explore personal growth directly rather than professional growth, the definition of
professional development by Donati and Watts (2005) sufficed for this study.
Further, because the following research reviewed makes no distinction between
professional growth and professional development, both were treated as the same
for the purposes of this study.
Although most professional development research tends to focus on one’s
training, more recent research has supported the notion that professional growth
and development is a lifelong process rather than being bound by one’s years in
training and early professional career. A descriptive study by Orlinsky et al. (1999)
of 3,958 psychotherapists of various experience levels found that most counsellors
reported that they currently experienced growth regardless of years of experience.
More specifically, the majority of counsellors at everycareer level ranging from zero
years up to 52 years of practice perceived that they currently experienced growth as
counsellors in terms of improvement of skills, a deepening of understanding of
therapy, and overcoming limitations as a therapist
Differentiation of Self
Kerr and Bowen (1988) further defined differentiation of self as “the ability to be
in emotional contact with others yet still autonomous in one’s emotional
functioning”. Complete differentiation in a person is manifested by attaining
emotional maturity and fully resolving the emotional attachment to his or her
family of origin. An individual who is highly differentiated will listen without
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reacting, communicate without antagonizing others, tolerate intense feelings

without trying to alleviate them, and be relatively autonomous.
However, Kerr and Bowen (1988) noted that the capacity for autonomous
functioning “does not mean a person lacks emotions and feelings. It means that
while the person may respond to input from others on an emotional, feeling, and
subjective level, he has the capacity to process these responses on an objective
level”. Conversely, one who is low in differentiation will be emotionally needy, highly
reactive to others, and unable to differentiate between thoughts and feelings. These
individuals will also be less able to adapt to stress in their lives and will experience
poorer relationships and more chronic anxiety.
4.3.1.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE COUNSELLOR
Effective counselling helps relieve distress, build resilience, improve self-
esteem, and ultimately improve lives. The more successful this process is, the
easier it is to prove misconceptions wrong and see and accept therapy and
counselling in their true light.
Strong emotions like depression, anxiety and anger are at the root of why so
many people seek help from General Physicians, counsellors, psychotherapists or
clinical psychologists.At any one time millions of people in the UK suffer from the
negative effects of these emotions.
Despite their training, and good intentions, many professionals are not good at
dealing with the disruption that out of control emotions cause their clients. Some
common forms of counselling, for example, are known to make depression and
anxiety disorders worse. Conversely, the right type of counselling is known to be
more effective than drug treatments for all of these conditions.
Human givens therapy is in this category of counselling. It offers effective and
practical help for people who are depressed, anxious, phobic, or suffering from
trauma, addiction, anger disorders or relationship problems. It is effective because
it draws on findings from psychology and neurobiology about how people really
function, as well as international research studies that have established which
counselling techniques are most effective.
Effectiveness of counsellor comprises of a) Self contentedness (sense of
commitment and respect to others) b) Sensitive and alert (with good experience) c)
Rapport building d) Having faith in dignity and worth of individual e) Non
judgementalf) Self - exploration and client exploration g) Empathy with focus h)
Efficacy (effectiveness, worth) and speed i) Catalyze the client j) Should not be bossy
k) Broad repertoire (collection, gamut) of techniques (matching models & needs).
In addition to counsellor personal growth, professional development, and self-
care, attending personal counselling may contribute to counsellor self-efficacy.
Therapists need to be aware of their own level of differentiation of self from family of
origin and work on becoming more differentiated to prevent doing harm to clients.
Thus, counsellors are encouraged to attend therapy or engage in personal work to
increase their levels of differentiation of self. In addition, several scholars have
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suggested counsellor personal therapy as a way to maintain psychological health.

Willingness to attend therapy reflects not only one’s attitudes towards seeking
professional help, but also has personal relevance.
McCarthy (2008) posited that counsellors have an obligation “to model self-care
behaviours, which include maintaining their own mental, physical, and spiritual
wellness and, when necessary, seeking help from others”. Indeed, counsellors
experience the same kinds of life stressors that other individuals do, and given the
traumatic nature of some of the stories that they hear in their practice, may be at a
greater risk for mental health problems resulting from burnout, counter-
transference, vicarious traumatisation and compassion fatigue.
4.3.1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONAL GROWTH AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE
COUNSELLING
1. Concerns of self
2. Attitudes,
3. Values
4. Beliefs,
5. Relationships
6. Self esteem
7. Openness to others
8. Accepting personal responsibility
9. Realistic level of aspiration
10. Self actualisation
1. Concern of Self
Rogers (1951) defined the self as an “organized, fluid, but consistent conceptual
pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the ‘I’ or the ‘me,’
together with values attached to these concepts”. One of the maxims in counselling
is that counsellors “can only take their clients as far as they have been
themselves,”. In other words, the counsellor’s self inherently influences the
counselling process: each counsellor brings his or her personal characteristics and
life experiences to the counselling session when working with clients.
The counsellor’s use of self is considered a tool and means by which clients can
grow and move towards psychological health, and is seen as an important part of
all counselling approaches. As a result, great responsibility is placed upon the
counsellor to develop and utilize several skills, attitudes, and abilities, such as the
ability to relate and/or emotionally attune to others.
In addition, counsellors are expected to develop a degree of self-awareness (and
confidence in their abilities to counsel effectively The goal of developing these skills
and abilities is to create practitioners who “feel well, think well, and act well” with
the underlying assumption that counsellors who exhibit these attitudes and/or
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develop these qualities are more effective with clients than those who do not value
this kind of development.
2.Attitudes
In psychology, attitude is a psychological construct, a mental and emotional
entity that inheres in or characterizes a person, or their attitude is their approach
to something, or their personal view on it. Attitude involves their mindset, outlook
and feelings. An attitude is "a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings,
and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or
symbols".
ABC Model of Attitudes
A - Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about
the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders”.
B- Behavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have
influences on how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if
I see one”.
C- Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an
attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”.
This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes.
One of the underlying assumptions about the link between attitudes and
behaviour is that of consistency. This means that we often or usually expect the
behaviour of a person to be consistent with the attitudes that they hold. This is
called the principle of consistency.
The principle of consistency reflects the idea that people are rational and
attempt to behave rationally at all times and that a person’s behaviour should be
consistent with their attitude(s).
3.Values
Values are internalized cognitive structures that guide choices by evoking a
sense of basic principles of right and wrong, a sense of priorities, and a willingness
to make meaning and see patterns. Like other cognitive constructs, values can be
studied at the individual level or at the group level.Essentially, psychology helps
people in large part because it can explain why people act the way they do. With
this kind of professional insight, a psychologist can help people improve their
decision making, stress management and behaviour based on understanding past
behaviour to better predict future behaviour
Types of values include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious,
political) values, social values, and aesthetic values.
4.Beliefs
Beliefs are our brain's way of making sense of and navigating our complex
world. They are mental representations of the ways our brains expect things in our
environment to behave, and how things should be related to each other the
patterns our brain expects the world to conform to.
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Various kinds of Beliefs are 1) Meta: beliefs about beliefs. 2) Perceptions: beliefs
about how the world seems to be, based on the evidence I have. 3) Opinions: beliefs
about how I should interpret reality. 4) Predictions: beliefs about how I think things
will end up in the future based on what I know now.
5.Relationships
The social worker client relationship is the vehicle in which empathy is
conveyed, care is provided, experiences are shared, belonging is created, and
meaning making occurs. The Social Work relationship is the dynamic interaction of
feelings and attitudes between the caseworker and the client, with the purpose of
helping the client achieve a better adjustment between himself and his
environment.
Relationship is termed as the basis of social casework. The relationship
between the caseworker and the client is of utmost importance. It is the principal of
life which vivifies the process of study, diagnosis and treatment and makes
casework a living, warmly human experience.
Relationship between client and counsellor
Counselling is not only about exploring core issues and gaining a different
perspective on problem and psychological difficulties. It is also about building a
rapport and trust with the counsellor, so that a client feels comfortable enough to
open up and voice their worries. This relationship is built on trust and
confidentiality, and can make all the difference between a positive and negative
counselling experience.
A professional relationship is an interpersonal connection between two or more
people in a place of business. Professional relationships are usually more formal
than relationships that exist outside of work.
Meaningful relationship is developed in social casework by demonstrating the
interests in client. He/she is convinced of the caseworker's warmth as an individual
and conveys respect and caring for him/her.
6.Self esteem
Self-esteem is how we value and perceive ourselves. It's based on our opinions
and beliefs about ourselves, which can feel difficult to change. We might also think
of this as self-confidence. Your self-esteem can affect whether you: Like and value
yourself as a person.
Self-esteem is confidence in one's own worth or abilities. Self-esteem
encompasses beliefs about oneself (for example, "I am loved", "I am worthy") as well
as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame.
The types of Self-esteem are
1. Low Self-Esteem. Low self-esteem is characterized by feelings of
inadequacy and worthlessness.
2. Healthy Self-Esteem. Healthy self-esteem is characterized by knowing
and celebrating your identity.
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3. Excessive Self-Esteem.
High self-esteem is not just liking yourself but generally affording yourself love,
value, dignity, and respect, too. Positive self-esteem also means believing in your
capability (to learn, achieve, and contribute to the world) and autonomy to do
things on your own.
SELF-ESTEEM GUILDING HABITS
Here are SIX self-esteem. Building habits you can use on a daily basis;
 Reward yourself
 Stop comparing yourself to others
 Laugh more
 Take care of yourself
 Do something for someone else
 Keep a diary of all the good things you notice about yourself
Parts of being human means that we are not perfect and that at times we will
all make mistakes, or do things of which we are not proud.
Generally self esteem can be influenced by your beliefs on the type of person
you are, what you can do, your strengths, your weaknesses and your expectations
of your future. There may be particular people in your life whose messages about
you can also contribute to your self esteem.
7.Openness to others
Openness in other words means being sincere to self, to the work and to
the client.While maintaining a professional focus a counsellor must be able to
show a genuine openness, within the counselling relationship. A client must feel
comfortable, safe and confident that confidentiality will be maintained at all times,
and also that the counsellor is committed to helping, encouraging and supporting.
Empathic understanding, and the ability to see things from the client’s perspective
is also important, as is the counsellor’s ability to demonstrate an investment of
their time and full attention. Showing empathy and genuineness encourages a
client to relax and trust. It also encourages client self-disclosure.
Maintaining warmth and understanding, without being judgmental, provides
the client with a comfortable foundation within the counselling relationship. A
counsellor should also show their own personality and ensure there is a friendly
atmosphere and attitude, in order for the counselling relationship to grow.
It means being able to reveal your fears, desires, and beliefs to both yourself
and others, despite any fear of being judged or rejected.If you describe a person or
their character as open, you mean they are honest and do not want or try to hide
anything or to deceive anyone. He had always been open with her and she always
felt she would know if he lied.
Open minded is a willingness to try new things or to hear and consider new
ideas. An example of an open minded person is one who listens to her opponent in
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a debate to see if the information makes sense or if she can change her mind.
Willing to consider new and different ideas or opinions
When you find the following qualities in client or member he/she is openness
to others. The qualities are .., approachable, impartial, observant, tolerant,
acceptant, acceptive, broad-minded, interested, perceptive, persuadable, swayable,
unbiased, understanding.
8.Accepting personal responsibility
Personal responsibility is when you take full accountability for your actions,
decisions and thoughts and more. When you hold yourself responsible, it leaves
little room for blame games, and you develop better control of your life. Being self-
responsible is being self-aware.Personal responsibility is the willingness to both
accept the importance of standards that society establishes for individual behaviour
and to make strenuous personal efforts to live by those standards.
Accept responsibility for your problems and attempt to handle them on
yourself. Take charge of your problems and try to handle them on your own. Admit
and apologize for the mistakes you made. Learn and adhere to the workplace's
norms and rules.
Accepting responsibility is crucial for success because it helps you work
through your mistakes without being weighed down by regret, guilt, or shame. It
also builds strength of character as a person becomes better at admitting they are
not perfect and doing what needs to be done to make up for their mistakes.
In essence, personal responsibility helps you take control of your choices and
your own perceived reality. Personal or individual responsibility is crucial because
it helps you regulate your life properly and prevents you from derailing your mental
and physical health.
9.Realistic level of aspiration
Effective Counsellors have realistic levels of aspiration. In general persons raise
their goals when they are successful and lower their goals in case of failure. In this
way they protect themselves from easy achievement and continued failure.
Sometimes this self protective mechanism is thrown out of balance. Sometimes they
set their goals either too high which results in inevitable failure, which robs them of
their sense of achievement. Effective counsellors on the other hand are able to set
achievable goals and learn to take failure at their stride. This is because they are
aware of their skills and abilities, so they can accurately estimate what to expect of
themselves. Their acceptance of experiences both positive and negative enables
them to evaluate their goals realistically and set attainable goals in future.
The level at which a person sets his significant goals; the level of performance
to which he aspires. An individual's aspiration level has an important bearing on
his personality and adjustment. It is a basic component of his self-image, the way
he appears in his own eyes.
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The level of aspiration may be connected to your sense of self-worth. Having

high goals can be motivating and may indicate that you have a strong belief in your
ability to achieve those ambitions. Low goals, on the other hand, can also lead to
low achievement and may indicate a lack of self-belief.
Starbuck, W. H. (1963) made an effort to introduce the level of aspiration
theory and economic behaviour. Behavioural Science plays an instrumental role
behind the measurement of level of individual and group’s aspirations.
Level of aspiration is customarily measured by means of a miniature-situation
test. For example, a person may be given a set of darts or marbles to shoot at a
target. He is asked to estimate his score and then is allowed to perform the task.
10. Self-actualization
Self-actualization is the realization of a person's full potential. It is found at the
peak of Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is considered the exception rather than
the rule since most people are working to meet more pressing needs.
Self-actualization, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, is the highest level of
psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic
bodily and ego needs have been fulfilled. Self-actualization is the complete
realization of one's potential, and the full development of one's abilities and
appreciation for life.
Counsellors are believed to be self actualising. They have the following
characteristic:
1. The self-actualized person has more efficient perception of reality and
more comfortable relations with it.
2. Acceptance of self, others, and nature.
3. The self-actualizing person has spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness.
4. Problem Centering. The self-actualizing person is someone who is
generally strongly focused on problems outside of himself.
5. The quality for detachment, the need for privacy.
6. Autonomy, independence of culture and environment. The self-
actualizing person is capable of doing things for himself and making
decisions on his own. He believes in who and what he is.
7. Continued freshness or appreciation.
8. A feeling of togetherness.
9. Interpersonal relations. Self-actualizing people have deeper and more
profound interpersonal relations than other adults.
10. Discriminating between means and ends, between good and evil.
Other Factors
These include: age, culture, marital status, education, economics, profession,
and the country or society itself. Understanding the gender roles in the community
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can help you to better understand the situation of the women and men you
counsel, and thus improve your counselling interactions.
4.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Personal growth is enhanced through understanding self with relation to
others through social relationships.
2. Self-actualization as described by Maslow involves a person being true to his
or her own nature and reaching self-fulfilment
3. Personal growth is seen as a holistic process of positive change throughout
the lifespan that is nonspecific in nature and encompasses all domains of
life.
4. Counsellors have an obligation “to model self-care behaviours, which include
maintaining their own mental, physical, and spiritual wellness.
5. Beliefs are our brain's way of making sense of and navigating our complex
world
5.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is Concept of self?
2. Define Perception?
3. Define Relationship in Social work Process?
4. What is openness to others?
5. Explain accepting personal responsibility?
5.6 SUMMARY
This unit mainly focus on Maslow theory of Needs and Starbuck theory on
aspiration level, so learners are advised to read all those theory in detail before
approaching this unit. This unit open the eyes of the all practitioners and trainees
in the aspect of how to handle the client and their environment.
5.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the various influencing factors on personal growth and effectiveness
of counselling?
2. As an extra study, the learner has been asked to present the Maslow
Hierarchy of needs as a assignment to the University.
5.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Counselling & Psychology and Industrial
Psychology.
5.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Being the student trainee how do you present yourself for the effectiveness of
counselling?
2. Bring out the developments for the counselling process and its growth and
submit as a assignments.
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5.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS

1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology - 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Counselling,Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling psychology,
SagePublications, New Delhi
4. Zastrow H. Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
5.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study your agency how they are conducting counselling process to the
needy as per this Chapter?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Counselling and
conducted by your university or any other educational Institutions.
5.12 KEY WORDS
Concerns of Self, Attitudes, Values, Beliefs, Professional Relationships.

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LESSON – 5
THEORETICAL APPROACHES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The counsellor may feel that he must help the counselee to have more trust in
counsellor so that counselee can become less anxious and not avoid expressing
something significant. Counselling aims at helping the clients understand and
accept themselves “as they are”, such that they are able to work towards realizing
their potential. Often this requires modification of attitudes, outlook and behaviour.
The client is received without any reservations and he is helped to state his problem
and explore the possible solutions. Counselling aims at helping individuals reach a
stage or state of self-autonomy through self understanding, self-direction and self-
motivation.
F.C. Thorne, who is the exponent of this view, finds that it is possible for a
counsellor to alternate between directive and non-directive methods even in the
same interview without disrupting the non-directive permissive relationship with
the client. He selects the techniques according to the requirements of the situation
and the individual. The counsellor must be competent and proficient in the use of
all available methods. The validity of the results is determined by the skill with
which any method is used. The critical factor is not what method is used but rather
the skill with which it is used.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
 To facilitate the students of Social Work to understand the theoretical
approaches of counselling
5.3 CONTENTS
5.3.1 Humanistic Approach
5.3.2 Client Centred Approach
5.3.3 Transactional Analysis
5.3.4 Rational Emotive Approach
5.3.5 Cognitive Approach
5.3.6 Eclectic Approach
5.3.7 Family Therapy
5.3.8 Behavioural Approach
5.3.9 Other Approaches
5.3.10 Psycho-Social Approach
5.3.1 HUMANISTIC APPROACH
Psychology was initially based on 2 perspectives. Namely, the behaviourist
perspective is based on the school of thought which implies that human behaviour
is conditioned due to its interaction with the environment around them. The second
pillar of psychology is the Psychodynamic approach, where psychologists believe
that unconscious forces or unaddressed thoughts mould the behaviours of the
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individual and was more inclined towards dream analysis, childhood traumas, etc.
And the third force in psychology is Humanism or Humanistic approach which was
born out of rebellion, as psychologists considered the former two approaches to be
limited in their scope and sometimes detrimental to individuals’ issues.
Behaviourist perspective is based on the school of thought which implies that
human behaviour is conditioned due to its interaction with the environment around
them.
The humanistic approach expanded its footprints in the 1950s. This theory was
more focused on the good side of humans, rather than on the past experiences or
pathological impacts. Carl Rogers developed this person-centred approach, with
Abraham Maslow, who went on to study the need for self-actualization, after Carl
Rogers coined the term “actualizing tendency.”
The humanistic approach focuses on the persons present rather than his past.
Humanistic counsellors treat the patients as clients on an equal level to that of the
counsellor. This theory holds a person inherently good and tries to understand a
person’s goals and steers them towards self-awareness. Carl Rogers, who developed
this theory, believes that every person controls their destinies.
Humanistic therapy is a mental health approach that emphasizes the
importance of being your true self in order to lead the most fulfilling life. It's based
on the principle that everyone has their own unique way of looking at the world.
This view can impact your choices and actions.
Humanistic therapy describes a range of different types of therapy that focus
on a person as an individual with unique potential and abilities. Instead of
concentrating on what is wrong with people, this type of therapy is more focused on
helping them overcome their difficulties through personal growth.
Humanistic approaches to counselling are particularly concerned with
process, emphasizing the person of the client, the person of the counsellor, and the
therapeutic relationship. Process and outcomes in humanistic interventions are
highly related and complementary aspects of counselling.
For example, a child will create their own condition of worth by understanding
behaviour that they are the recipient of as well as behaviour that they see. This
helps them understand how they can deserve positive emotions and whether they
deserve those emotions from others.
The therapist/counsellor forms a close relationship with the client so that they
feel comfortable to open up without the feeling of being judged. The various types of
Humanistic Counselling are Gestalt therapy, Reality therapy, transpersonal
therapy, Human Givens Psychotherapy and many more.
GESTALT THERAPY:
A counsellor, specializing in Gestalt Therapy, focus on making the individuals
more self-aware about their emotions and feeling, rather than digging deep into the
cause of those feelings. Previous theories focused on identifying the cause of the
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feelings , but Gestalt Therapists focus on the here and now of the client. Gaining
self-awareness is at the core of Gestalt Therapy.
PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY
A person-centred approach is also known as Client-Centred therapy. In this
type of counselling the focus is laid on the individuals self-worth and value, so that
they can accept themselves and reconnect with themselves on all the realms of life.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Transactional analysis identifies three ego states, namely Child ego, Parent ego
and Adult ego. These ego states run through every relationship that the client
establishes with other people in his life. This counselling approach , helps the client
to align with his acting and thinking skills. It encourages them to think about the
past decisions they made and how those decisions and choices influence their
today.
The Humanistic Counsellor
Humanistic counsellors are expected to be non-judgmental, be able to see the
client’s world through the clients’ eyes and have unconditional positive regard
towards their clients. They focus on the clients past, present and future,
collectively, instead of focusing on a certain issue or incident. The humanistic
counsellors are expected to make the client comfortable by providing them a safe
environment, so that it becomes easy for them to open up.
Therapists allow their clients to look back at their life in retrospect, and value
their own selves and believe in their innate goodness. Humanistic counsellors
believe that problems are not caused by life events, but by the way we handle and
perceive them! This perception influences are self-esteem and behaviour. Carl
Rogers has said that “It is the client who knows what hurts, what direction to go,
what problems are crucial, what problems have been deeply buried.”
Humanistic counsellors therefore help people accept all the good, bad and ugly
sides of the life and their personality, so that they can be at peace with themselves,
thereby working out on their own solutions towards their problems.
Benefits of Humanistic Counselling.
1. Humanistic therapy can be used to treat many psychological problems,
like schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, alcoholism, etc.
2. Humanistic approach can also help people who are feeling lost or are low
on self esteem or dealing with relationship issues or family issues.
3. Studies state that like other psychological therapies , humanistic therapy is
effective in bringing about positive self change and stable thought process
over time.
4. It also has been proven to enhance workplace creativity and emotional
interactions.
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Specialist Knowledge
Counsellor’s specialising in providing clients with humanistic counselling are
skilled in offering a non-judgmental, supportive and understanding service, in a
safe and confidential environment.
There are many different types of humanistic counselling, all of which involve a
close counselling relationship between the counsellor/therapist and the client.
These include Gestalt Counselling, Transactional Analysis, Transpersonal
Psychology, Depth Therapy and Humanistic Psychotherapy, to name but a few.
The humanistic approach in psychology developed as a rebellion against what
some psychologists saw as the limitations of the behaviourist and psychodynamic
psychology. The humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in
psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviourism (Maslow, 1968).Humanism
rejected the assumptions of the behaviourist perspective which is characterized as
deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behaviour and heavily
dependent on animal research.
Humanistic psychology also rejected the psychodynamic approach because it is
also deterministic, with unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining
human thought and behaviour. Both behaviourism and psychoanalysis are
regarded as dehumanizing by humanistic psychologists.
Humanistic psychology expanded its influence throughout the 1970s and the
1980s. Its impact can be understood in terms of three major areas:
1. It offered a new set of values for approaching an understanding of human
nature and the human condition.
2. It offered an expanded horizon of methods of inquiry in the study of
human behavior.
3. It offered a broader range of more effective methods in the professional
practice of psychotherapy.
Behaviour therapy. This approach focuses on learning's role in developing
both normal and abnormal behaviours.
1. Ivan Pavlov made important contributions to behaviour therapy by
discovering classical conditioning, or associative learning. Pavlov's famous
dogs, for example, began drooling when they heard their dinner bell,
because they associated the sound with food.
2. "Desensitizing" is classical conditioning in action: A therapist might help a
client with a phobia through repeated exposure to whatever it is that causes
anxiety.
3. Another important thinker was E.L. Thorndike, who discovered operant
conditioning. This type of learning relies on rewards and punishments to
shape people's behaviour.
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4. Several variations have developed since behaviour therapy's emergence in

the 1950s. One variation is cognitive-behavioural therapy, which focuses on
both thoughts and behaviours.
Cognitive therapy. Cognitive therapy emphasizes what people think rather
than what they do.
1. Cognitive therapists believe that it's dysfunctional thinking that leads to
dysfunctional emotions or behaviours. By changing their thoughts, people
can change how they feel and what they do.
2. Major figures in cognitive therapy include Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck.
Humanistic therapy. This approach emphasizes people's capacity to make
rational choices and develop to their maximum potential. Concern and respect for
others are also important themes.
1. Humanistic philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Buber and Søren
Kierkegaard influenced this type of therapy.
2. Three types of humanistic therapy are especially influential. Client-
centered therapy rejects the idea of therapists as authorities on their
clients' inner experiences. Instead, therapists help clients change by
emphasizing their concern, care and interest.
3. Gestalt therapy emphasizes what it calls "organismic holism," the
importance of being aware of the here and now and accepting
responsibility for yourself.
4. Existential therapy focuses on free will, self-determination and the search
for meaning.
Integrative or holistic therapy. Many therapists don't tie themselves to any
one approach. Instead, they blend elements from different approaches and tailor
their treatment according to each client's needs.
CRITICISM OF HUMANISTIC APPROACH.
This approach has received criticism on all four squares of its existence, stating
that the theory is highly subjective, as it just has variables but no constants, which
makes it difficult to be researched. Such dynamic views of personality also do not
account for continuity in the behavioural changes of an individual and also ignores
society’s impact on the personality of an individual.
5.3.2 CLIENT CENTRED APPROACH
Person-Cantered approach, founded by Carl Rogers in the 1940’s, is based on
the belief that people have the capacity and the right to move toward self-
actualization. This approach views people as rational, forward-moving, and realistic
beings. He contended that negative, antisocial emotions are the result of frustrated
basic impulses. This approach views the client as their own best authority on their
own experience, and the client is fully capable of fulfilling their own potential for
growth.
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View of Human Nature

Rogers believed that people are essentially good. Humans are characteristically
positive, forward- moving, constructive, realistic and trustworthy. Each of us has
the innate ability to reach our full potential. As infants we are born with it, but
because of early experiences, we may lose our connection to it.
The self-concept we develop in response to our early experiences may tend to
alienate us from our true self. In this theory there is no such thing as mental
illness. It is just a matter of being disconnected from our self-potential. This
approach is often considered the most optimistic approach to human potential.
Rogers views the individual from a phenomenological perspective, which is
according to him the important aspect is the person’s perception of reality rather
than an event itself. His ideas are often referred to as “Self Theory”. The self is an
outgrowth of what a person experiences, and an awareness of self helps a person
differentiate him or herself from others.
Role of a Counsellor
The counsellor’s role is a holistic one. He or she sets up and promotes a climate
in which the client is free and is encouraged to explore all aspects of self. The
counsellor strives to develop a greater degree of independence and integration for
individuals in their surroundings and the people in their lives. Clients are prepared
to be open to the experience of counselling, to have trust in themselves, to evaluate
themselves internally, and pursue a willingness towards continued growth. Clients
will experience this technique differently depending on perceptions of both the past
and the possibilities of future events. Exploring a wider range of beliefs and feelings
help clients in this process. It helps clients to better appreciate who they are and
what they are capable of accomplishing.
Goals
The goals of person cantered counselling considers the client as a person, not
his or her problem. Rogers emphasises that people need to be assisted in learning
how to cope with situations. The client moves towards the goals of realisation,
fulfilment, autonomy, self-determination, and perfection by becoming more realistic
in their perceptions. The aim is to make them more confident, more self-directed,
more positively valued by themselves and less likely to be upset by stress. They
should be healthier, integrated, and well-functioning persons in their personality
structure.
Techniques
The counsellor as a person is vital to person cantered counselling. Counsellors
display openness, empathic understanding, independence, spontaneity,
acceptance, mutual respect and intimacy. They encourage clients to work toward
achieving these same conditions as ultimate counselling goals. The primary
techniques are the counsellor’s attitudes toward people in the following:
1) Unconditional positive regard: It means that the counsellor accepts the client
unconditionally and non-judgmentally. The client is free to explore all thoughts and
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feelings, positive or negative, without danger of rejection or condemnation.

Crucially, the client is free to explore and to express without having to do anything
in particular or meet any particular standards of behaviour to ‘earn’ positive regard
from the counsellor.
2) Empathic understanding: It means that the counsellor accurately
understands the client’s thoughts, feelings, and meanings from the client’s own
perspective. When the counsellor perceives what the world is like from the client’s
point of view, it demonstrates not only that that view has value, but also that the
client is being accepted.
3) Congruence: It means that the counsellor is authentic and genuine and
transparent to the client. There is no air of authority or hidden knowledge, and the
client does not have to speculate about what the counsellor is ‘really like’.
Rogers mentioned the following six core conditions for personality change:
 Two persons are in psychological contact.
 The client is in a state of incongruence.
 The counsellor is congruent and involved in the relationship.
 The counsellor experiences unconditional positive regard for the client.
 The counsellor experiences understanding of the client’s frame of
reference.
 The communication of empathic and positive regard is achieved.
Methods that help promote the counsellor client relationship include:
 Active and passive listening
 Reflection of thoughts and feelings
 Clarification
 Summarizing
 Confrontation of contradictions
 General or open leads that help client self exploration.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is considered one of the most influential psychologists
of the 20th century. He is best known for developing the psychotherapy method
called client-cantered therapy and as one of the founders of humanistic psychology.
Based on Ideas of Carl Rogers (1951),it is a Non-directive therapy which is mainly
focused on client and his/her environment. It has the following characteristics..,
1. Patient is called a client
2. Discrepancies arise between peoples “ideal” selves and their real self
3. People have resource and strength to solve their own problems.
4. They will do it with a little help from the therapist
5. The process of healing is shaped by the client
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6. Therapist helps by facilitating self-awareness in the client

7. This is done by nurturing a humane client-therapist relationship
Client centred therapist relationship qualities:
1. Therapist must have empathy for the client
2. Therapist must give sensitive, unconditional positive regard
3. Must not criticize and judge
4. Must be genuine
In humanistic counselling, the counsellor provides a deeper understanding of
the person and focuses on the client’s innate ability to love and grow. The
humanistic approach aims to help the client reach self-actualization, as referred by
Maslow and Rogers.
Humanistic therapies are based on the fact that humans gravitate towards
goodness, and can overcome obstacles and reach their goals with the right support.
According to Carl Rogers, “If we value independence, if we are disturbed by the
growing conformity of knowledge, of values, of attitudes, which our present system
induces, then we may wish to set up conditions of learning which make for
uniqueness, for self-direction, and self-initiated learning.”
Carl Rogers Self Theory
According to Rogers, we want to feel experience and behave in ways which are
consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our
ideal self. The closer our self-image and ideal self are to each other, the more
consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth.
Rogers suggested that receiving unconditional positive regard and pursuing
growth helps a person move toward greater congruence. Rogers believed every
person possesses a deep need to grow toward their potential, and that self-
actualization is at the core of motivation and behaviour.
According to Rogers, every individual has to actualize himself, Mentally healthy
persons have congruence between their experience and self-concept.
There are two important concepts related to this
1. Real Self (Self-image): It is what the person actually is in reality. It is inner
personality.
2. Ideal Self: It represents the ideal image developed by a person he/she would
like to be. It represents our dynamic ambitions and goals.
If there is congruence between the real self and ideal self it leads to adjustment.
If the ideal self and real self are congruent our self-concept is accurate.
Self-actualisation refers to the motive to realize our full potential as we strive to
be fully functioning individuals. A person with high self-worth can tolerate failure
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and cope with challenge of life while someone with low self-worth tends to avoid
challenges and cannot tolerate distress.
5.3.3 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS (TA)
Transactional analysis is another cognitive theory formulated by Eric Berne in
the early 1960s. He believed that the majority of our life experiences are recorded in
our subconscious minds in an unaltered fashion and become a part of the way we
behave. The behaviour is subconsciously designed to get reactions and determine
how others feel about us. It is a method of dealing with behavioural disorders and
can be used to manage classroom behaviour if we understand that children’s
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour is designed to ascertain how others feel
about them. He believed that there were three states of mind in all humans, no
matter how old they were, called the ego states. Berne believed that a lot of people
get stuck in one ego state more than the other two and that this may be due to
early childhood experiences. His theory was that in childhood we have a life
position assigned to us, because of the experiences we have from birth onwards.
He thinks there are four possible life positions:
 I’m not OK, You’re OK;
 I’m not OK, You’re not OK;
 I’m OK, You’re not OK;
 I’m OK, You’re OK.
Views of Human Nature
Transactional analysis is an optimistic theory based on the assumption that
people can change despite an unfortunate events of the past. It focuses on four
methods of understanding and predicting human behaviour:
 Structural analysis: understanding what is happening within the
person.
 Transactional analysis: describing what happens between two or more
people
 Game analysis – understanding transactions that lead to bad feelings
 Script analysis – understand a person’s life plan
Role of a Counsellor
The counsellor initially plays the role of a teacher. The counsellor helps the
client obtain the tools necessary for change in the present. Counsellors work on
tractually on solving “here and now” problems and focuses on creating productive
problem solving behaviours. Using transactional analysis, counselors establish an
egalitarian, safe and mutually respectful working relationship with their clients.
This working relationship provides tools which the clients can utilise in their day to
day functions to improve the quality of their lives.
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Goals
The primary goal of TA focuses on helping clients transform themselves from
“frogs” into “princes and princesses”.
Others goals are:
1. To learn the language and concepts underlying Transactional analysis,
2. To learn analyse relationships with one another in terms of TA, and
3. To develop our ability to engage in straight, effective communication
with one another on a daily basis.
Techniques
TA has initiated a number of techniques for helping clients to reach their goals.
The most common are structural analysis, transactional analysis, game analysis
and script analysis. Other techniques include: Treatment Contract, Interrogation,
Specification, Confrontation, Explanation, Illustration, Confirmation, Interpretation
and Crystallisation.
5.3.4 RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
Albert Ellis started Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in 1955. This technique
assumes that cognitions, emotions, and behaviours interact and have a reciprocal
cause and effect relationship. It is very directive and concerned as much with
thinking as with feeling. It also teaches that our emotions stem mainly from our
beliefs, evaluations, interpretations, and reactions to life situations. It is an
educational process in which clients learn to identify and dispute irrational beliefs
that are maintained by self-indoctrination and replace ineffective ways of thinking
with effective and rational cognitions.
View of Human Nature
RET assumes that we all are born with a potential for both rational and
irrational thinking. There is a biological and cultural tendency to think crookedly
and to needlessly disturb ourselves. Humans are self-talking, self-evaluating and
self-sustaining. We develop emotional and behavioural problems when we mistake
simple preferences (love, approval, success) for dire needs. There is a tendency to
invent disturbing beliefs and keep ourselves disturbed through our self-talk.
Humans have the capacity to change their cognitive, emotive, and behavioural
processes.
Role of a Counsellor
Counsellors are active and direct in this approach. They act as instructors who
teach and correct client’s cognitions. Therefore they must listen carefully for
illogical and faulty statements from the clients and challenge their beliefs. The
counsellor focuses on the thoughts and beliefs of the client trying to identify those,
which create problems. Ellis identifies several characteristics desirable for
counsellors.
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They need to be:

 Bright,
 Knowledgeable,
 Empathetic,
 Persistent, and
 Scientific.
Goals
The primary goal of RET is to focus on helping people realise that they can live
more rational and productive lives and to change the way clients think by using
their automatic thoughts to reach the core schemata and begin to introduce the
idea of schema restructuring. Another goal of RET is to help people change self-
defeating habits of thought or behaviour. One way of teaching them through ABC of
RET
A = existence of fact, event, behaviour, attitude of individual.
B = person’s belief
C = emotional & behavioural consequence or reaction of individual
D = disputing intervention-challenge beliefs
E = effective philosophy after disputing
F = new set of feelings
Human beings are largely responsible for creating their own emotional
reactions and disturbances. Goal is to show people how to change irrational beliefs
that directly “cause” disturbed emotional consequences.
Techniques
RET encompasses a number of diverse techniques. Two primary ones are
teaching and disputing. In the first few sessions, counsellors teach their clients the
anatomy of an emotion, that feelings are a result of thoughts, not events and that
self-talk influences emotion. Disputing thoughts take one of three forms: cognitive,
imaginal and behavioural. Cognitive disputation involves the use of direct
questions, logical reasoning, and persuasion. It also uses syllogisms, which are a
deductive form of reasoning. Imaginal disputation depends on the client’s ability to
imagine and explore a technique known as rational emotive imagery
(REI).Behavioural disputation involves behaving in a way that is opposite of the
client’s usual way. Two other powerful techniques are confrontation and
encouragement.
5.3.5 COGNITIVE APPROACH
The cognitive approach assumes that humans are thinking being. Humans can
think rationally, irrationally and commit errors in thinking. This approach views
that what people think about the experience or event determines their feelings and
actions. Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and Donald Meichenbaum are known as cognitive
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theorists. We will see Ellis and Beck in this section. The ineffective behaviour and
emotional problems are viewed as result of faulty thinking. Those who are effective
in dealing with the problems tend to put the experience at the higher level and
learn from them. Those who have ineffective thinking will focus on the negative
aspects and linger on those facts. Albert Ellis developed rational emotional
behaviour therapy and Aaron beck developed cognitive therapy.
Aaron Beck
Beck was trained in psychoanalysis but he did not get support for Freud’s
theory of depression. He found that basic problem in depression is faulty cognitive
processing. Beck theorised that many problems especially depression has origin in
negative beliefs toward self, world and future called as negative triad. The
Counsellor and client try to find out the reasons for the problem with the help of
this triad. Beck gave a cognitive model of emotional problem as given below.
Schema is a pattern of organising thoughts in a particular way. For example,
wetend to think that “ I should be perfect, if I make mistake it indicates that I am
unsuccessful”. Cognitive biases are distortions of facts. In other words cognitive
errors are the wrong interpretation that is given to the event.
There are 6 types of cognitive errors, which are (i) selective abstraction (ii)n
dichotomous thinking(iii) over generalisation (iv) magnification, (v) minimisation
and (vi) arbitrary inference.
These six cognitive errors are explained below:
Selective abstraction
Here the person focuses only on certain details and ignores the other details.
Suppose a mother arranges a surprise party for her son, and the son is not happy
with it. The error will be that the son will ignore the fact that his mother has taken
efforts to arrange a party, and would focus on the fact that his few friends were not
invited for the party and that this was done by his mother to show him in poor
colour.
Dichotomous thinking
Here the thinking is either or type. That is, the things are completely good or
completely bad. Example: the other person either loves me or he hates me. The
indifferent attitude is not considered.
Over generalisation:
This refers to arriving at a conclusion on the basis of very little information. For
example if you meet a single foreigner and he turns out to be arrogant then based
on this if you conclude that all the foreigners are the same, then you are
committing this error.
Magnification
This refers to the overestimation of a single event than the actual. For example,
if I fail to give good lecture it is magnified and concluded that I cannot deliver good
lecture.
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Minimisation
Minimising value of some event than what it actually is. For example if some
onedoes ten things for us, and forgets to do one, then if we focus on the one that is
not done. This error is committed in this case.
Arbitrary inference
Drawing conclusions that have no evidence. Example: having ideas about being
in other country as very unsafe, for which one does not have any evidence.
The negative triad affects on schema, schema affect on cognitive error and
again reverse effect. Thus emotional disturbances become more and more severe.
The techniques used for this counselling are as follows:
Persuasion:
In this the client is pushed in the direction to think which is more
appropriate to him.
Suggestion:
The counsellor gives the client about going in a particular way that is he
explores alternative that are available to the client.
Instruction:
Very clear cut and precise instructions are giving. In case of daily activity
scheduling of the client, he is given very clear instruction how to keep record and
what are the activities that he is supposed to complete. The change in the client
takes place through the cognitive restructuring. The first step towards this is by the
client’s description of the problem.
This gives the counsellor the understanding how the client is thinking. In this if
it is assessed if there are any negative/ dysfunctional or irrational thoughts that
are causing disturbance to the client’s life. In the second step these are explained to
the client. He is made aware about this. In the next step more adaptive alternative
patterns or structures are discussed between client and counsellor.
5.3.6 ECLECTIC APPROACH
It is a combination of Directive and Non directive counselling. The counsellor
can start with Directive but if and when the situation demands the counsellor may
switch over to non-directive counselling and vice-versa. It is flexible in nature.
Eclectic therapy is an approach that draws on multiple theoretical orientations and
techniques. It is a flexible and multifaceted approach to therapy that allows the
therapist to use the most effective methods available to address each individual
client's needs. Eclectic therapy is an approach that draws on multiple theoretical
orientations and techniques
The eclectic approach to therapy requires the therapist to tailor treatment to
the needs of the patient. It allows for a customized form of treatment, as the
therapist can deploy multiple methods for treatment.
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One of the early proponents of eclectic therapy, cognitive therapist Arnold

Lazarus, used the term “multi-modal” to describe his method, because he would
use different “modes,” or approaches to help different clients
An example of an eclectic program is when children spend a part of each day
receiving different therapies, such as structured teaching using methods of applied
behavior analysis (ABA), sensory integration and stimulation (brushing and
swinging), floortime procedures, music sessions, and free play with typical peers.
The eclectic approach helps in having a clearer vision for learners of what they
are learning. Teaching with this approach includes but is not limited to using
multiple tasks, lively learning and high interaction between students and teachers.
It does not lend itself to prediction and control of behaviour. It's difficult to
identify the relative contributions of each approach. Explanation of behaviour may
become "watered down" when combining many perspectives.
Eclectics use techniques, as mentioned above, from all schools of therapy. They
may have a favourite theory or therapeutic technique that they tend to use more
often or fall back on, but they are willing and often use all that are available to
them. After all, the main purpose here is to help the patient as quickly and as
effectively as possible. Eclecticism is not a new development. Psychoanalysis and its
derivatives were the first theories to develop and most of those therapists who were
not eclectic adhered to some form of psychoanalysis or psychodynamic therapy. The
so called Minnesota point of view of Patterson (1966, 1986) was an eclectic position.
The percentage of therapists who called themselves eclectic during the 1940’s and
1950’s is not known, however according to Kelly (1961) who conducted a survey
found 40% of the respondents identified themselves as eclectic. It appears that 50%
of the practitioners today claim themselves to be eclectic.
Most discussions of eclectic therapy involve combining two theories or
approaches and this is usually psychoanalysis and behaviour therapy. At the same
time it is stated that there are as many eclectic approaches as there are eclectic
therapists. Each therapist operates out of his or her unique set of techniques based
on the particular training, experience and beliefs. There are no specific guidelines
or principles for eclectic therapy. Yet it has been recognised for more than 5
decades (Patterson, 1989) that there are basic common factors or elements in the
diverse approaches to psychotherapy. The common factor at the simplest but
concrete level is that two persons talking to each other. The same therapy at the
abstract level can be considered as an interpersonal relationship in which the
therapist’s personality is the most important element. In between there are (i)
therapist behaviours such as expertise, authority, rapport, support etc., and (ii) the
therapist’s credibility, trustworthiness and attractiveness.
Certain common elements of therapy include catharsis, suggestion,
reassurance, persuasion, guidance, advice and direction. Yet some more elements
which may not be very common to all therapies include permissiveness, non
judgementalness, respect etc. Traux and Carkhuff (1967) pointed out three sets of
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characteristics which they called the central therapeutic ingredients and these were
i) The therapist’s ability to be integrated, mature, genuine and congruent ii) The
therapist’s ability to provide a non threatening, trusting, safe and secure
atmosphere by his acceptance, non-possessive warmth, unconditional positive
regard or love iii) The therapist’s ability to be accurately empathic, be with the
client, be understanding or grasp the patient’s meaning. It appears that there is a
general agreement that the relationship provided by the therapist is the basic
common characteristic of all approaches to psychotherapy.
Eclectic therapy is a method of that various techniques and teachings of
multiple therapeutics approaches. Hence, eclectic therapists seek to enhance their
therapeutic or techniques effectiveness by embedding appropriate principles from
different therapies orientations in order to produce right approaches to the clients.
For instance, an eclectic expert may apply behaviour therapy’s method to assist a
client extemporise specific maladaptive behaviours or utilize psychodynamic
techniques to help the client attain vision into the childhood history of the
situation.
5.3.7 FAMILY THERAPY
Family therapy (also referred to as family counselling, family systems therapy,
marriage and family therapy, couple and family therapy) is a branch of psychology
and clinical social work that works with families and couples in intimate
relationships to nurture change and development.
Family therapy is a type of psychological counselling (psychotherapy) that can
help family members improve communication and resolve. Family therapy can help
with a wide range of problems like marital problems, divorce, substance abuse and
alcohol abuse treatment, behaviour problems in children, families dealing with
major mental illness or emotional disorders, patients and families who care for
them etc.
A type of psychotherapy designed to identify family patterns that contribute to
a behaviour disorder or mental illness and help family members break those habits.
Family therapy involves discussion and problem-solving sessions with the family.
There are four types of family therapists most often utilized by
professionals: supportive family therapy, cognitive-behavioural therapy,
psychodynamic ideas and systemic family therapy. A Family Counsellor treats
married couples or family members in order to help them overcome mental or
emotional problems. They provide effective treatment measures to help the family
members resolve their issues. Family therapy helps family members understand
each other and work through difficult feelings in a safe space. This type of therapy
focuses on improving the interactions and communication between family
members.
There are five widely recognized family therapy modalities: Structural Therapy,
Milan therapy, Strategic Therapy, Narrative Therapy, and Trans-generational
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Therapy. These forms of therapy seek to improve familial relationships and create a
more stable, healthy life at home.
5.3.8 BEHAVIOURISTIC APPROACH
The term behaviour modification and behaviour therapy are often used
interchangeably, but they have slight different meanings. Behaviour modification is
an approach to assessment, evaluation, and behaviour change that focuses on the
development of adaptive, pro-social behaviours and the decrease of maladaptive
behaviour in daily living. Behaviour modification is used by therapists and
paraprofessional workers to help individuals improve some aspect of daily life.
Behaviour therapy is a clinical approach that can be used to treat a variety of
disorders, in various types of settings, and with a wide range of special population
groups. The behavioural approach had its origin in the 1950s and early 1960s and
it was a radical departure from the dominant psychoanalytic perspective.
Contemporary behaviour therapy arose simultaneously in the U.S., South Africa,
and Great Britain in the 1950s. In spite of harsh criticism and resistance from
traditional psychotherapists, the approach survived. Its focus was on
demonstrating that behavioural conditioning techniques were effective and were a
viable alternative to traditional psychotherapy. In the 1960s, Albert Bandura
developed social learning theory, which combined classical and operant
conditioning with observational learning. During the 1960s a number of cognitive
behavioural approaches sprang up, and they still have a significant impact on
therapeutic practice. It was during the 1970s that behaviour therapy emerged as a
major force in psychology and made a significant impact on education, psychology,
psychotherapy, psychiatry, and social work. In the 1980s behaviour therapists
continued to subject their methods to empirical scrutiny and to consider the impact
of the practice of therapy on both their clients and the larger society. Increased
attention was given to the role of emotions in therapeutic change, as well as the role
of biological factors in psychological disorders. Two significant developments in the
field were (1) the continued emergence of cognitive behavior therapy as a major
force (2) the application of behavioural techniques to the prevention and treatment
of medical disorders. By the late 1990s, there were at least 50 journals devoted to
behaviour therapy and its many offshoots. Behaviour therapy is marked by a
diversity of views and 2 procedures but all practitioners focus on observable
behaviour, current determinants of behaviour, learning experiences to promote
change, and rigorous assessment and evaluation. The four areas of development
are as follows:
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Social learning theory
4. Cognitive behaviour therapy
In classical conditioning (Pavlovian) certain respondent behaviours, such as
knee jerks and salivation, are elicited from a passive organism. The focus was on
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experimental analysis and evaluation of therapeutic procedures. Classical

conditioning (respondent conditioning) refers to what happens prior to learning
what creates a response through pairing. Ivan Pavlov illustrated classical
conditioning through experiments with dogs. Placing food in a dog’s mouth leads to
salivation, which is respondent behaviour. When food is repeatedly presented with
some originally neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, the dog will
eventually salivate to the sound of the bell alone. However, if a bell is sounded
repeatedly, but not paired again with food, the salivation response will eventually
diminish and become extinct. Another example is Joseph Wolpe’s systematic
desensitization.
Operant conditioning involves a type of learning in which behaviours are
influenced mainly by the consequences that follow them. If the environmental
changes brought about by the behaviour are reinforcing that is, if they provide
some reward to the organism or eliminate aversive stimuli, then the chances are
increased that the behaviour will occur again. If the environmental changes
produce no reinforcement or produce aversive stimuli, the chances are lessened
that the behaviour will recur.
B.F. Skinner contends that learning cannot occur in the absence of some kind
of reinforcement, either positive or negative. Reinforcement involves some kind of
reward or the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response. Reinforcement
takes place when the consequences of a behaviour increase the likelihood that the
behaviour will be repeated. For Skinner, actions that are reinforced tend to be
repeated and those that are not reinforced tend to be extinguished. The social
learning approach, developed by Albert Bandura and Richard Walters, is
interactional, interdisciplinary, and multimodal. Behaviour is influenced by
stimulus events, by external reinforcement, and by cognitive meditational processes
(thinking processes, attitudes, and values).
Social learning and cognitive theory involves a reciprocal interaction among the
environment, personal factors (beliefs, preferences, expectations, self-perceptions)
and 3 individual behaviour. A basic assumption is that people are capable of self-
directed behaviour change. For Bandura, self-efficacy is the individual’s belief or
expectation that he or she can master a situation and bring about desired change.
The theory of self-efficacy represents one of the first major attempts to provide a
unified theoretical explanation of how behaviour therapy and other psychotherapy
procedures work.
Cognitive behaviour therapy and many techniques, particularly those developed
within the last three decades, emphasize cognitive processes that involve private
events such as the client’s self-talk as mediators of behaviour change. Today,
current behaviour therapy tends to be integrated with cognitive therapy and is often
referred to as cognitive behaviour therapy. Today there are relatively few traditional
behavioural practitioners. In modern behavior therapy, the current view is that the
person is the producer and the product of their environment. Behaviour therapy
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aims to increase people’s skills so that they have more options for responding. By
overcoming debilitating behaviours that restrict choices, people are freer to select
from possibilities that were not available earlier. Thus, as behaviour therapy is
typically applied, it will increase individual freedom.
5.3.10 PSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH
A psychosocial approach to human behaviour involves the relation between
intrapersonal psychological and environmental aspects. Psychosocial
characteristics are commonly described as an individual's psychological
development in relation to his/her social and cultural environment.
Psychosocial counselling is the process of counselling an individual, family, or
group during one or more sessions to support the process of overcoming
environmental, emotional, or social problems that are affecting the health and well-
being of the Healthy Start participant and/or the infant's/child's family members.
5.4 REVISION POINTS
1. The humanistic approach focuses on the persons present rather than his
past.
2. Humanistic counsellors believe that problems are not caused by life events,
but by the way we handle and perceive them.
3. The client cantered approach views people as rational, forward-moving, and
realistic beings.
4. Receiving unconditional positive regard and pursuing growth helps a person
move toward greater congruence.
5. Family therapy is a type of psychological counselling (psychotherapy) that
can help family members improve communication and resolve.
5.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What does Self-Theory insist?
2. What is holistic therapy?
3. Define Ego?
4. What is Non-directive therapy?
5. What is defence mechanism?
5.6 SUMMARY
This unit mainly focus on theoretical approaches of counselling, psychology
and psychiatric social work. The learners are asked to do some extra effort to
practice all those concepts as per the theory to experiment in the field with
guidance and support from the faculty supervisors from the Annamalai University.
All therapies are useful for our personal life too. So keenly follow the concepts and
extend the counselling service voluntarily starts from your family and society
whenever the necessity you had. During the pandemic the telephonic counselling
has played a vital role for reducing the suicidal problems, personal problems, family
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problems, societal problems and many more. So kindly adhere all those principals
laid down in the theories for effectively follow with and do service for the society.
5.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How do you practis the Family therapy after attaining learning exposure
of this unit?
2. Find the major difference between two different theories as a class room
exercises with your batch mates.
5.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodicals related to Counselling & Psychology and
Industrial Psychology.
2. Follow the Govt. of India guidelines on pandemic situations which is
noticed in its websites.
5.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Being the Social Work Trainee how do you resolve the problem of the
client by using rhetorical principles of counselling?
2. How do you follow the concepts of Transactional Analysis into practice?
5.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology - 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Counselling,Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi
4. Zastrow H. Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
5.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study your agency how they are conducting counselling process to the
needy as per this Chapter?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Counselling
and conducted by your university or any other educational Institutions.
5.12 KEY WORDS
Transactional Analysis, Family Therapy, Holistic Therapy, Cognitive Errors

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LESSON – 6
COUNSELLING PROCESS & COUNSELLING INTERACTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The counselling process is a planned, structured dialogue between a counsellor
and a client. It is a cooperative process in which a trained professional helps a
person called the client to identify sources of difficulties or concerns that he or she
is experiencing. The counselling process has been described as both an art and a
science, helping to bring about changes in thought, emotion, and behaviour in.
In process of counselling, the goal is established by the client. He is encouraged
and assisted by the counsellor to be as specific about the goal as possible. The
more specific the goal, the easier the process. Since humans are generally
considered to be goal oriented, the more specific the goal, the more likely the client
and the counsellor will keep themselves on the path to that goal. The client
narrates their experiences and problems and thus creates a focus on their fear and
their goal in order to assist their mind to assist them. It is also of value to the
counsellor to guide them in identifying their fears and apprehensions. In the
process of identifying the fear the counsellor offers some alternatives while
attempting to avoid interfering in the clients’ decision. Some of the fears are a) a
fear of abandonment, b) a fear of rejection and c) a fear of not being enough.
Any personal, academic, or career concern may be explored in counselling.
During counselling, the client will be helped to clarify feelings and needs. The client
and the counsellor will work together to define realistic goals and explore available
options. As the client discovers ways to make changes, he will be better able to
direct his choices.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
 To instigate the students of Social Work to understand the counselling
process and its interaction methods.
6.3 CONTENTS
6.3.1 Counselling Process
6.3.2 Preparation for Counselling Process
6.3.3 Stages of Counselling Process
6.3.4 Contents in Counselling Process
6.3.5 Procedure in the Counselling Process
6.3.6 Counselling Interaction
- Core Conditions Necessary for Successful Counselling
6.3.1 COUNSELLING PROCESS
Counselling can help client learn to make better decisions. It can help improve
personal skills, develop greater confidence in the person’s academic or work
performance, define career directions and acquire a keener awareness and
appreciation of the client’s needs and those of other people. With counselling,
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clients can improve their communication with a special person, establish more
meaningful relationships, or cope more effectively with feelings of depression or
anxiety.
Any personal, academic, or career concern may be explored in counselling.
During counselling, the client will be helped to clarify feelings and needs. The client
and the counsellor will work together to define realistic goals and explore available
options. As the client discovers ways to make changes, he will be better able to
direct his choices.
Counselling is an active process, both during sessions and outside of
counselling, as the client implements new skills and insights. Depending upon the
intensity of concern(s), and level of involvement in making needed changes, clients
are generally able to resolve difficulties in four to eight counselling sessions. The
client’s personal commitment to helping him or herself is crucial to an effective
counselling process. Counsellors can help the clients only if they are willing to
receive help, attend scheduled sessions, and engage in new ways of thinking and
acting outside of the counselling setting.
Counselling is a process with a beginning, middle and an end, where the
counsellor facilitates an individual to consider the aspects of their life they wish to
change. The whole idea is to enable the client to explore a difficulty or distress
which they may be experiencing, assisted by the counsellor whose main role is to
facilitate the client to make his or her own decisions on how to proceed. It is not an
environment where the counsellor will say what has to be done or even give advice.
However, through this process the counsellor will endeavour to guide the client
from feeling a victim of circumstances to feeling that they have more control over their life. There are
different models of counselling, differing routes or tools to enable the client to change.
Transactional Analysis (TA) is a model for understanding personality,
relationships and communication. In TA counselling, people talk about their
Parent, Adult and Child. These are distinctive parts of us all, available and
necessary for living as a whole, integrated person. TA holds that every one has
intrinsic dignity and worth; they are ‘OK’. Everyone has the capacity to think.
There is a commitment to change, to making decisions and taking personal
responsibility for personal outcome. Clarifying the problem and the desired change
encourages the person to decide how they wish to be. Often unpacking one problem
may reveal its connection to another. When people start the process of counselling
they begin to experience the recurring patterns in their lives, to identify their
negative feelings and how they play games and thereby limit themselves. A decision
to make positive change is a further step. Someone may know what their goal is,
but they have to decide to take positive action to achieve that goal. The Counsellor
offers support and facilitation on the basis that the client has decided what he or
she feels.
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6.3.2 PREPARATION FOR COUNSELLING PROCESS

The basic steps of counselling involve people in:
 Gaining recognition for their skills and experience
 Being confronted, from a caring position, by the ways they used to
discount themselves and others
 Re-experiencing, in the present, any relevant events from the past. This
can help them to obtain emotional release from feelings or beliefs to
which they may be clinging, that are stopping them from meeting their
immediate needs. Emphas is given to feelings and thoughts, as stimuli
for action and change. Support, challenge and practice are essential to
enable all these steps to be achieved.
Counselling may comprise a few sessions, or it may take longer, but it does not
go on for ever. In the end, the clients are helped to find the tools to enable them to
think, feel and behave in the way they desire.
6.3.3 STAGES OF COUNSELLING PROCESS
Effective leaders use the counselling process. It consists of four stages:
1. Identify the need for counselling
2. Prepare for counselling.
3. Conduct counselling.
4. Follow up.
Counselling is a process that focuses on enhancing the psychological well being
of the client, such that the client is then able to reach their full potential. This is
achieved by the counsellor facilitating the client’s personal growth, development,
and self understanding, which in turn empowers the client to adopt more
constructive life practices. Counselling may be helpful in a number of ways. It can
enable the client to develop a clearer understanding of his or her concerns and help
the client acquire new skills to better manage personal and educational issues. The
counsellor can offer a different perspective and help the client to think of creative
solutions to problems. For the client, sharing his thoughts and feelings with
someone not personally involved in his life can be most helpful.
The counsellor treats all the information that the clients share as confidential
material. The counsellors are involved in case consultations and supervision for the
purposes of best practice. These meetings involve discussion of clients concerns
with the aim of formulating the best possible assessment and intervention plan.
Where possible, the identifying personal information is removed from the
discussion.
6.3.4 Contents in Counselling Process
The counselling process will depend on the individual counsellor, the individual
client and the specific issue. However, there is a general counselling process that
the counsellors will follow:
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1. Background information collection

2. Identification of core issues
3. Case formulation
4. Goal setting for the therapeutic process
5. Implementation of intervention
6. Evaluation of intervention
7. Closure
Prior to the initial interview, reception staff will ask the client to complete a
personal data sheet. During the initial interview, the counsellor will discuss the
client’s concerns with him and explore with him the alternative services if indicated.
By the end of the initial interview the client and the counsellor may decide on one
of the following options:
 No Further Counselling is required at this time, if during the initial
interview the client has been able to clarify his concerns and plan and
appropriate course of action.
 Further Appointments are needed to continue to explore the issues
before reaching a decision. A second appointment will be made with the
client either by the counsellor or by reception.
 Alternative Services are appropriate and the counsellor will assist the
client to identify specific resources to consider and pursue.
Counsellors work from differing theoretical approaches. Different counselors
will place varying levels of emphasis on behaviour, on thinking and/or one motional
aspects. All counsellors have the central goal to assist the client in increasing his or
her sense of well being
Change does not happen quickly for most of us. The length of treatment
depends on a number of variables. Variables include:
 The severity of the problem,
 The motivation of the client,
 The type of problem and
 The age of the client.
 The more focused and limited the problem being addressed, the shorter
treatment can be.
 The more the treatment addresses healing emotional injuries, the longer
it is likely to take.
If the client feels dissatisfied with any aspect of the Counselling Services, they
are encouraged to discuss their concerns with the Senior Counsellor.
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6.3.5 Procedure in the Counselling Process

1. Establish a safe, trusting environment
2. Help the person put their concern into words.
3. Active listening: find out the client’s agenda
a. paraphrase, summarize, reflect, interpret
b. focus on feelings, not events
4. Transform problem statements into goal statements.
5. Explore possible approaches to goal
6. Help person choose one way towards goal
7. Make a contract to fulfil the plan (or to take the next step)
8. Summarize what has occurred, clarify, get verification
9. Get feedback and confirmation
In general, a counsellor will listen to the client without butting in or imposing
their own values and beliefs on him or her. They will give the client the needed
space to explore their thoughts, feelings, or behaviour, whatever they are. People
can find it helpful just to have their concerns taken seriously.
The counsellor may also employ a variety of techniques to help the clients
understand their feelings. For instance, the counsellor may ask questions designed
to reflect back to the clients their thought processes and to help them make sense
of their feelings. The client thus might explore and implement changes in the way
he or she does things, and then can go on to enhance his life or his relationship.
Counselling is a process guided by theory. Process can refer to what the
counsellor does with the client as well as how change occurs within the client. The
process of counselling develops in definable stages with recognisable transitions.
There is a natural progression that takes place within the context of the helping
relationship. This process enables the counsellor and the client to build a
relationship, assess the situation, set goals and come up with a plan to bring about
the desired results. This progression is known as the counselling process.
6.3.6 COUNSELLING INTERACTION
The process of counselling is dynamic in nature. The effectiveness of
counselling ultimately depends upon how the process of counselling happens. It
can be said to start with rapport establishment, then progress through problem
identification, goal setting, and intervention and then finally follow up. Broadly,
three major stages in the process can be described as follows:
I. Developing a relationship
II. Working in a relationship and
III. Terminating a relationship
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Each stage has its own universal qualities and problems associated with it.
Counsellors must be aware of the problems involved in the process of counselling.
Now let us discuss each stage in the process of counselling
I DEVELOPING RAPPORT AND BUILDING TRUST
Predictability and consistency
During the first stage of the relationship, it is critical to be both predictable and
consistent. If the counsellor schedules an appointment to meet the clientat a
certain time, it’s important to keep it. It is understandable that at times things
come up and appointments cannot be kept. Consistency is the key to speed up the
trust building process.
Testing
Young people generally do not trust adults. As a result, they use testing as a
coping or defense- mechanism to determine whether they can trust the counsellor.
They will test to see if the counsellor really cares about them. A client might test the
counsellor by not reaching for a scheduled meeting to see how the counsellor will
react.
Establish confidentiality
During the first stage of the relationship, it is important to establish
confidentiality with one’s client. This helps in developing trust. The counsellor
should let the client know that whatever he or she wants to share with the
counsellor will remain confidential, as long as (and it’s important to stress this
point) what the client tells the counsellor is not going to harm the client or someone
else. It’s helpful to stress this up front, within the first few meetings with the client.
Later on if the counsellor needs to break the confidence because the information
the client shared was going to harm him or her or someone else, the client will not
feel betrayed.
Goal setting
It is helpful during Stage 1 to take the time to set at least one achievablegoal
together for the relationship. What do the client and counsellor want to get out of
this relationship? It is also good to help the client set personal goals. Sometimes the
client does not know how to set goals, and this will provide them with the
opportunity to set goals and work toward achieving them.
II WORKING IN A RELATIONSHIP
The successful outcome of any counselling process depends on a working
alliance between counsellor and the client. This occurs after clients and counsellors
have established a relationship and explored possible goals towards which to work.
Once trust has been established, the relationship moves into Stage 2. These phases
are facilitated by mutual interaction between the individuals involved. The
counsellor can help the client by appropriate leads, challenges to perception, multi
focused responding, accurate empathy, self-disclosure, immediacy, confrontation,
contacts and rehearsal.
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Changing Perceptions
Clients often come to counsellor as a last resort when they think that situation
is not only serious but hopeless. Counsellors can help clients change their distorted
or unrealistic perceptions by offering them an opportunity to explore thoughts
within a safe, accepting and in a non-judgmental atmosphere. Perceptions
commonly change through the process of reframing which offers the client another
probable and positive viewpoint of what a situation is or why an event might have
happened.
Leading
Changing client’s perceptions requires a high degree of persuasive skill and
some direction from the counsellor. Such input is known as leading.
Accurate Empathy
Use of empathy is one of the most vital elements in the counselling. Empathy is
the counsellor’s ability to experience the client’s world as if it were your own
without ever using the quality.
Two Components of Empathy are:
a) Empathic rapport. This refers to accurately sensing and being able to seethe
client’s world the way they do.
b) Communicative attunement. This refers to verbally sharing one’s
understanding with the client.
There are two types of Empathy:
1. Primary Empathy. The ability to respond in such a way that is apparent
to both client and counsellor that the counsellor has understood the
client’s major themes.
2. Advanced empathy. It is a process of helping a client explore themes, is
suesand emotions new to his or her awareness.
Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is an important way to let clients know the counsellor as a
person. Self-disclosure at a moderate level is seen more positively by clients than
disclosure at a high or low level (Edwards & Murdock, 1994). In moderation, it is
helpful for the counsellor to disclose facts about himself, if it serves the needs of the
session / client.
Self-disclosure takes the following forms:
 The counsellor’s own problems
 Facts about the counsellor’s role
 The counsellor’s reactions to the client (feedback)
 The counsellor’s reactions to the counsellor-client relationship
Positive Regard
Client revelations must be protected from counsellor’s “personal reactions,”
especially rejection or disdain. The counsellors should express appreciation of the
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client as a unique and worthwhile person and embrace the client’s ethnic self as
well as other experiences that have shaped the client’s worldview.
Responding Styles
Counselling is often perceived as just focusing on feelings but it is not true.
While counselling helps people work through feelings, how one responds and
communicates with others will affect how the counsellor responds to the client.
There are different Responding Styles of the clients;
1. Affective Responding. This focuses on feelings;
2. Behavioural Responding. This focuses on actions and behaviours;
3. Cognitive Response. This focuses on thoughts and cognitions. The
counsellor will balance these throughout the session with a client.
Immediacy
This involves a counsellor’s understanding and communicating of what is going
on between the counsellor and client within the helping relationship. There are 2
types of immediacy
1. Relationship immediacy. (Between client & counsellor);
2. “Here & Now” immediacy focuses on some particular event in the
session.
Humour
Humour can have a positive effect on the counselling process when used
properly. It must be used with sensitivity and timing. It does not demean and is
supportive. A session is not a time to try out a new joke heard at lunch.
Confrontation
This is not skill at putting the client down for doing something wrong. This is
an invitation to the client to look more closely at behaviour that is not working or
interfering with growth, change, or healthy functioning.
Transference and Counter-transference
A concept as old as Freud, transference and counter-transference are issues
that affect all forms of counselling, guidance, and psychotherapy Transference: This
is the client’s projection of past or present feelings, attitudes, or desires onto the
counsellor. It can be direct or indirect and will cause the client to react to the
counsellor as they would in the past or present relationship. Counter-
transference: This is the counsellor’s projected emotional reaction to or behaviour
towards the client. It can take on many forms, from a desire to please the client, to
wanting to develop a social or sexual relationship with the client. When this
happens, supervision or counselling for the counsellor is called for.
Terminating a Relationship
Termination is an important, though often misunderstood phase of counselling.
This is often ignored or taken for granted. Yet successful termination is vital for the
wellbeing of client as well as counsellor. Termination is the end of the professional
relationship with the client when the session goals have been met. It is a phase of
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counselling that can determine the success of all previous phases and must be
handled skilfully.
A formal termination serves three functions:
a) Counselling is finished and it is time for the client to face their life
challenges.
b) Changes which have taken place have generalised into the normal
behaviour of the client.
c) The client has matured and thinks and acts more effectively and
independently.
Timing of Termination
There is no one answer when termination is to take place. Questions the
counselor may wish to ask concerning termination include:
 Have clients achieved behavioural, cognitive, or affective goals?
 Can clients concretely show where they have made progress in what
they wanted to accomplish?
 Is the counselling relationship helpful?
 Has the context of the initial counselling arrangements changed?
Resistance to Termination
Clients and Counsellors may not want counselling to end. In many cases this
may be the result of feelings about the loss and grief or insecurities of losing the
relationship. For clients, this is something to process. For counsellors, this is an
issue for supervision.
Premature Termination
Client
Many clients may end counselling before all goals are completed. This can be
seen by not making appointments, resisting new appointments etc. It is a good idea
to try and schedule a termination/review session with the client so closure may
take place. At this time a referral may be in order.
Counsellors
At times, counsellors have to end counselling prematurely. Whatever the
reason for the termination, a summary session is in order and referrals are made, if
appropriate, to another counsellor
Referrals
At times, a counsellor needs to make a referral. When this is done, specific
issues need to be addressed with the client.
Reasons for the referrals
Note specific behaviours or actions which brought the need for a referral. Have
the names of several other counsellors ready for referral. It is important to
remember that the counsellor cannot follow up with the new counsellor to see if the
client followed through (Confidentiality issue).
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Follow Up
At times, a follow-up may be scheduled for various reasons including
evaluation, research, or checking with client. It needs to be scheduled so as to not
take the responsibility of change away from the client
Core Conditions Necessary for Successful Counselling
Rogers (1957) originally proposed core conditions needed in building a
relationship:
i. Empathetic understanding: Empathy promotes rapport and
relationship.
ii. Unconditional positive regard: Considering Client as person of worth,
and is separate from actions.
iii. Congruence: Showing Genuine self in client interaction
Carkuff (1969) adds to these…
i. Respect: It strengthens the focus.
ii. Confrontation: It promotes realistic and accurate view.
iii. Immediacy: Consideration of problem with Here and Now attitude.
iv. Concreteness: Paying attention on what is practical in the process.
v. Self-disclosure: Promoting positive perception and appropriate focus in
counselling relationship.
6.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Counselling varies in both form and purpose; most counselling theories
embody some form of the following three stages i.e.., Relationship
building, Problem assessment and Goal setting.
2. Counsellors and clients must both be aware that the counselling
process requires patience. There is rarely a quick fix, and things may
need to get worse before they get better. In addition, the counselling
process is collaborative. The counsellor does not fix the client; the work
requires interaction and commitment from both parties
3. The counselling process is a planned and structured dialogue between
client and counsellors. The counsellors are trained and qualified
professional who helps the client identify the source of their concerns or
difficulties; then, together, they find counselling approaches to help deal
with the problems faced.
4. Professional counselling is confidential and non-judgmental.
5. The counsellors should express appreciation of the client as a unique
and worthwhile person and embrace the client’s ethnic self as well as
other experiences that have shaped the client’s worldview.
6.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the steps in Counselling Process?
2. What are the stages in Counselling Process?
3. State the Counselling Process Followed by Counsellors
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4. Define Relationship in Counselling Process.

5. What is Transference?
6.6 SUMMARY
The Process of counselling is vary from the country to country in some extend
but the core concept and intention of that process is one and same with all
countries. So the learners are asked to follow any pattern and improvise based on
the client’s expectations and needs. So this unit gives insight to you to follow
certain modalities to observe when you are conducting the counselling process and
handled the situation in effective manner. For maintain professional relationship is
also not an easy task to every practitioners, if you failed in that you are not a good
counsellor in this profession. So every practitioner tends to follow the guidelines
given by various bodies. We will see in detail in coming lessons.
6.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the counselling process with suitable examples.
2. Enumerate the different skills required for the Counsellor.
6.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodicals related to Community Health & Community Mental
Health and Counselling.
6.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. What you did during the recent pandemic to the affected individuals?
2. Bring out the required skills of counselling after the pandemic.
3. Did you find any changes in the counselling process after the Pandemic?
6.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology-6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Guidance,Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd.,New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi
4. ZastrowH.Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
6.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study your client and find yourself what it may require changes in the
counselling process?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Counselling
conducted by the de-addiction centres or NHS centres.
6.12 KEY WORDS
Counselling Process, Transference, Counter Transference, Self-Disclosure,
Confidence Maintenance, Confronting

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LESSON - 7
VARIABLES AFFECTING THE COUNSELLING PROCESS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling involves a process, the aim of which is to help others to help
themselves by making better choices and becoming better choosers of options. The
counsellor’s repertoire of skills includes those of forming an understanding
relationship, as well as interventions, focused on helping clients change specific
aspects of their feeling, thinking and acting. In a counselling relationship, the
counsellor and client work together to explore every aspect of the client’s
circumstances, enabling the individual to re-evaluate his or her experiences,
capabilities and potential. Counsellors facilitate full and confidential expression of
the client’s feelings, without diverting any attention to their own feelings.
Counsellors and clients must both be aware that the counselling process
requires patience. There is rarely a quick fix, and things may need to get worse
before they get better. In addition, the counselling process is collaborative. The
counsellor does not fix the client; the work requires interaction and commitment
from both parties (Krishnan, N.D.)
The counselling process is a planned and structured dialogue between client
and counsellors. The counsellors are trained and qualified professional who helps
the client identify the source of their concerns or difficulties; then, together, they
find counselling approaches to help deal with the problems faced (Krishnan, N.D.)
Hackney and Cormier (2005) propose a five-stage model for defining the counselling
process through which both counsellors and client move (Krishnan, N.D.)
7.2 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the factors affecting the counselling process and learn
it’s overcome.
7.3 CONTENTS
7.3.1 Counselling Skills required for the Counsellor
7.3.2 Structure of Counselling
7.3.3 Traits of an Effective Counsellor
7.3.4 Variables affecting the Counselling Process
7.3.5 Obstacles Faced during the Counselling Process
7.3.1 COUNSELLING SKILLS FOR REQUIRED FOR THE COUNSELLOR
The responsibility for change is placed with the client. This means that when
changes are made, they are self-motivated, and therefore more likely to last and to
be effective. Self-reliance is a central tenet of counselling. The counsellors are
perhaps the first person that the individual has met for a longtime who truly listens
without prejudice and whom he or she can trust utterly.
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1.Judgement:
A good counsellor is someone who can learn not to make judgments on behalf
of the person being helped. Although counsellors have their own values, these
should not be imposed on the client and the counsellor must retain the ability to
listen to and accept the views of clients with other standards.
2.Experience Patience and Acceptance:
A counsellor rarely needs to use his or her self-control in dealing with people,
even those people who are not likeable.
3.Experience:
Learning to grow into a more complete person from the experience of life’s hard
knocks can be a valuable quality in counsellors.
4.Education:
Formal degrees in psychology do not necessarily make good counsellors, but a
common sense approach is not sufficient. Good counsellors are willing and able to
learn about themselves and other people too.
5.Social Skills:
It is not enough to be considered a good listener. Counsellors learn through
training how to perceive all aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication, and
deliberately improve their listening skills by using appropriate techniques during
counselling.
6.Genuineness and Warmth:
Effective counsellors have a genuine interest in other people. This is often
referred to as respect or unconditional positive regard for the person being helped.
People who do not need others in their lives may find this sort of warmth to
unknown people as being problematic.
7.Discretion:
Counsellors must show complete discretion, never revealing what others say or
do within the counselling context. Confidentiality is paramount in counselling
relationships.
8.Practice:
Counselling requires a lot of training, followed by much practice. A current job
that will allow the possibility of a helping role could be very useful. Learning to grow
into a more complete person from the experience of life’s hard knocks can be a
valuable quality in counsellors. The word ‘skills’ thus refer to the interpersonal
tools which counsellors need to possess or acquire in order to communicate
effectively with clients. These essential skills include those of:
 Listening and attending
 Paraphrasing
 Summarising
 Asking questions
 Encouraging clients to be specific
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 Reflecting their feelings

 Helping them to clarify their thoughts
 Encouraging them to focus on key issues
 Offering forms of challenge and confrontation when needed.
Solid preparation is essential to effective counselling. The counsellor
should review all pertinent information. This includes the purpose of the
counselling, facts and observations about the client, identification of possible
problems, main points of discussion, and the development of a plan of action.
7.3.2 STRUCTURE OF COUNSELLING
Counselling is a process which requires a coherent framework or structure.
This structure acts as a guide for both counsellor and client. Egan devised a
structural model of counselling which divides the process into three main
components.
They are:
Stage One: Review of the present situation
Stage Two: Development of a new or preferred scenario
Stage Three: Moving into action
i. Stage One of the models refers to the initial phase of counselling, where
clients are encouraged to explore their problems so that they may
develop a deeper understanding of them.
ii. Stage Two refers to the process of helping clients identify what they
want and need in order to deal more effectively with problems.
iii. Stage Three is the phase of action, during which clients devise ways of
actually dealing with problems.
Most clients experience a beginning phase where they seek to make a sense of
their problems, a middle phase during which they consider what to do, and a later
stage where they start to act. All clients’ experiences are not identical in
counselling. Most clients’ experience
a beginning phase where they seek to make sense of their problems, a middle
phase during which they consider what to do and a later stage where they start to
act. On the other hand, some clients come to counselling for a brief period and
leave once they have been given the opportunity to explore their problems in the
presence of someone who really listens. Such clients identify ways of coping with
problems very early and feel able to formulate and implement courses of action
quickly.
7.3.3 TRAITS OF AN EFFECTIVE COUNSELLOR
An effective counsellor must possess a flexible attitude and unconditional
positive regard to ensure your clients feel safe and understood which in turn
becomes beneficial for the development of the therapeutic alliance.
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Effective counselling is built on a strong relationship with your therapist. This

can take time. A good counsellor will be empathetic, tailor treatments to your
needs, and foster collaboration. Together, you come up with goals and expectations
for therapy.
 Communication skills. Communication skills will play a key role in your
relationship with your clients.
 Patience. Patience will become a critical trait as counsellors.
 Confidence.
 Non-judgmental.
 Observant.
 Listening Skills.
 Trust.
 Respectful.
7.3.4 VARIABLES AFFECTING THE COUNSELLING PROCESS
The variables affecting the counselling process are age, culture, marital status,
education, economics, profession, and the country or society itself. Understanding
the gender roles in the community can help you to better understand the situation
of the women and men you counsel, and thus improve your counselling
interactions. It is an interpersonal, affective, cognitive, or behavioural factor that is
operative during the course of psychotherapy or counselling and influences the
progress or the course of behaviour.
FOUR MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING COUNSELLING
The effectiveness of counselling isn’t all down to the counsellor nor is it
completely within the control of the client, according to Dr Scott D. Miller’s
research. What’s happening with the client both in terms of beliefs and of
circumstances is a key factor (40%). So is the therapeutic relationship (30%).
Smaller contributors include the client’s degree of hopefulness (15%) and the type
of therapy used by the counsellor (15%).
Extra-therapeutic Client Factors (40 per cent of effectiveness).
These include the client’s personal strengths, weaknesses and other
characteristics including beliefs and attitudes; and also factors in the client’s
environment that help or hinder.
How the therapist can help: Identify and talk about strengths while helping client to deal
with weaknesses. Tailor solutions to client’s beliefs and values.
Therapeutic Relationship (30 per cent of effectiveness).
Empathy, warmth, acceptance (i.e. Rogerian factors) perceived by client.How
the therapist can help: Be warm and empathic. Address issues the client wants to
deal with i.e. work with the client’s goals rather than those of your theoretical
model. Be collaborative – don’t dictate.
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Realistic hope (15 per cent of effectiveness).

This refers to the client’s hopefulness about the outcome and the possibility of
improvement. How the therapist can help: Communicate hopefulness about what
can be achieved. Don’t get stuck in the past – look also at what is possible now and
in the future.
Model of counselling (15 per cent of effectiveness)
Using the right approach for the particular client or situation is a not easy task
The approach should be tailored to the client’s needs, beliefs and strengths. How
the therapist can help: Be willing to change the approach/model to suit the needs
of the client on the day. Less than one third of individuals who experience
psychological distress seek help from a mental health professional.
7.3.5 OBSTACLES FACED DURING THE COUNSELLING PROCESS
Access to mental health care can improve lives and communities. It can
dramatically improve mental and physical health problems, and reduce the risk of
family conflict, employment issues, substance abuse, and suicide.
The counsellors facing various professional problems like incompetency in
skills, theories, techniques, ethical dilemmas, anxiety due to client's problems, lack
of supervision, low salary and inadequacy in applying classroom learning to
practice and so on.
To increase the use of mental health counselling and treatment services, we
must first understand the avoidance factors that prevent people from seeking
professional help.
AVOIDANCE FACTORS
a) Social Stigma
The perceived social stigma associated with mental health treatment is a
significant deterrent to those seeking therapy. Social stigma is the fear that others
will judge you negatively or reject you, if you seek help for a problem. In general,
the public tends to assign negative descriptions to individuals who experience
mental illness. Individuals are viewed as unable to control their emotions and
described as weak or crazy. This discouraging peer assessment only serves to
increase an individual’s anxiety regarding their mental health concerns and
decrease their desire to get help.
b) Treatment Fears
Apprehensions arising from the adverse expectations some individuals have
when seeking mental health services are called treatment fears. Concerns for how
a mental health professional will treat them, worries about what the therapist will
think of them and their problems, and fear that the counsellor will pressure them
to do something they don’t want to do, keep many people from professional
counselling.
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c) Fear of Emotion
Researchers have identified a fear of discussing painful emotions as another
reason that some individuals avoid seeking counselling. People who have
experienced trauma or distressing and deeply painful events often struggle to
express their emotions for fear of reliving their pain. This anticipated risk of further
emotional suffering prevents these individuals from participating in or endorsing
mental health treatment.
d) Anticipated Utility and Risk
Calculating the anticipated utility and anticipated risk of seeking professional
help can be a major influence on an individual’s decision to see a
counsellor. Anticipated utility refers to the perceived usefulness or lack thereof of
therapy. Anticipated risk is the individual’s perception of the potential dangers of
discussing their feelings with a mental health professional. For some, the risk of
being misunderstood, judged, or even ignored by a therapist outweighs any
potential benefits of treatment.
e) Self-Disclosure
In order to be helped, a person must choose to reveal to a counsellor their
private feelings, thoughts, and actions. An individual’s comfort in self-disclosing or
concealing personal information is related to their past help-seeking experiences
and their current help-seeking intentions. The severity of a problem typically
increases an individual’s willingness to self-disclose.
f) Social Norms
The attitudes and opinions of family members, friends and other members of
an individual’s social network play an influential role in how that person defines
and acts upon mental health symptoms. An individual’s fear of judgment and loss
of social standing among their peers is a powerful deterrent to mental health
counselling. However, if the individual believes that the important people in their
lives would support and encourage mental health counselling, they are more likely
to seek help. Individuals are also more likely to try therapy if they know others who
have sought counselling and had a positive experience.
g) Self-Esteem
The fear of embarrassment and feelings of inferiority or incompetence have
been linked to help-seeking decisions. To some, seeking help from another means
admitting that they cannot deal with their problems on their own and as such, they
are acknowledging their own inadequacy. To maintain a positive self-image, a
person will decide not to seek professional help.
Barriers to counselling are not static, they can change in intensity and
importance depending on the characteristics of the problem, the setting, the
individual’s gender, age, and education level, as well as social and cultural
influences. Different types of mental health concerns elicit different avoidance
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reactions, and the influence of avoidance factors can change depending on the type
of treatment that is being considered. Avoidance factors are also thought to
become stronger as one moves toward the decision to seek professional help.
DEMOGRAPHIC AND SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES
a) Sex and Gender
Biological sex or more specifically gender roles can play an important role in
help-seeking decisions. Women tend to have more positive attitudes than men
regarding counseling, at least for less severe diagnoses. The traditional male
gender role, with its emphasis on being independent and in control, may increase
the perceived risks associated with seeking help for emotional issues. If a man
feels they need to ask for help, they may have increased feelings of insecurity and
failure. Men are also more likely to avoid mental health treatment for less severe
issues because of social stigma and accepted social norms.
b) Race and Ethnicity
The role race and ethnicity have in influencing help-seeking avoidance is
significant. An individual’s cultural values, beliefs, and norms can create a
significant barrier to using professional mental health services. In some cultures,
seeking help for personal or emotional problems is considered taboo. Many believe
that the best way to deal with personal challenges is to avoid thinking about them,
or to seek guidance from family or friends. Seeking help from strangers is regarded
as a source of shame or loss of face.
c) Setting and Problem Type
The social stigma associated with seeking help can vary depending on the
mental health setting. People may see talking to a medical doctor as less stressful
or embarrassing than a mental health professional because medical issues are not
their fault. The perceived appropriateness of seeking help has also been found to
be different depending on the type of problem. The seriousness of an individual’s
mental health problem and the assistance they require can increase or decrease the
level of stigma.
d) Age
Certain demographic factors can have an escalating or diminishing effect on
avoidance factors. Individuals in their 20s and 30s tend to have a more positive
attitude toward professional help, than adolescents and seniors. Perceptions of
social stigma and social norms are important avoidance factors to these
groups. Some adolescents can be particularly reluctant to seek counselling
because of the threat to their developing self-esteem. People over 65 typically have
more negative perceptions of therapy due to the perceived utility of mental health
counselling. Many seniors discount mental health issues believing their distress is
related to physical problems and preferring to manage these problems on their own
with medication.
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Understanding the effects of the different avoidance factors, and the

demographic and situational influences on help-seeking decisions, is the first step
in eliminating the barriers to counselling.
If you or a loved one is reluctant to seeking professional mental health
counselling, understand that there is no shame in asking for help. We all struggle
with feelings of fear, anxiety, and depression at some point in our lives. Speak to
your family doctor for a recommendation or visit the Government Health Centre or
any other Counselling Centre to address that problem immediately. Counselling can
be a difficult process and there many factors that can contribute towards the
success of the engagement or otherwise lead to zero or negative gains.
i) CLIENT FACTORS
The client is not a passive object who sits there and is treated in the manner of
a traditional doctor-patient situation. A critical question is about what is going on
in their heads and they hence need to be an active part of the process.
If they have positive expectation and faith in the counselling process and
counsellor, then their chances of success will increase. Likewise if they have
willingly sought out the counsellor and are truly seeking resolution then this will
help too.
On the other hand, being depressed or otherwise negative may act to hinder the
treatment, for example where they do not engage well or work to change their
thoughts and actions. In such cases, the skill of the counsellor becomes more
critical.
ii) COUNSELLOR FACTORS
The counsellor has a significant effect on the outcomes of the sessions. They
first should encourage and support the client in taking a positive viewpoint about
the treatment and the outcomes.
A counsellor who is warm and has an empathetic and positive regard for their
clients, with a non-judgemental and accepting approach will be more likely to
create the right conditions for success.
And of course the counsellor should be expert in the methods that they
practice, with a continuing concern for improving their ability in a discipline that is
both science and art.
iii) CONTEXTUAL FACTORS
The environment in which the counselling takes place can have a significant
effect. If it takes place where the client feels uncomfortable, for example where a
school counsellor speaks with a child in a feared classroom, then this may
negatively affect the session. Ideally the counselling takes place in a quiet, warm
and comfortable place away from any distraction (including distant sounds) where
the counsellor and client can talk in comfort and safety.
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iv) PROCESS FACTORS

There are many factors within the counselling process that may contribute
towards success including:
 Understanding of client and counsellor roles
 Bonding between client and counsellor
 Open listening
 Unconditional acceptance
 Exploration of problems
 Insights and awareness of issues
 Periods of reflection and inner thought
 Opportunity for catharsis and emotional release
 Learning new models and ways of thinking
 Desensitization of sensitive issues
 Trial and adoption of new ways of thinking and acting
 Feedback on success of trials
 On-going practice and improvement
7.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Self-reliance is a central tenet of counselling.
2. Understanding the gender roles in the community can help you to better
understand the situation of the women and men you counsel, and thus
improve your counselling interactions.
3. Counsellors learn through training how to perceive all aspects of verbal
and non-verbal communication, and deliberately improve their listening
skills by using appropriate techniques during counselling.
4. The counsellor has a significant effect on the outcomes of the sessions.
5. Understanding the effects of the different avoidance factors, and the
demographic and situational influences on help-seeking decisions, is the
first step in eliminating the barriers to counselling.
7.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the internal factors affecting Counselling Process?
2. What are the External factors ruling the Counselling session?
3. Enumerate the skills required for the counsellor
4. What are the obstacles faced by the counsellor during the Counselling
Process?
5. What is the appearance of an effective counsellor?
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7.6 SUMMARY
The client is not a passive object who sits there and is treated in the manner of
a traditional doctor-patient situation. A critical question is about what is going on
in their heads and they hence need to be an active part of the process. So the
learners have to pay special attention to get all such subject matter specifically to
focus to resolve the matters. This unit inducing you to make or appear yourself to
attain certain qualities and practice to them in effective manner to render
counselling service to the clients and needy people.
7.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the factors deciding the counselling process.
2. Enumerate the different skills required for the Counsellor.
7.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Community Health & Community Mental
Health and Counselling.
7.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. What brings you to involve in this profession?
2. What you will do, If any of your family members are required
counselling?
3. Justify that do you have similar kind of personality & appearance of the
Counsellor.
7.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology-6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling&Guidance, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi
4. ZastrowH.Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
7.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study yourself and find the qualities lacking with yourself for an
effective counsellor.
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Counselling
conducted by the de-addiction centres or NHS centres.
7.12 KEY WORDS
Counsellor Portrait, Variables, Factors and Obstacles for Counselling Process.

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LESSON - 8
PORTRAITS OF AN EFFECTIVE COUNSELLOR
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Portraits of a counsellor means acting the part of a character on stage or at
the time of counselling process, dramatically representing the character by speech
and action and gesture being a Professional. In some extent the people are saying
that any likeness of a person, in any medium during the course of counselling
process.
A counsellor goes through a lot of rigorous training and practice to become an
efficient counsellor. Both the personal and professional qualities of a good
counsellor carry equal importance. They must be well equipped in order to help the
people adjust and lead a happy life. Most importantly, the counsellor must have
two types of data for effective counselling. Firstly, they must have access to the
background aptitudes, accomplishments, and interests of their client. In addition,
they must possess the skill to interpret this data efficiently. Secondly, they must be
able to identify the area where the counselee seeks their assistance.
In order to be able to make use of both the data, the counsellor must be able to
perform certain functions and acquire specific skills and qualifications. All this
allows them to reach their potential and develop their skills. After earning certain
qualifications a person is eligible to become a counsellor. Moreover, after this
qualification, they acquire qualities in their training period. After that, a counsellor
is able to perform functions which help their patients lead a healthier life. Thus, an
effective counsellor must have all the three things to maintain an efficient practice.
The counsellor must have qualities of a good personality, good character and
wholesome philosophy, health, emotional stability, approachability, intelligence,
broad knowledge and interest in guidance and personal working conditions and
understanding of social economic conditions. In short, a counsellor should have
qualities of head and heart. It is wiser to say, ‘Counselling is more of a heart-matter
than a head-matter.’
8.2 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the different Portraits of Counsellors as in roles and
personalities of counselling process.
8.3 CONTENTS
8.3.1 Portrait of an Effective Counselor
8.3.1.1 Characteristics of an Effective Counsellor
8.3.1.2 Qualifications of a Counsellor
8.3.1.3 Qualities of a Counsellor
8.3.1.4 Functions of a Counsellor
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8.3.1 PORTRAIT OF AN EFFECTIVE COUNSELOR

The three aspects by which an effective counsellor can be distinguished from
an ineffective one are experience, type of relationship established and non-
intellective factors.
Experience
Fiedler's (1950, 1951) studies reveal that counsellors who are well trained agree
with each other about their concept of an ideal therapeutic relationship. According
to Rogers (1962) also, more experienced counsellors offer more congruence and
empathy and they are more successful in communicating with their clients.
Type of counselling relationship
The ability to communicate and understand their clients, maintain an
appropriate emotional distance and divest themselves of status concerns in regard
to their clients characterizes efficient counsellors. (Fiedler).
Non - intellective factors
The effective counsellor exhibits tolerance for ambiguity, understanding (of the
client), maturity, and ability to establish good social relationships with clients and
non-clients. Wicas and Mahan (1966) found that 'high rated' counsellors were
anxious, sensitive to the expectations of others and society, patient and non-
aggressive in inter-personal relationships and showed appropriate self-control.
A career in counselling gives licensed professionals the opportunity to help
those who are coping with loss, depression, anxiety, addiction, relationship issues,
and other everyday mental health struggles. In order to be an effective counsellor,
there are many characteristics that one must possess.
8.3.1.1 Characteristics of an effective counsellor
Whether you’re a Social Work (Medical & Psychiatric Social Work) or
Counselling degree student, a licensed counsellor, or even if you’re starting your
own counselling practice, here are some characteristics that can make an effective
counsellor.
Be organized within your practice
Effective counsellors prioritize organization in their practice, which makes it
much easier to provide effective counselling to both new and existing clients.
Organization of paperwork, scheduling, and proper storing of confidential
information will give your clients peace of mind and confidence in your counselling
process. While providing your clientele with a greater sense of well-being from your
organization, an effective and organized counselor will also experience a greater
sense of wellness and balance within themselves, which will allow space for a more
effective counselling process.
Practice ethically and professionally
Due to the power differential that may often be experienced in the counselling
relationship, an effective counsellor needs to be able to understand their duties as
an ethical professional. Doctoral and master’s degree programs will include courses
focused solely on ethics in healthcare, more specifically in mental health. Beyond
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classroom education on ethics, there are many resources for counsellors to

understand the ethics of the profession. Some resources include the American
Counselling Association Code of Ethics, ASERVIC competencies, and mental health
statutes that vary from state to state.
Educate yourself
If you are on the path to earning a degree in clinical mental health counselling,
you’re already moving forward with one of the most important, and necessary steps
needed to take to become an effective counsellor. Alongside clinical experiences in
the counselling field, counsellor education helps mental health professionals be
able to extend the scope of their work. Another great way to gain experience is to
attend a counselling conference, such as the ACA Conference. Study hard, ask a lot
of questions, and get all the experience you can while earning your
undergraduate, Master of Arts in Social Work in Clinical Mental Health
Counselling/ Medical and Psychiatric Social Work, or doctoral degrees.
Be confident in your position and responsibility
Whether you’ve been a licensed professional counsellor for 20 years or you’re
new to the profession, you must maintain confidence in your work. A client is
looking to you for help, so use your education and experience assuredly. Good
clinical supervision is also suggested and necessary to maintain competence and to
review situations that may happen in practice that can lead to further education
and confidence in the application of counselling skills.
Be respectful and non-judgmental
According to the ACA Code of Ethics, “Counsellors are aware of and avoid
imposing their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours”. As a counsellor, you
must respect each client’s beliefs and struggles, and never assert your personal
values or beliefs. Self-disclosure must be used appropriately and in necessary
situations to further build out the therapeutic relationship. Research shows that
the therapeutic alliance or therapeutic relationship is one of the strongest
predictors of success. A good therapeutic relationship is often defined as having
trust, agreement on therapeutic goals formulated together on a treatment plan, and
a collaborative approach to working towards those goals.
Understand the importance of communication
Every client is different; you may have some that need time to warm up to you,
while some aren’t afraid to divulge their life story from the start. An effective
counsellor must understand that communication needs to be personalized to each
client. Interpersonal skills go beyond the context of therapy itself. Consider
differences in ethnicity, culture, and background, and be self-aware of personal
biases that may hinder or create barriers within the therapeutic relationship. When
there is a cultural difference, one can combine this characteristic with that of
educating oneself, and seek out the necessary clinical supervision or take education
training to gain the necessary education to effectively communicate with clients
that may have different beliefs or cultural experiences. If the communication barrier
still remains after seeking out supervision and additional training, an effective
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counsellor must consider the option of a more appropriate referral outside of one’s
private practice.
Have a flexible attitude
When working as an effective counsellor, you will have to be accommodating to
the unpredictability of your clientele. Some clients will be late or may cancel, along
with clients that are seeking an emergency session. An effective counsellor must
possess a flexible attitude and unconditional positive regard to ensure your clients
feel safe and understood, which in turn becomes beneficial for the development of
the therapeutic alliance.
The five bedrock principles of autonomy, justice, beneficence, nonmaleficence,
and fidelity are each vital in and of themselves to a healthy counseling relationship.
By exploring an ethical dilemma with regard to these principles, a counselor may
come to a better understanding of the conflicting issues.
The main reason for therapists refusing to give their clients advice is that it is not
their job. Actually, the role of a therapist is to present clients with a better comprehension
of what motivates or causes them to act or think in the way that they do.
8.3.1.2 Qualifications of a Counsellor
A counsellor has to study specific courses which help them in better
understanding of their patients. The course allows them to understand various
concepts and functioning of psychological process. Furthermore, they get a clearer
understanding of the complexities of the human brain. When a counsellor has
certified degrees and diplomas, it increases their credibility. The more the
qualifications, the higher are your chances of excelling in this field. In order to
become a counsellor in India, one must possess the following qualifications:
a) Bachelor’s degree in Social Work or Psychology
b) Master’s degree in Social Work specialization in Medical & Psychiatric
Social Work or Master of Science in Counselling or Counselling
Psychology
c) Certification courses of Counselling or Counselling Psychology
d) Practical experience in the Industrial Counselling or Employee
Counselling
8.3.1.3 Qualities of a Counsellor
A counsellor must possess a set of qualities that allows them to help their
patients in an effective manner. For instance, a counsellor who gives nonverbal
cues like nodding or eye contact in reply to the client is considered more
understanding. Furthermore, the trustworthiness of a counsellor is very essential.
Similarly, when the counsellor shows genuine concern, they can easily establish a
close bond with the client. Therefore, certain qualities must be acquired by a good
counsellor. Some of the major ones are:
a) Professional Dedication
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b) Amicable Personality
c) Broad-minded Attitude
d) Higher Patience Level
e) Interpersonal relationship
A counselor must possess the following characteristics to be effective in his or
her work: Patience, good listener, nonjudgmental, authenticity, compassionate,
encouraging, empathetic, researcher, self-awareness, and discrete.
a) Qualities of a good Guidance Counsellor
1. Be a good listener.
2. Be able to assess.
3. Be an excellent communicator.
4. Appreciate diversity.
5. Be friendly.
6. Be authoritative.
7. Be well-rounded.
8. Be able to coordinate.
9. Have good evaluation skills.
10. Have a sense of humour.
Professional counsellors are licensed mental health therapists who provide
assessment, diagnosis and counseling to people facing a variety of life stresses and
psychological problems. They help people with relationship issues, family problems,
job stress, mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety, and many
other challenging problems that can impact feelings of well-being and happiness.
To be effective in their roles, counsellors should enjoy helping others and
possess specific attributes and skills. The personal and professional qualities of
counsellors are very important in facilitating any helping relationship. A counsellor
must be well equipped to assist individuals to make adjustments and live a happy
and harmonious life. For effective counselling, the counselor must be equipped with
two kinds of data. First he must have data relating to the counselee's background
aptitudes, achievements, interests, plans etc. Further, he must have the skill to
interpret this data. Secondly, the counsellor must have information about the areas
in which the counselee may seek his assistance. These areas may be educational or
personal.
A person who advises students or others on personal problems or academic
and occupational choice. A person who gives advice on a specified subject.A person
trained to give guidance on personal or psychological problems.
Educational counsellors offer a wide range of services to families of students
seeking to enrol in different fields. These services vary depending on when the
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counselor is hired. For secondary school students, college admissions counsellors

can help shape the early academic path for these young scholars. After learning
about the interests, academic goals and career goals of the student, the counselor
can begin making suggestions, beginning with class choices. The counselor may
also make recommendations on extracurricular activities, clubs and volunteer
opportunities to pursue.
He is confident and well versed in the methods and approaches of counseling.
He has the best interest of the counselee in mind and receives the trust of the
counselee. He is aware of the steps and techniques involved in the counseling
process. He knows the aims and objectives of counseling. He knows the demands
and responsibilities of the counseling profession.
b) A Good Counselor has Several Basic Skills:
i) Professional Skills
He is able to use humour and laughter in his counseling, laugh with clients,
not laugh at them or them at him.He is in control of his emotions especially of
anger, impatience and frustrations. He is dignified and neat in his manners, speech
and appearance. He is gentle, especially when sorting out corrective measures. He
is kind and sympathetic to clients’ problems and anxieties. He knows the
psychology of each client, how they think and behave. The counselor respects the
client’s individuality and dignity.
ii) Personal Skills
 Counsellors need to be able to convey acceptance to their clients with
warmth and understanding.
 Accepting the client for who she is and in her current situation.
 The ability to relate to clients with an open, nonjudgmental attitude.
 Counsellors need to have a natural ability to listen and be able clearly
explain their ideas and thoughts to others.
iii) Acceptance Skills
Effective counsellors should have excellent communication skills. Basically it's
a reference to the concept of acceptance of a client's way of being in life, or as some
therapists knows it a “positive affirmation”. Whatever the choice of words we use as
therapists; it's more than simply a counsellor taking a liking to something, or some
part, of you, their client.
iv) Communication Skills
These basic communication skills are speaking, writing, listening and reading.
The way you communicate with others and present your ideas makes a lasting
impression on people. Examples of skills needed to be an effective communicator
includes maintaining eye contact, monitoring voice pitch and tone, evaluating facial
expressions, and utilizing non-verbal tools, such as mirroring and gesturing.
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Counsellors must have excellent problem-solving skills to be able to help their

clients identify and make changes to negative thought patterns and other harmful
behaviours. It's not up to a counselor to solve her clients' problems, no matter how
much she might want to help. Compassion and empathy help your clients feel
understood and heard. Effective communication is the process of exchanging ideas,
thoughts, opinions, knowledge, and data so that the message is received and
understood with clarity and purpose. When we communicate effectively, both the
sender and receiver feel satisfied.
v) Problem-Solving Skills
Empathy means that you are truly able to imagine what it's like to stand in
someone else's shoes. Counsellors must be able to display empathy, the ability to
feel what another person is feeling.
vi) Empathy
Counsellors need to be able to place all of their focus on what their clients are saying and
Counsellors must possess a strong set of interpersonal skills to help establish
rapport with clients and develop strong relationships.
vii) Rapport-Building Skills
Void being distracted by their own personal problems or concerns when they
are in a session.
Being flexible is one of the most important attributes of a professional
counselor. You don't stay rigid and stick to a predetermined treatment path when
your clients require a different approach. Flexibility in counseling is defined as the
ability to adapt and change the way you respond to meet your clients' needs.
viii) Flexibility
Multicultural competency means that you try to relate to and understand your
clients regardless of their race, ethnicity, religious or political beliefs or
socioeconomic background.
Counsellors help people from all walks of life. Self-awareness has a major
impact on a counsellor’s effectiveness.
ix) Multicultural Competency
This ability prevents your issues from affecting or conflicting with those of your
clients. Such as a need for intimacy or the desire to be professionally competent.
Self-awareness is the ability to look within and identify your own unmet
psychological needs and desires.
x) Self-Awareness
By using the voice to relax the client, the counselor enables him to face
challenges more effectively. The counselor needs to be able to challenge, reassure
and motivate the client, especially when the client is resistant or finds it difficult to
face painful memories. The process involves goal-setting and creating appropriate
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action plans with the client. A skilled counselor can identify negative thinking
patterns and enable the clients to replace them with positive ones. Counseling
effectiveness is measured by outcomes, so skills are required that facilitate clients
improve their lives through changes in their thought processes and behaviour.
xi) Human Skills
It is essential the counselor learns to control her own emotional involvement
during difficult sessions, which may raise personal issues of her own.
Conducting the session in a professional manner involves a number of skills,
including the ability to adhere to a timescale and avoiding disclosing personal
information.
xii) Record-keeping
Good record-keeping is particularly important, because all records must be
treated confidentially and the counselor will be responsible for effective note-taking
during the session. Failure to be organized can result in the counselor herself
appearing unprofessional and potentially have catastrophic outcomes for the clients
and the practice. Whether running her own practice or simply managing her
workload as an employee, the counselor needs to possess a number of
organizational skills including prioritizing and timekeeping.
xiii) Practice Management Skills
It is essential the counselor learns to control her own emotional involvement
during difficult sessions, which may raise personal issues of her own. Conducting
the session in a professional manner involves a number of skills, including the
ability to adhere to a timescale and avoiding disclosing personal information.
8.3.1.4 Functions of a Counsellor
A professional counsellor is a certified person who addresses the needs of their
patients comprehensively. Their main motive is to help the patient come face to face
with their problems and deal with them accordingly. Counsellors are specialists in
human behaviour which allows them to offer help to their clients efficiently. The
main functions of a counsellor are as follows:
1. Help a person face their troubles
2. Identify the areas in which the patient/client requires help
3. Evaluate the cause of the patient’s problems
4. Prescribe ways to constructively cope with the patient’s difficulties
5. Prevent the patient from taking any self-harming steps
8.4 REVISION POINTS
1. A person who advises students or others on personal problems or
academic and occupational choice.
2. An effective counsellor must possess a flexible attitude and unconditional
positive regard to ensure your clients feel safe and understood.
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3. Your course allows you to understand various concepts and functioning of

psychological process and it is basic qualification for independently
practicing Counselling.
8.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is Fiedler concept on Portrait of the effective counsellor?
2. What is Problem Solving Skills?
3. Who is an Adviser?
4. What is Record keeping in counselling?
5. What are the functions of a counsellor?
8.6 SUMMARY
The counsellor must have qualities of a good personality, good character and
wholesome philosophy, health, emotional stability, approachability, intelligence,
broad knowledge and interest in guidance and personal working conditions and
understanding of social economic conditions. Counsellors must have excellent
problem-solving skills to be able to help their clients identify and make changes to
negative thought patterns and other harmful behaviours. It's not up to a counselor
to solve her clients' problems, no matter how much she might want to help.
Compassion and empathy help your clients feel understood and heard. Effective
communication is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, opinions, knowledge,
and data so that the message is received and understood with clarity and purpose.
When we communicate effectively, both the sender and receiver feel satisfied
8.7.TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How do you equip yourself as an effective counsellor?
2. Portray the different roles & skills required for an effective counsellor.
8.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Psychiatric Social Work or Industrial
Counselling or counselling Psychology and Counselling.
8.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Justify that are you having a skill & portrait of an Good counsellor?
2. Read the biography of the successful counsellor and find yourself the
good qualities of such personality.
8.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology-6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling& Guidance, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi
4. Zastrow H.Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
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8.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Observe the role performance of the counsellor in your field work setting
and report and submit as an assignment to your University.
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on counselling or
Psychiatric social work conducted by your university or any other
educational Institutions.
5.12 KEY WORDS
Record Keeping, Problem Solving, Adviser, Trainer, Mentor

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LESSON - 9
GROUP COUNSELLING PROCESS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Group counselling refers to the routine adjustment or developmental
experiences provided in a group setting. Group counselling focuses on assisting
counselees to cope with their day to day adjustment and other concerns.
Group counselling is a form of psychotherapy that involves four to ten clients
and two experienced group therapists. Therapy groups meet every week at the same
time for ninety minutes. During that time, the members of the group discuss the
issues that are concerning them and offer each other support and feedback.
One of the major goals of group therapy is about bringing people who do share
similar experiences. Group therapy primarily focuses on a specific mental health
concern, such as social anxiety or even depression. Some other examples of
conditions a group therapy may focus on resolving Phobias.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the Group Counselling and its meaning, types, goals
allocation of members to the groups in a social work perspective.
9.3 CONTENTS
9.3.1 Group Counselling
9.3.1.1 Meaning and Definition
9.3.1.2 Types
9.3.1.3 Goals
9.3.1.4 Structuring Groups
9.3.2 Process of Group Counselling
9.3.3 Group Development
9.3.1 GROUP COUNSELLING
Group Counselling is a modality in which several people undergo therapy at the
same time, always guided by one or more therapists. Furthermore, it focuses on the
interactions within the group and how these can benefit an individual or the group
as a whole. It's an established tool in the field of psychology and psychiatry.
Humans are social animals and they enjoy one another’s company and in the
process they learn more. Individuals seek their social needs through group and
they learn how through groups they can achieve their social needs. In group
counselling the concept of this gratification of needs through groups is considered
in great detail as the counsellor uses these groups to help the individual to
overcome not only individual problems but also how to get maximum satisfaction
through interacting with the members of the group.
When we talk about groups, family is also a group of one type. If a counsellor
wants to deal with the emotional life of the person, the family of this person has to
be contacted as through the family the counsellor will be able to learn about the
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typical interaction patterns amongst family members and also will be able to help
the client to modify his interaction pattern through group or family therapy. Family
is the place from where an individual starts his/her first learning.
Whatever a person learns, he does so from his family members through
communication, imitation and dealings with day to day life problems. He enters the
world with that knowledge based on the experiences which he had in his family and
in all his interactions with the family members.
So the family is the first platform which provides the foundation to the
individual to face the world as the individual grows up into an adult. With group
counselling, you are with people who are dealing with the same or similar issues.
This common understanding of a difficult experience nurtures trust and makes any
judgment a lot less likely. Sharing feelings with the group can also help relieve the
pain or stress you may be feeling.
9.3.1.1 Meaning and Definition
Group counselling also plays an important role to enhance mental health.
Webster’s Third New World International Dictionary (unabridged) defines a group as
a number of individuals bound together by a common interest, purpose, or
function. In the present day context, the groups are functional and also goal
oriented. Aggregate groups without interaction of the members are not functioning
groups. More than a hundred years ago, the psychologist
William James (1890) defined that man is not only a gregarious animal liking to
be noticed by fellow humans, he also experiences a terrible punishment when he is
left alone and other humans do not take notice of him. Hence interaction is very
essential for humans to keep good mental health. Therapists too in general agree
that human relationships are important not only for gratifying people’s basic needs
but also it influences the day to day life adjustment of the individual.
According to Ben Johnson Orenstein (2014) Group Counselling means “Hearing
from other people about how you come across can be very powerful. You get a wider
range of perspectives on your situation, and that can help you deal with your
problems better.”
Group counselling makes an individual to learn the skill which makes strong
the interpersonal relationships. These relationships if become strong they would
facilitate positively the emotional life of a person. In groups, an individual
experiences dealing with significant others in the outside world and environment,
and in the process learns the group values. These groups’ values are beneficial for
all interpersonal relationships whether of friends, authority or family members. The
family itself may be viewed as a small system or network of relationships. The
network of relationships can be understood in terms of (i) multigenerational
approach(ii) interpersonal relationship approach and (iii) structural approach
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9.3.1.2 Types of Group Counselling

In counselling different types of groups are used depending on the nature of
intervention needed. These groups are given below:
a. T-groups
T-groups are training groups and they represent an effort to create a society in
miniature with an environment designed especially for learning. T-groups are
relatively unstructured groups in which the participants become responsible for
what they learn and how they learn it. This enables client how to Function and
behave in a group. It is beneficial when the relationships are authentic.
b. Sensitivity Groups
A sensitivity group focuses on personal and interpersonal issues and on the
personal growth of the individual. Emphasis in sensitivity groups is on self insight,
which means that the central focus is not the group and its progress but it is rather
the individual member.
c. Encounter Groups
Rogers (1967) defines an encounter group as a group that stresses personal
growth through the development and improvement of interpersonal relationships
via an experiential group process. Such groups seek to release the potential of the
participants. After practicing the individual feels safe to drop some of his/her
defences. He will come to understand himself and his relationship to others more
accurately. He will change in his personal attitudes and behaviour and will
subsequently relate more effectively to others in everyday life situation. Extended
encounter groups are often referred to as marathon groups. The marathon en-
counter group uses an extended block of time in which massed experience and
accompanying fatigue are used to break through the participants’ defences.
Although encounter groups offer great potential for the increased self awareness of
the group members, as well as increased sensitivity towards others, such groups
can also create high levels of anxiety and frustration. Obviously, if encounter
groups are to have maximum potential and minimal risk, they must be conducted
by highly skilled and experienced counsellors.
d. Task Groups
Task groups are organised to meet organisational needs through task forces or
other organisational groups or to serve individual needs of clients through such
activities as social action groups. These groups are frequently useful to
organisations seeking ways to improve their functioning. In agency counseling
centres, task groups may be organised to assist clients in dealing with a wide
spectrum of needs ranging from spiritual to educational.
e. Psycho-education Groups
Psycho education groups emphasise cognitive and behavioural skill
development in groups structured to teach these skills and knowledge. Psycho
educational groups are oriented more toward guidance than toward counselling or
therapy. These groupstend to be short term in duration and focused on specifically
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delineated goals. Attention is directed at current life situations, and interactions

within the group are related to the group theme.
f. Mini Groups
Although technically two or more people can constitute a group, the use of the
termini group has become increasingly popular in recent years to denote a
counseling group that is smaller than usual. A mini group usually consists of one
counsellor and a maximum of four clients. Because of the smaller number of
participants, certain advantages can result from the more frequent and direct
interaction of the group members. Withdrawal by individuals and the development
of factions or cliques are less likely in mini groups.
g. In Groups and Out Groups
Although in-groups and out-groups are not formal groups organised or
overseen by counsellors, they often have important influences on client behaviours.
These groups can be based on almost any criteria: socio-economic status, athletic
or artistic accomplishments (in schools especially), a particular ability, racial or
cultural origins, and so forth. In-groups are characterised by association mostly
with peers who share the defining characteristic, and out groups consist of those
who are excluded from in groups. In many counselling situations, it is important for
counsellors to understand how clients see themselves and others in terms of in or
out groups.
h. Social Networks
Although not a group in a formal sense, a social network results from the
choices that individuals make in becoming members of various groups. As
counsellors we may be concerned with how these choices are made and what their
impact is on individuals. Sociologists engage in social network analyses to
determine how the interconnectedness of certain individuals in a society can
produce interaction patterns influencing others both inside and outside the
network.
9.3.1.3 Goals of Group Counselling
One of the major goals of group therapy is about bringing people who do share
similar experiences. Group therapy primarily focuses on a specific mental health
concern, such as social anxiety or even depression.
A trusted group therapy definition comes from the American Psychological
Association (APA). It states that group therapy is a group of patients (who often
share a common experience) led by one or more therapists for the purpose of
development or learning. Goals of Group Counselling include:
1. Supporting other group members
2. Fostering personal growth
3. Social skill development
4. Developing interpersonal awareness
5. Increasing self-awareness
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6. Holding accountability
7. Understanding internal motivations
Therapeutic groups can be formed in a number of ways. For example, groups
may focus on a particular mental health issue (e.g., panic disorder, depression) or
around a common experience (grief, loss of a partner). Therapists often recommend
Group Counselling to patients who are already in individual therapy, as group
therapy can offer particular benefits and perspective to these patients. For example.
Alcoholic Anonymous (Al-Anon)
Al-Anon members are people, just like us, who are worried about someone
with a drinking problem. Al-Anon Family Groups, founded in 1951, is an
international mutual aid organization for people who have been impacted by
another person's alcoholism. The Al-Anon Family Groups are a fellowship of
relatives and friends of alcoholics who share their experience, strength, and hope in
order to solve their common problems. We believe alcoholism is a family illness and
that changed attitudes can aid recovery.
Al-Anon suggests the words of the Serenity prayer can help us gain perspective,
sort out what we can and cannot do, and know when to act and when to let go.
Slogans raised by Al-anon Groups
1. One Day at a Time.
2. Think.
3. Let Go and Let God.
4. Easy Does It.
5. Listen and Learn.
6. Together We Can Make It.
7. First Things First.
8. Live and Let Live.
9. How Important Is It? “It's not important for me to comment on
everything I hear.
10. Easy Does It. ““Easy Does It” suggests not only that I learn to slow
down, but also that I learn to lighten up.
11. Keep an Open Mind.
12. Think.
13. Progress Not Perfection.
14. Keep Coming Back.
15. But for the Grace of God.
The size of groups can vary widely based on factors like organizational needs
and therapist preference. The American Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA)
states that group therapy has an optimal range of seven to ten members per
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therapist. Groups must be large enough to include an array of input from members
but not so large that participation suffers.
9.3.1.4 Structuring Groups
According to McCauley. A structuring any groups begin the counselling group
by talking about less personal subjects, then build your way up to the more intense
conversations. A group counselling section should be divided up into three
segments: activity, conversation, and conclusion. Each segment has a specific
purpose.
Structure in counselling is defined as a joint under- standing between the
counsellor and client regarding the characteristics, conditions, procedures, and
parameters of counselling. Structuring refers to the interactional process by which
structure is reached.
To know the practical consideration of organization of group guidance
activities; plan and organize the group guidance activities such as career
conferences, orientation programme, class talks, career talks. Visit to career fairs,
etc;. Deal effectively with the problems of organization of such group guidance
activities
Techniques involved in Group Counselling
Group guidance includes a variety of activities like orientation, career talks,
class talks, career conferences, educational tours to an institution, industry,
museum, laboratory, etc.
Principles in Group Counselling
 Group Cohesiveness
 Universality
 Interpersonal Learning
 Instillation of Hope
 Imparting Information
 Corrective Recapitulation of the Primary Family Group
 Catharsis
 Altruism
Group counselling refers to the routine adjustment or developmental
experiences provided in a group setting. Group counselling focuses on assisting
counselees to cope with their day to day adjustment and other concerns. The main
drawback of Group Counselling is the level of intervention is not as focused and
intense for any single person as individual therapy. Less confidentiality. Cognitive
therapeutic Groups is the most common form of therapy and has seen the most
success since it helps people to re-examine their thoughts and engage in exercises
that promote a more positive way of viewing their feelings and thoughts.
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9.3.2 PROCESS OF GROUP COUNSELLING

The group therapy model allows participants to achieve a greater level of self-
awareness. This happens through the process of interacting with others group
members who provide honest feedback on how the member's behaviour impacts
others. There are many different types of therapeutic groups, but most therapy
groups can be divided into two main approaches. These approaches are psycho-
educational group therapy and process-oriented group therapy.
The Process of Group Counselling are..,
1. Explain expectations upfront. Individuals' expectations of group therapy
must be realistic.
2. Build cohesion quickly. The issues being addressed can set the tone of
the group and the speed at which it bonds.
3. Seek feedback.
4. Identify and address ruptures.
Group leaders must understand and manage stages of development,
cohesiveness, norms and conflicts in order to establish an effective team. These
processes are influenced by group and organisational characteristics and by the
ability of group members and leaders to direct these processes in a positive
manner.”
Determining the Characteristics of the Group
a. Size of the group
First of all the size of the group is to be decided. The size should be
appropriate for the activities planned and outcomes anticipated. Size will also have
an influence on the operational format of the group. Format planning includes
determining the types of activities of the group, the length of time allotted for each
group session, the number of sessions, and the setting.
b. Role of the counsellor
Another important thing is the role of the counsellor whether active or passive.
Counsellors work with clients experiencing a wide range of emotional and
psychological difficulties to help them bring about effective change and/or enhance
their wellbeing. Clients could have issues such as depression, anxiety, stress, loss
and relationship difficulties that are affecting their ability to manage life
c. Invited or voluntary participation
Sometimes the group members are voluntarily participating in the group
activity/ counselling or sometimes they are asked/invited for the same. The
characteristics of the group are decided and then the members are selected. The
counsellor must verify that what strategies he/she is going to apply on group each
and every member of the group should get benefit from it.
d. Structure or operational format
In establishing the membership of the group, the leader must verify that the
planned activity will respond to the needs of the individual member and that the
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structure or operational format will be comfortable for the group member. In large
groups, such as those organised for orientation purposes, career needs, or other
special information purposes, this is not necessarily essential, but for smaller,
intimate groups, it is an important consideration.
THE PROCESS OF GROUP COUNSELLING AS PER THE FIELD PRACTICE
Monitoring the Ongoing Activities
Once the activities start the counsellor observes not only the benefit accrued to
the group members but also the behaviour of all members is taken into
consideration and the interactive effect of their communication with one and other
are noted. Whatever changes take place in the members as result if interaction in
the group is noted by the counsellor which may be used by him in individual
sessions also. The counsellor must, therefore, be constantly on the alert to detect
such changes and symptoms and to use his or her skills to minimise these effects.
The ongoing activities of the group are meaningful only as long as they promote the
progress of the group and its members toward their goals. Also the productivity of
group members in the right direction is necessary. It is checked by the counsellor
from time to time.
Evaluating Outcomes and Productivity
The counsellor also evaluates the outcome of the group members. The goals
and measures of the group counselling should be clear. The counsellor should
monitor the ongoing process in this regard. Criteria for measuring outcome should
also be decided. This would decide which method and activity is more effective Such
evaluations can assist counsellors and others involved to determine which group
guidance activities are most effective and which techniques within groups are most
and least effective.
Values Development Activities for Groups
It is believed that rights are equal for man and woman, education of all,
freedom to express emotion, respect for elderly these all are values. The counsellor
also takes care of the value of society, family, culture etc. to the group members.
The values also represent what a person considers important in life, and these
ideas of what is good or worthwhile are acquired through the modelling of the
society and the personal experiences of the individual.
Values of Group Counselling
Individuals can explore, with the reinforcement of a support group, their
developmental and adjustment needs, concerns, and problems. Groups can provide
a realistic social setting in which the client can interact with peers who not only are
likely to have some understanding of the problem or concern that the client brings
to the group but who will, in many instances, also be sharing the same or a similar
concern. The counselling group can provide the sense of security group members
need to interact spontaneously and freely and take risks, thus promoting the
likelihood that the needs of each of the members will be touched on and that the
resources of peers will be utilised. The old saying that misery loves company may
fact provide a rationale for group counselling. People are more comfortable in
sharing a problem with others who have similar experiences, and they may also be
more motivated to change under these conditions. Group counselling may give the
client an opportunity to gain insights into his or her own feelings and behaviour.
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Yalom (2005), in discussing the group as a social microcosm, stated that “a

freely interactive group, with few structural restrictions, will, in time, develop into a
social microcosm of the participant members”. He also points out that given enough
time in the group setting, clients will begin to be themselves, interact with others,
and create the same interpersonal universe they have experienced, including the
display of maladaptive, interpersonal behaviour to the group.
Yalom also states that corrective emotional experiences in groups may have
several components, including the following:
 A strong expression of emotion which is interpersonally directed and
which represents a risk taking on the part of the patient.
 A group supportive enough to permit this risk taking.
 Reality testing which allows the patient to examine the incident with the
aid of consensual validation from the other members.
 A recognition of the inappropriateness of certain interpersonal feelings
and behaviour or of the inappropriateness of certain avoided
interpersonal behaviours.
 The ultimate facilitation of the individual’s ability to interact with others
more deeply and honestly.
As clients gain new insights into their behaviours and feelings from interactions
with members of the counselling group, their self concept may also undergo a
change. Because self concept has significant influence on an individual’s personal
social adjustment and his or her perception of school and career decision making,
the opportunity to bring about positive change in self concept through new insights
provided by the group counselling experience can be a very valuable benefit.
Group counselling provides clients with an opportunity to develop positive,
natural relationships with others. The personal interactions that take place within
the group counselling structure provide an excellent and continuous opportunity
for group members to experiment with and learn to manage interpersonal relations.
This includes developing sensitivities to the needs and feelings of others. It also
provides opportunities for members to learn of the impact their behaviours have on
others. Thus, through the group process and its interactions and sharing of
experiences, clients may learn to modify earlier behaviour patterns and seek new,
more appropriate behaviours in situations that require interpersonal skills.
Group counselling offers opportunities for clients to learn responsibility to
themselves and others. Becoming a member of a counselling group implies the
assumption of responsibilities. Even when clients show initial tendencies to avoid
assuming responsibility for their own behaviour, or avoid contributing to the
group’s interactions, or refusing to accept their “assignment” within the group etc.,
these avoidance techniques will usually fade as group relationships develop and
group goals are established.
The interactions within the group motivate us to plan and act and serve as a
standard for judging the worth of activities, achievements, things, and places. In
short, values give direction to life and, hence, behaviour. On the other hand, people
who do not know what they value often engage is meaningless, non-productive, and
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usually frustrating behaviour. In both individual and group counselling,

understanding the client’s values can help the counsellor understand the client’s
behaviour, goals or lack of goals, and what is or has been of significance in the
client’s life.
a. Termination
For these same reasons, members may resist the termination of a counselling
group. The very nature of counselling groups with their emphasis on interpersonal
relationships, open communication, trust, and support promises the development
of a group that the membership may want to continue indefinitely. It is therefore
important from the very beginning that the group counsellor emphasises the
temporary nature of the group and puts forth if appropriate, specific time
limitations.
The counsellor also reminds the group, as the time approaches, of the
impending termination. This does not mean that the counsellor alone is responsible
for determining the termination point of a group. Although the counsellor may, of
course, assume this responsibility, termination may also be determined by the
group members or by the group members and the counsellor together. Termination,
like all other phases or stages of the group counselling experience, also requires
skill and planning by the counsellor.
Termination is obviously most appropriate when the group goals and the goals
of the individual members have been achieved and new behaviours or learning’s
have been put into practice in everyday life outside the group. The group will also
be ready to terminate when, in a positive sense, it has ceased to serve any
meaningful purpose for the members. Under less favourable circumstances, groups
may be terminated when their continuation promises to be non-productive or
harmful, or when the group progress is slow and long term continuation might
create overdependence on the group by its members.
9.3.3 GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Group development refers to the process by which members of newly formed
work teams learn about their teammates, establish their roles and responsibilities,
and acquire the task work and teamwork capabilities required to coordinate their
effort to perform effectively as a team.
a) Three model stages in Group development
Three stage model of Group Development to be very useful in group counselling
process especially handling large rehabilitative groups. The stages are (a) beginning
stage: getting established and transitioning, (b) middle stage: connecting and
producing, and (c) ending stage: consolidating and forecasting.
b) Tuckman Model of 5 Stages in Group Development
Tuckman's model explains that as the team develops maturity and ability,
relationships establish, and leadership style changes to more collaborative or
shared leadership. Bruce Tuckman has developed one of the well referenced models
in which there are five consistent stages of group development: forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning. Most groups progress through these stages.
Each stage builds on the previous stage and prepares the group for performing.
Even with a compelling model, remember a few cautions: Some recent studies
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suggest that groups manifest behaviours from several stages atonce. Groups may
return to earlier stages when some event takes place that disturbs theequilibrium
of the group (e.g., new group members, changing of the group’s goals or
procedures).
Stage 1 – FORMING
This stage mainly discussing with the forming the group, setting ground rules
and finding similarities. The initial forming stage is the process of putting the
structure of the team together. Team members feel ambiguous and conflict is
avoided at all costs due to the need to be accepted into the group. Team members
look to a group leader for direction and guidance, usually CORAL project guides.
Observable Behaviours
The Following are called as observable behaviours.., Politeness, Tentative
joining, Orienting with others personally, Avoids controversy, Cliques may form,
Need for safety and approval
Attempts to define tasks, processes, and how it will be decided here, Discussion
of problems not relevant to the task
Feelings and Thoughts
Many feel excited, optimistic, and full of anticipation, Others may feel
suspicious, fearful, and anxious working with others, What is expected of me, Why
are they here, Uncertainty and Apprehension,
Team Needs
Team mission and vision, Establish specific objectives and tasks, Identify roles
and responsibilities of team members, Establish team ground rules, Team member
expectations, Operational guidelines for team, Effective in class meetings, Effective
Chat meetings, 1st set of feedback from project guides,
Leadership Required
Project Guides & Instructors, Provide structure and task direction, Allow for
get-acquainted time, Create an atmosphere of confidence and optimism, Active
involvement, Team members believe an appointed leader necessary to make
decisions, One-way communication from leader to team-members
Stage 2 – STORMING
Dealing with issues of power and control; surfacing differences.
This stage begins to occur as the process of organizing tasks and processes
surface interpersonal conflicts. Leadership, power, and structural issues dominate
this stage.
Observable Behaviours
Arguing among members, Vying for leadership, Differences in points of view
and personal style are evident, Lack of role clarity, Team organizing itself, Power
struggles and clashes
Lack of consensus-seeking behaviours, Lack of progress, Establishes
unrealistic goals, Concern over excessive work
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Feelings & Thoughts

Feel Defensive, Confusion, loss of interest can result, Resistance to tasks,
Fluctuations in attitude about the team, Unsure if I agree with teams mission and
purpose, Question the wisdom of team members, Increase in tension and jealousy,
Unsure about my personal influence and freedom in the team, We're not getting
anywhere,
Team Needs
Inter & intra personal relationships, Identify stylistic and personal differences,
Effective listening, Giving and receiving feedback, Conflict resolution, Clarify and
understand the team’s purpose, Re-establish roles and ground rules, How to deal
with ‘some’ team members violating team codes of conduct, Receiving Feedback
from project guide,
Leadership Required
Project guide & Instructors acknowledge conflict, Project Guides suggest that
consensus among team members, Get members to assume more task
responsibility, Concept of Shared Leadership emerges, Teach conflict resolution
methods, Offer support and praise, Actively involved Team members begin
consulting one another shared leadership emerging but have difficulty with decision
making
Stage 3 – NORMING
Managing group conflict; finding group norms; resurfacing similarities, In this
stage, team members are creating new ways of doing and being together. As the
group develops cohesion, leadership changes from ‘one’ teammate in charge to
shared leadership. Team members learn they have to trust one another for shared
leadership to be effective.
Observable Behaviors
Processes and procedures are agreed upon, Comfortable with relationships,
Focus and energy on tasks, Effective conflict resolution skills, Sincere attempt to
make consensual decisions, Balanced influence, shared problem solving, Develop
team routines, Sets and achieves task milestones,
Feelings & Thoughts
Sense of belonging to a team, Confidence is high, Team members feel a new
ability to express criticism constructively, Acceptance of all members in the team,
General sense of trust, Assured that everything is going to work out okay, Freedom
to express and contribute
Team Needs
Develop a decision making process, Be prepared to offer ideas and suggestions,
Problem solving is shared, Utilizing all resources to support the team effort, Team
members take responsibility in shared leadership skills, Receiving Feedback from
project guides,
Leadership Required
Shared leadership, Give feedback and support from Project Guides, Allow for
less structure
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Promotes team interaction, Asks for contributions from all team members,
Collaboration becomes clearer, Encouraging others in making decisions, Continues
to build strong relationships
Stage 4 – PERFORMING
Functioning as an effective group. True interdependence is the norm of this
stage of group development. The team is flexible as individuals adapt to meet the
needs of other team members. This is a highly productive stage both personally and
professionally.
Observable Behaviours
Fully functional teams, Roles are clearer, Team develops independence, Team
able to organize itself, Flexible members function well individually, in subgroups or
as a team, Better understand each other’s strengths and weaknesses and insights
into group processes
Feelings & Thoughts
Empathy for one another, High commitment, Begin understanding collaborative
work ethic Tight bonds emerge, Fun and excitement, Lots of personal development
and creativity, General sense of satisfaction, Continual discovery of how to sustain
feelings of momentum and enthusiasm
Team Needs
Project guides assure team is moving in collaborative direction, Maintain team
flexibility
Measure knowledge performance – post test, Provide information, Giving and
Receiving
Feedback and Dialogue with project guides
Leadership Required
Shared Leadership being practiced, Observing, Inquiring, Fulfilling, team
needs, Collaborative efforts among team members, Project guides provides little
direction, Team members offer positive reinforcement and support, Share new
information
Stage 5 – ADJOURNING
This stage also termed as finding closure. In this stage typically team members
are ready to leave (course termination) causing significant change to the team
structure, membership, or purpose and the team during the last week of class.
They experience change and transition. While the group continues to perform
productively they also need time to manage their feelings of termination and
transition.
Observable Behaviours
Visible signs of grief, Momentum slows down, Restless Behaviour, Bursts of
extreme energy usually followed by lack of energy,
Feelings & Thoughts
Sadness, Humour (that to outsiders could appear cruel), Glad it is over – relief
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Team Needs
Evaluate the efforts of the team, Tie up loose ends and tasks, Recognize and
reward team efforts, Leadership Required, Project guides help team develop options
for termination Good listening, Reflection and carry forth collaborative learning to
next opportunity
The final stage, adjourning, involves the termination of task behaviours and
disengagement from relationships. A planned conclusion usually includes
recognition for participation and achievement and an opportunity for members to
say personal goodbyes. Concluding a group can create some apprehension in effect,
a minor crisis. The termination of the group is a regressive movement from giving
up control to giving up inclusion in the group.
9.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Group counselling the concept of this gratification of needs through
groups is considered in great detail as the counsellor uses these groups
to help the individual to overcome not only individual problems.
2. A T-group or training group is a form of group training where
participants learn about themselves through their interaction with each
other.
3. The marathon en-counter group uses an extended block of time in
which massed experience and accompanying fatigue are used to break
through the participants’ defences.
4. Psycho educational groups are tend to be short term in duration and
focused on specifically delineated goals.
5. Al-Anon members are people, just like us, who are worried about
someone with a drinking problem
9.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is T-Groups?
2. What is Quasi Group?
3. What is Encounter Group?
4. Who is Al-anon?
5. Explain Cognitive therapeutic Group?
6. Narrate the values required for Group Counselling.
9.6 SUMMARY
The counselling group can provide the sense of security group members need to
interact spontaneously and freely and take risks, thus promoting the likelihood that
the needs of each of the members will be touched on and that the resources of
peers will be utilised. Group counselling provides clients with an opportunity to
develop positive, natural relationships with others. The personal interactions that
take place within the group counselling structure provide an excellent and
continuous opportunity for group members to experiment with and learn to manage
interpersonal relations
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9.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES

1. Explain the stages of Group development with field examples.
2. What are characteristics are determining the Group?
9.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Group Development, .
9.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define the Stages of group development as per Tuckman and Justify
that it applicability into your filed.
2. Bring out the Tamil Slogans for Al-anon group encountering their
problems.
9.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Adams, K. M., Hester, P. T., & Bradley, J. M. (2013). A historical
perspective of systems theory. Industrial and Systems Engineering
Research Conference.
2. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology - 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
3. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling & Counselling, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd., New Delhi
4. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi
5. Zastrow H. Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
9.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Study the differentgroups when you reporting for field practicum as per
this Chapter?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on Group
Counselling and Group Development which is conducted by your
university or any other educational Institutions.
9.12 KEY WORDS
Stages of Group Development, Models of Group Development. Group Structure,
Goal of Groups Counselling

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LESSON – 10
COUNSELLING IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling may take place anywhere but some kind of physical setting may
promote and enhance the counselling process better than others. Benjamin (1987)
and Shertzer and Stone (1980) emphasise that among the most important factor
that influences the counselling process is the place where counselling occurs.
Though there is no universal quality that a room should have certain optimal
conditions within the room where counselling is to be rendered can provide a
conducive environment to both counsellor and counselee.
Counselling is a personal or individual process. Counselling is a series of direct
contacts with the individual which aims to offer him assistance in changing his
attitudes and behaviour. It is always personal. It cannot be performed with a group.
Counselling students can begin to acquire a counselling style tailored to their own
personality by familiarizing themselves with the major approaches to therapeutic
practice in social work aspects. Webster Dictionary defined that Counselling means
“consultation, mutual interchange of opinion, deliberating together”. This Unit gives
an a approaches to counselling and psychotherapy, presenting the key concepts of
each approach and discussing features such as the therapeutic process (including
goals), the client-therapist relationship, and specific procedures used in the
practice of counselling.
Counsellors can be found everywhere from a school to hospitals and from
rehabilitation facilities to workplaces. Some also maintain a private practice.
Settings in which a counselling professional may work include private practice,
community settings, the legal system, group homes, long-term care facilities, short-
term care facilities, in advocacy roles, and in the educational system.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
 To facilitate the students of Social Work to understand the settings of
counselling and inculcate the values of the counselling by them.
10.3 CONTENTS
Counselling in different Settings
10.3.1 Government Setting
10.3.2 Private Sectors Settings
10.3.3 Civil Society Setting
10.3.4 School Settings
10.3.5 Community Settings
10.3.6 Family Settings
10.3.7 Industrial Setting
10.3.8 Health Settings
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10.3.9 De-Addiction Settings

10.3.10 Correctional Settings
10.3.11 Counselling to HIV/AIDS Patients
10.3.1 Government Setting
Counselling settings vary widely but the processes, methods, and tools used by
counsellors are very similar. Counselling professionals in government setting work
with the various government agencies that have counselling services such as social
welfare, correctional department, the court system, child and women affairs
services, schools, military, police, hospitals, mental and foster homes, and
rehabilitation centres. Sometimes, other specialized departments also have units of
counsellors such as intelligence-gathering departments, military and police
departments, presidential guards, and special advisories.
10.3.2 Private Sectors Setting
In the private sector, counsellors range from independent providers of services
or work for NGOs, or specialized for profit centres and organizations that render a
variety of counselling services. The processes, methods, and tools used by
counsellors in the private sectors setting remain very much the same as in the
government setting.
10.3.3 Civil Society Setting
The context of civil society is generally charities or non-profit and issue-based
centers or organizations such as for abused women, abandoned children and
elderly, veterans, teachers, professionals, or religious groups. The processes,
methods, and tools used resemble each other.
10.3.4 School Setting
In the school setting, the role of the school counsellor is more complex since
the needs of students can vary widely. This. gives rise to the more dynamic and
complex role of school counsellors; it depended on a school’s local circumstances as
well as by the dynamism within the profession itself. As such, school counsellors
assume many different responsibilities and tasks based on the particular needs of
students and the school context. Historically, it was understood that “guidance
process occurs in an individual in a developmental sequence to the age of maturity”
(Coy 1999). Guidance, based on this insight, tends to be more cantered on the
developmental needs of individuals.
Frank Parsons, known as the “Father of Guidance and Counselling,” developed
a vocational program that matched an individual’s traits with a vocation. This
insight-oriented school counselling to vocational guidance. The roles of guidance
here “were similar to modern career counselling with a focus on the transition from
the school to work, emphasizing an appropriate client-occupational placement
match”. In the United States, with the launching of Sputnik in 1957 and the
passing of the National Defence Education Act (NDEA) in 1958, the NDEA “poured
millions of dollars into schools of education to train a new generation of counsellors
who would be expected to identify and assist promising American youths to enter
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the sciences and pursue higher education”. School guidance counsellors began to
encourage students with high aptitude in the areas of math and science to take
more courses to prepare for college so that they. might become future technological
innovators.
Changes in the School Counsellor Training
Today, the training of school counsellors has changed. Counsellors are taking
on many new tasks and roles. School counsellors are now educated and
experienced in knowledge and skill-based programs that stress counselling,
guidance, consultation, coordination, and referrals (Coy 1999). The role of the
school counsellor has progressed from providing guidance and career information
to addressing the developmental needs of students. They can help students to learn
effectively by addressing the diverse areas and the challenges that may interfere
with their learning.
Common Concerns that May Interfere with Student Learning
Some common concerns that can interfere with the learning process include:
suicide, violence, divorce, child abuse, unwanted pregnancy, drug addiction,
truancy, increasing dropout rates, decreasing economic resources, peer pressure,
poverty, and decision-making skills. Guidance counsellors can provide early
intervention for the prevention of various school-related problems. In this sense,
the school counsellors have to collaborate with their school colleagues in the
expansion of new models for interventions. Therefore, the role of the professional
school counsellor is intricate and versatile. It is very important that school
counsellors “define their role better by recognizing that they cannot do their work
alone and they need to collaborate with other stakeholders” (Sears & Granello
2002). The role of counsellors is hugely consultative. They are not the centre of a
school counselling program or advocates for students and their caregivers; they are
facilitators who are highly educated to effectively collaborate and coordinate direct
and indirect services required for students to be able to succeed in the school
environment and their personal lives.
Multiple Roles of School Counsellors
Apart from their counselling roles, school counsellors are also assigned non-
counselling roles. Non-counselling tasks can range from part-time teaching,
secretarial responsibilities, substituting for teachers when they are not available,
lunch duty, and other responsibilities assigned by administrators and staff looking
for extra assistance. Non-counselling tasks can take a considerable amount of time
and pull school counsellors away from more appropriate counselling activities.
Presence of these non-counselling roles often brings confusion and lack of
effectivity to the guidance programs of school (Dahir 2004).
Evidence show that the efforts to delineate the school counsellor’s work have
been done in the United States and in the Philippines. In 2003, the American
School Counsellor Association (ASCA) National Model was developed and was
“preceded by efforts at delineating the best way to organize and manage
professional school counsellors’ work” While professional associations such as
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ASCA have strongly encouraged their members to endorse and utilize their model
and the national standards associated with it, school principals have historically
exerted a major influence on the role of school counsellors regardless of
recommendations by professional organizations
In the Philippines, the roles of schools counsellors have been prescribed and
professionalized the practice (Republic Act No. 9258). However, due to lack of
qualified school counsellors, the guidance counselling functions are rarely fully
implemented and provided. Furthermore, school counselling programs are
understaffed and school counsellors are faced with an increasing student to
counsellor ratio. A ratio of 250 students for every counsellor is recommended by
ASCA while the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) for the Philippines
recommends 1:500 or in a worse situation, 1:1000 (CMO 21 s. 2006). Far from
providing a full range of guidance services, schools’ guidance programs have tended
to provide the minimum services such as administering psychometric tests,
interviewing new students and transferees, reacting to problems of students, and
counselling the problematic students.
Strengthening School Counselling
Acting proactively implies that school counsellors supported by administrators,
“use data gathered on student performance to develop their school counselling
programs and to help teachers customize educational practices to meet students’
individual needs”. They can also “collect data on the effectiveness of their overall
program, rather than documenting random lessons and the number of children
they see”. In any case, increased accountability require that measures are
undertaken by school administration to ensure that data are collected on school
counselling programs to prove program effectiveness in the lives of students. Since
school counsellors have a responsibility to serve all students, the main path for
school counsellors to reach all students is to put into practice through the use of
comprehensive school guidance counselling programs that include classroom
guidance lessons. All students can benefit from school guidance programs if they
are realistically designed and collaboratively implemented in an environment that is
keen at scaffolding growth of children and young adults.
By all means, guidance and counselling services are indispensable to the full
transformation of a child that unblocks all barriers to students’ individual and
holistic development. While everybody sees the manifestations through the
student’s behaviour and performance, the serious job of looking beneath the
manifestations and address the root causes is indeed a critical role of guidance and
counselling leadership. As such, the school counsellors have to constantly develop
and maintain an effective school counselling program. The programs must have a
distinct focus per cluster of students from K-12 and collegiate levels while keeping
the generic guidance and counselling services.
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The Role of the Elementary School Counsellor

Developmentally, the social-emotional needs of humans at this stage can be
marked distinctively. However, there are several factors that may be responsible for
behavior differences such as home environment, family size, economic status,
intellectual ability, and so on. Counsellors build their program expectations on
common experiences of this age group. The roles of counsellors are that of
intervention and prevention in connection with the common problems that are
likely to interfere with the ability of children to achieve their greatest academic,
social, and personal potential
In this light, Ward and Worsham (1998) see the primary role of the K-6 or
elementary school counsellors to include development and implementation or
facilitation of classroom guidance activities, individual and group counselling,
parent education, parent and teacher consultation, referrals to professionals and
public agencies, and crisis intervention and management. The goal is to address
and remediate the students’ problems early enough to increase the chance of
helping them successfully cope with unique demands that confront adolescents
when they reach middle school and high school. A smooth transition at this stage
prepares students for smoother transition in the next stage of life and in the future.
The Role of the Junior High School Counsellor
At this developmental stage of life as young adolescents, grade 7 through 10,
the primary role of the junior high school counsellor is to provide guidance and
counselling in dealing with peer relationships and social interactions, and as such,
includes work with students, teachers, and parents in an attempt to help each
understand the other (Ward & Worsham 1998). Outside of this focus are the
general guidance services such as consulting with teachers, parents, and staff
regarding meeting the developmental needs of each student, interpreting tests, and
providing orientation to transferees and new students.
The Role of the Senior High School Counsellor (Grade 11 - Grade 12)
For Ward and Worsham (1998), the primary role ‘of senior high school
counsellors is to provide guidance and counselling pertaining to educational and
career decisions as well as college placement counselling. In addition, other
common services are also made available to meet the needs of individuals or
groups, and provide orientation activities for transferees or new students to the
school.
The Role of the College Level Counsellor (College to Post-graduate Level)
On the collegiate level, the roles of school counsellors include counselling,
appraisal and assessment, information, placement, research and evaluation, follow-
up, and student activities.
 Maintain students’ confidential, appropriate, usable, and regular,
updated cumulative records, which contain relevant information about
students such as family background, test data, court, notes, etc.
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 Facilitate maintenance of an active networking with the home,

community, industry, and other relevant agencies for career and job
placement of students/graduates.
 Work in collaboration with all other units and personnel of the school
like the faculty, staff, and administrators to effect a holistic guidance
program.
 Help ensure that academic accommodation is made available to learners
with special needs.
 Provide referrals whenever necessary.
 Provide information materials on career and job opportunities.
 Provide skills development programs.
 Maintain an institutional and valid students’ appraisal data for
curricular and co-curricular placements for students.
 Sustain a continuous follow-up and monitoring of student placement on
a regular basis.
10.3.5 Community Setting
The community has the greatest and widest application of counselling services
considering the diversity of people who constitute the community. There are people
who are in conflict with the law, socially marginalized, people who suffer a loss of
all kinds, those living in institutional homes, and those experiencing different types
of life transitions that need counselling support and services. The community
setting creates a crossroad for individual context and group context. Therefore, the
needs recognized and addressed on other levels are equally present in the
community setting.
10.3.6 Family Setting
In family setting the counselling are done, if the problems are related to the
children or teenagers, then they are required to take counselling along with parents
or other members of that family involved to the problems. In the cases regarding
couple disharmony, it is advised for both member to attain the counselling session.
Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT) is a form of psychotherapy that addresses
the behaviours of all family members and the way these behaviours affect not only
individual family members, but also relationships between family members and the
family unit as a whole.
Marriage counselling is important for addressing marital concerns
because: Counselling helps couples take time out of their busy lives and come
together to really focus on themselves. The counsellor acts as a sort of mediator
between the spouses and facilitates healthy and effective communication. For
example, if a child is having social and academic problems, therapy will focus on
the family patterns that may contribute to the child's acting out, rather than
evaluating the child's behaviour alone
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Family Counselling is a form of group therapy that addresses the behaviours of

all family members and the way they affect not only individual family members but
also relationships among family members and the family as a whole. Even at the
court, Churches and other institutions are having Family counselling in a
structured manner.
Types of Family Counselling
 Structural therapy.
 Strategic therapy.
 Systemic therapy.
 Narrative therapy.
 Transgenerational therapy.
 Communication theory.
 Psycho-education.
 Relationship/Marriage Counselling
Role of family Counsellor
They evaluate family roles and development, to understand how clients'
families affect their mental health. They treat the clients' relationships, not just the
clients themselves. They address issues, such as low self-esteem, stress, addiction,
and substance abuse.
10.3.7 Counselling at Industrial Settings
Industrial counselling increases the productivity of employee and the
confidence about the work. The corporate world is getting changed and so the HR
process also. Counselling not only helps employees but also show how much the
organization cares for employees.
Industrial setting means manufacturing or processing plant, resource
extraction site, auto repair shop, printing press, commercial carwash or any other
contained workplace area which requires cleaning of specific and extraordinary soil
from hardsurfaces.
Counselling is an effective and preventive people management strategy for
organizations to help employees’ better managing stress, personal issues or work
related problems. Benefits to the organization: Decrease costs related to turnover,
burnouts, absenteeism & accident-related disability. According to Keith Davis –
“Employee counselling involves a discussion of an emotional problem with an
employee with the general objective of decreasing it.”
Employee counselling can be explained as providing help and support to the
employees to face and sail through the difficult times in life.
In the organizational context, it is a sort of discussion with an employee about
a problem that has usually emotional content in order to help him cope with it in a
better way. The basic objective of counselling is to bring an employee back to his
normal mental position in which he was before the emotional problem emerged.
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Such an emotional problem might have emerged due to the mal-adjustment of

the employee because of organizational factors or his personal factors. Some of the
organizational factors causing this mal-adjustment may be nature of job, nature of
supervision, apathetic work group, interpersonal conflict, etc.
Employee’s personal factors may be his personal and family life, unwelcome
happening in his family life, his inability to meet job requirements, etc. All these
factors lead to emotional mal-adjustment, and if it is not overcome by proper
counselling, the employee may show the sign of breaking up which is dysfunctional
to both the organization as well as the employee.
Hughes and Kinder (2007) have identified the following models in Industrial
Counselling:
1. In-house service (organization employs a counsellor or hires a counsellor
on a contract)
2. External Provision (Employee Assistance Program, EAP)
3. Hybrid (internal and external services)
4. Outsourced
5. Public sector
6. Contracting with a local counsellor for small and medium enterprises
The Role of the Counsellorat Industrial Setting
The counsellor should be able to identify the problem and offer concrete advice.
The counsellor should be able to help the employee to boost the morale and spirit of
the employee, create a positive outlook and help employees to make decisions to
deal with the problem.
Friery (2006) has suggested the following purposes of work placecounselling:
1. To provide a safe and healthy work environment.
2. To provide support to employees to deal with major changes in work and
non-work-related areas of life.
3. To reduce stress among employees.
4. To work for welfare of the employees which enables the organization to
attract as well as retain their valuable and efficient employees.
10.3.8 Counselling at Health Settings
The main purpose of counselling is to help the patient amplify the vision of the
specific situation and discover the proper potential in dealing with the conditions of
disease, in order to promote a better quality of life.
In the counselling of patients by the hospital social service, personal assistance
and initiation of medical, vocational and social rehabilitation measures are
intertwined.
This Health Counsellingmeans a process of helping a client to recognize and
cope with stressful psychological or social problems, to developed improved
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interpersonal relationships, and to promote personal growth. It involves providing

emotional, intellectual, and psychologic support.
In medical settings, the process of Counselling represents a valid intervention made
of a quality interaction between the counsellor and the patient, characterized by the
capacity of the counsellor to empathize with the interior world of the patient
Hospital counsellors are licensed mental health counsellors or licensed social
workers who help patients find beneficial things to do after they are released from the
hospital.
Hospital counsellors work in different hospital settings and are an important part of a
patient's treatment team. They can even help get insurance authorized so that the family
does not have to worry about how the treatment will be paid for.
Most people are in hospitals for a short stay. Therefore, the hospital counsellor’s
primary role is case management, meaning to help the family find important resources
patients need after they are discharged. Patients and their families receive referrals to link
them to everything from home health care aides to summer camps for autistic children.
Unfortunately, some patients have high medical needs due to their acute illnesses and
are treated in Long Term Acute Care Hospitals. Counsellors in these hospitals help the
patients and their families build coping skills to help them work through issues of
depression and anxiety related to their comprehensive treatment for complex diseases.
In psychiatric hospitals, the counsellors do assessments to determine the
patient's mental illness. For example, they may diagnose a patient with severe
depression and make arrangements for a transfer to an inpatient mental health
program. They also are trained to recognize when a patient has issues with
addiction and take steps to get these patients admitted into alcohol and drug
rehabilitation programs after discharge.
In some instances, patients had a dual diagnosis or more than one diagnosis.
For example, a patient could be diagnosed with liver disease and alcoholism. In
these cases, the hospital counsellor links the patient to resources for both of their
diagnoses.
They also spend time educating the patient and the family about the symptoms
of treatment for the illness. Rochelle did her internship at a psychiatric hospital
and she used skills from her training to make sure Uncle Wesley was not depressed
during his hospital stay.
10.3.9 Counselling at De-Addiction Settings
Substance abuse counsellors provide a necessary support system for
individuals recovering from eating disorders, drug and alcohol issues, gambling
addictions, and other behavioural issues. Recently Mobile addiction, TV Serials
addiction, Game show Addiction are added in the list after pandemic period. By
forming a relationship built on trust with their patients, counsellors provide the
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support, resources, and judgement-free guidance that patients can utilize on their
road to addiction recovery.
Counsellors in this field help addicts with both crisis and long-term addiction
management issues, which can range from immediate medical intervention, to supporting
them manage their recovery long term.
The decision to seek treatment for addiction is no easy one, and requires a great deal
of trust between patients and their counsellors. As such, counsellors should take care to
create a strong bond with their patients, known as a therapeutic alliance.
A therapeutic alliance is the trust patients feel with their counselors, allowing them
to feel vulnerable sorting out their problems and work together effectively. Strong
alliances like this ensure that patients view their counsellors as trustworthy, and know
that their best interests are on the forefront. This allows counsellors and patients to work
together even during tribulation.
While this trust takes time to develop, patients should eventually feel comfortable
speaking freely during sessions, feel relief after an appointment, and feel a desire to go
back.
Strong therapeutic alliances can be made by
1. Ensuring patients know you are interested in their well being.
2. Attentiveness during sessions.
3. Letting patients know you can empathize with their problems.
4. Understanding and communicating the foundational issues at play in
recovery.
Therapeutic alliances are a key factor to addiction recovery. By creating an
environment where patients feel comfortable and welcome discussing their
hardships, counsellors can better help their clients on the road to recovery.
Role of the Counsellor in De-addiction settings
a) Encourage Patient Recovery
Recovering from addiction is difficult, as many individuals with alcohol or drug
dependency fail to recognize their own patterns of abuse, or have ambivalent
feelings about seeking treatment. In substance abuse treatment, the patient’s
motivation to change has often been a source of frustration, since counsellors have
little control over a patient’s desire to change.
The counselling community is rethinking current approaches to motivation, by
empowering the counsellor to elicit and enhance motivation, and to find a style that
will best meet the needs of the client.
“The most desirable attributes for the counsellor mirror those recommended in
the general psychological literature and include non-possessive warmth,
friendliness, genuineness, respect, affirmation, and empathy,” according to findings
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by the NCBI. In comparison, confrontational counselling which included

challenging the client, disputing, and refuting led to opposite results. “In this study
the more a client was confronted, the more alcohol the client drank.”
Although change is ultimately the in the hands of the patient, counsellors can
adapt their style to help enhance client motivation throughout each stage of their
recovery. The counsellor’s role goes far beyond simply listening, teaching, and
offering advice.
Instead, the responsibility of the counsellor to help patients recognize
problematic behaviours and help guide them into recovery, and empower them to
take action and change these behaviours.
b) Help Patients Develop a Relapse Prevention Plan
The chronic nature of addiction ensures that a large percentage of those
diagnosed will relapse at some point during their recovery. Some studies indicate
that an estimated 40-60 percent of addicts will relapse at some point during their
life, which is on par with many well understood illnesses such as diabetes, asthma,
and hypertension. But relapse doesn’t mean treatment has failed, rather, it serves
as an indicator that treatments need to be adjusted to best help the patient.
Once the decision to seek treatment for addiction has been made, it’s important
that patients are well equipped to avoid relapse in the future. Preventing relapse
requires more than just the willpower to say “no” when temptation arises, and
prevention needs to start early in the recovery process. Developing a comprehensive
relapse prevention plan is an essential function of the counsellor’s role in addiction
recovery.
Plans will be tailored to the needs of each individual patient, but essential
elements include:
1. A detailed account of the patient’s experience with substance abuse
including previous relapses
2. Warning signs and ways patients can best manage them
3. A detailed list of family, friends, and counsellors that can be used as a
support network
4. An emergency relapse plan
5. Specific lifestyle changes that patients can do to prioritize their well
being
10.3.10 Counselling at Correctional Settings
Once an offender has been convicted and incarcerated, they are often ordered
to undergo counselling while in prison or jail. Through direct interaction with
inmates, corrections counsellors can help prevent recidivism and discourage an
offender from escalating from petty crimes to more serious offenses.
In correctional setting, social workers may work in jails, prisons, community-
based organizations and primary health care agencies that serve ex-offenders, and
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in the courts. Social workers are committed to social justice on both the micro, or
individual, and macro, or large-scale, levels.
Three Types of correctional functions commonly include imprisonment, parole,
and probation. A typical correctional institution is a prison.
These programmes address the different impacts that criminal behaviour has
on these groups and provide programming that is socially and culturally
appropriate for the offenders' needs. Offenders requiring high-intensity
programming are often less motivated to participate.
A range of conceptual models, including cognitive, psycho-educational,
therapeutic, use of medications, lie detectors, deterrence, and other
control/monitoring mechanisms has been used to identify and treat offenders.
A correctional counsellor works to change the mindset of people who have a
history of criminal behaviour. By working on mindset, these counsellors can train
their clients to find more positive responses to the challenges they face in life,
helping them avoid falling back into crime. This helps reduce the risk of re-
incarceration after the inmate’s release.
A correctional counsellor applies the theories of psychology to work with
inmates. They view these inmates as patients and use the same techniques a
counsellor or psychologist would use with the general public. This includes diving
into the emotions and thoughts that drive behaviour, helping patients find those
connections so they can understand them and make better behavioural choices. By
understanding the connection between the thoughts and emotions and resulting
actions, inmates are able to make positive changes in their lives.
Social workers in these positions may provide crisis intervention services and
referrals for education, vocational, counselling, and substance abuse services.
Aftercare: The term aftercare refers to the program and services organized for the
rehabilitation of inmates from correctional institution.
Role of Counsellor
A correctional counsellor, or prison counsellor, works in correctional
facilities to help inmates work through their issues. This counsellor will work with
inmates one-on-one to explore mental health concerns, mindset issues, and
emotional problems that may lead to re-engaging with criminal behaviours
Correctional counsellors may also:
1. Teach life skills classes
2. Evaluate prisoners to determine the best counselling or treatment
approaches
3. Provide job training
4. Monitor behaviour of inmates
5. Meet with the family of inmates
6. Write reports
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7. Maintain case files

The Correctional Counsellor can do the following roles in Correctional Settings
namely..,
1. Probation officers – These professionals supervise and counsel people
who are on probation and not in prison.
2. Parole officers – These professionals work with those who are out on
parole after serving time in jail, working to help them reintegrate into
society successfully.
3. Pre-trial services officers – These professionals evaluate defendants to
determine if they can safely return to normal life in society.
4. Correctional treatment specialists – A correctional treatment specialist
helps develop rehabilitation plans for people to follow as they work
towards rehabilitation and a return to normal life.
Skills Needed for Correctional Counsellors
In order to succeed in a correctional counsellor job, counsellors need specific
skills. First and foremost, they must be able to work with challenging individuals in
potentially dangerous or high-pressure environments. Prison work is always a risk.
They should have:
1. Strong organizational skills
2. Critical thinking abilities
3. Exceptional decision-making skills
4. Strong emotional resilience
5. Good skills working with people
6. Strong ability to dig in and find the reasons behind behaviour
7. Healthy dose of patience and compassion
Correctional or Criminal justice social work includes:
1. Providing mental health and substance abuse counselling
2. Finding alternatives to incarceration, such as rehabilitation programs
for low-leveloffenders
3. Helping formerly incarcerated individuals negotiate successful re-entry
into society
4. Working with clients to change patterns of criminal behaviour
5. Advocating for clients within the criminal justice system
6. Advocating for policies that address both clients’ interests and need for
public
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Treatment Types in Correctional institutions

Correctional institution is nothing but a panel of institutions maintained by the
government.
Types of Correctional Institutions for Institutional Treatment
1. Prisons
Prisons are the place in which criminals could be securely confined and this
containment function had continued to predominate in spite of the gradual
emergence of other alms for imprisonment, such as deterrence or rehabilitation.
2. Observation Homes
Observation homes established for the temporary release of any juvenile in
conflict with law during the pendency of a case before the juvenile justice board.
Every juvenile who is not placed under the change of parent or guardian is sent to
an observation home. He/she initially kept in a reception unit of the observation
home for preliminary enquiries. Care and classification of the juveniles is done
according to his/her age group, such as 7-12 years, 12-16 years and 16-18 years,
giving due consideration to physical and mental status and degree of offence
committed.
3. Special Homes
Under juvenile justice (care and protection) Act, 2000 state government is
empowered for establishing and maintaining special homes for reformation and
rehabilitation of juveniles in conflict with law. Such homes are maintained by the
government or by certified voluntary organizations. In these homes, various types of
services are provided which necessary for the re- socialize of a juvenile
4. Children Homes
Children homes are meant for the reception of children in need of care and
protection during the pendency of enquiry even for their stay as the case may be.
Every child’s home is provided with facilities of accommodation, maintenance,
education, vocational training, rehabilitation and development of character and
abilities.
5. After-care Organization
These organizations are meant for the juveniles’ discharge from the children’s
homes and special homes. The purpose of the aftercare organization is to help in
the rehabilitation and resettlement of children through extended educational and
vocational training facilities including job placement. The stay in aftercare
organization is restricted to a maximum of three years over seventeen years of age
till he/she attains the age of till he/she attains the age of 20 years on the basis of a
discharge report prepared by competent authority.
6. Protective Home for Women
The protective home and corrective institutions are established Under the
Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act by the Directorate of Social Welfare. It admits girls
and women, who are rescued from brothels, are abducted and kidnapped (section
366 IPC), raped (section 376 IPC) and are in moral danger. The girl and women can
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get admission only through the orders of the court and will continue to stay till the
Court gives the order for her restoration or rehabilitation.
7. Short Stay Home
It is the institution established under the Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act
(ITPA) by the Government/Union Territory Administration. The purpose is to
provide temporary shelter to the needy women/girls in distress, pending their
restoration or readjustment in their families or admission in suitable institutes. The
short stay home provides admission to girls and women in the age group of 18 to
45years. Who are destitute, distressed, deserted or are in moral danger. The
duration of stay in a short stay home is restricted to 6 months. The home provides
safe custody, boarding, lodging, food, clothing, medical care and vocational training
like tailoring and knitting. The superintendent of short stay home makes all efforts
to restore or, reintegrate the women/girl in her family or through marriage
8. Beggars Rehabilitation Home
These homes are established under the Anti-Beggary laws of the state
government. Unfortunately, there is no Anti-Beggary Act formulated at the national
level. These Acts are formulated by the state at their own initiatives. Reception
centres and Beggar Homes are established under this Act. Beggar homes provide
specialties like food, shelter, accommodation, medical care, non-formal education
and vocational training to beggars so they are economically rehabilitated into
society.
10.3.11 Counselling to HIV/AIDS Patients
Counselling in HIV and AIDS has become a core element in a holistic model of
health care, in which psychological issues are recognised as integral to patient
management. HIV and AIDS counselling has two general aims:
1. The prevention of HIV transmission and
2. The support of those affected directly and indirectly by HIV.
It is vital that HIV counselling should have these dual aims because the spread
of HIV can be prevented by changes in behaviour. One to one prevention
counselling has a particular contribution in that it enables frank discussion of
sensitive aspects of a patient's life such discussion may be hampered in other
settings by the patient's concern for confidentiality or anxiety about a judgmental
response. Also, when patients know that they have HIV infection or disease, they
may suffer great psychosocial and psychological stresses through a fear of rejection,
social stigma, disease progression, and the uncertainties associated with future
management of HIV.
Good clinical management requires that such issues be managed with
consistency and professionalism, and counselling can both minimise morbidity and
reduce its occurrence. All counsellors in this field should have formal counselling
training and receive regular clinical supervision as part of adherence to good
standards of clinical practice.
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Aims of counselling in HIV infection

a) Prevention
 Determining whether the lifestyle of an individual places him or her at
risk
 Working with an individual so that he or she understands the risks
 Helping to identify the meanings of high risk behaviour
 Helping to define the true potential for behaviour change
 Working with the individual to achieve and sustain behaviour change
b) Support
Individual, relationship, and family counselling to prevent and reduce
psychological morbidity associated with HIV infection and disease
Different HIV counselling programmes and services
a) Counselling before the test is done
b) Counselling after the test for those who are HIV positive and HIV
negative
c) Risk reduction assessment to help and prevent transmission
d) Counselling after a diagnosis of HIV disease has been made
e) Family and relationship counselling
f) Bereavement counselling
g) Telephone “hotline” counselling
h) Outreach counselling
i) Crisis intervention
j) Structured psychological support for those affected by HIV
k) Support groups
10.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Government agencies that have counselling services. Spell out the
departments having counselling.
2. Preventing relapse requires more than just the willpower to say “no”
when temptation arises, and prevention needs to start early in the
recovery process.
3. Health Counselling means a process of helping a client to recognize and
cope with stressful psychological or social problems, to developed
improved interpersonal relationships, and to promote personal growth
4. Industrial counselling increases the productivity of employee and the
confidence about the work
5. Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT) is a form of psychotherapy that
addresses the behaviours of all family members
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6. The community setting creates a crossroad for individual context and

group context.
10.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Who is Family counsellor?
2. Who is Probationer?
3. Who is School Counsellor?
4. What is Substance addiction?
5. Who is Al-anon?
10.6 SUMMARY
Today, the training of school counsellors has changed. Counsellors are taking
on many new tasks and roles. School counsellors are now educated and
experienced in knowledge and skill-based programs that stress counselling,
guidance, consultation, coordination, and referrals. Frank Parsons, known as the
“Father of Guidance and Counselling,” developed a vocational program that matched
an individual’s traits with a vocation. This insight-oriented school counselling to
vocational guidance. All students can benefit from school guidance programs if they
are realistically designed and collaboratively implemented in an environment that is
keen at scaffolding growth of children and young adults.
10.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Compare the School Counsellor and Correctional Counsellor with
suitable examples.
2. What are skills required for the Industrial Social worker at the time of
Industrial Counselling?.
10.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Journals and Periodical related to Community Health & Community Mental
Health and Counselling.
10.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Study the School in your area and find the importance of Counselling
for the students.
2. Go to Social Defence setting and get permission to exercise Psychiatric
Social Work Practice.
10.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Morgan and King, 1979 Introduction to Psychology-6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co.., Ltd.., New Delhi.
2. Narayan Rao,S.,1991 Counselling& Guidance, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co.,Ltd.,New Delhi
3. Ray Wolfe and Windy Dryden;1996,Handbook of Counselling
psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi
4. Zastrow H.Charles, 2003 The Practice of Social Work: Applications of
Generalist and Advanced Content, Brooks/ Cole, Thomson
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10.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Study your nearby community and find yourself where it may require
the counselling practice?
2. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be attended on mental health
and Community Mental Health conducted by your university or any
other educational Institutions.
10.12 KEY WORDS
Counselling, Al-anon, De-addiction, Juvenile, Justice, Jurisprudence
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