470 e 210 Community Organisation Practice

470E210
1 - 13
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Master of Social Work (MSW)

Second Year
DDE
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION PRACTICE
LESSONS : 1 - 13
Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (MSW)
SECOND YEAR
Editorial Board
Members
Dr. M.Nagarajan
Dean
Faculty of Arts
Annamalai University,
Annamalainagar
Internals
Dr. J.Krishnamurthi Dr. Kirubakaran Samuel
Professor and Head
Professor and Head
Department of Sociology
Sociology Wing, DDE
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Annamalainagar..
Annamalainagar.
Dr. P.Chiristuraj Dr. R.Murugesan

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Sociology Wing, DDE Sociology Wing, DDE
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Annamalainagar Annamalainagar
Lesson Writer
DDE
Dr. R. Dakshinamurthy
Associate Professor
Dept. of Social Exclusive and Inclusive Policies
Bharathidasan University
Trichy
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SECOND YEAR
SYLLABUS
Unit – I: Community
Community: Sociological Concept of Community. Types of Communities and
their characteristics.
Community power structure and political organisation of the community.
Factious, sub groups and Minority groups.
Community Dynamics: integrative and disintegrative process in the
Community, Conflict and tension resolution system in the Communities.
Unit – II: Community Organisation
Community Organisation: Definition – objectives – Principles – Community
Organisation as a method of Social work. Community Organisation and Community
development.
Unit – III: Methods of Community Organisation
Methods of Community Organisation: planning – education – communication -
community participation - collective decision-making - involvement of groups and
organisations - re-source – mobilisation - community action - legislative and non-
legislative action - Co-ordination.
Unit – IV: Phases of Community Organisation
Phases of community organisation study: analysis – assessment – discussion -
organisation – action – evaluation – modification - continuation. Uses of social
survey - community study.
Community Organisation during fire - flood and war. Community
organisations in slums. Community Organisation for promoting public health and
family welfare.
Unit – V: Social Action
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Social Action: Definition – objectives – Principles - methods and strategies of
social action. Social action as a method of social work. Social action and social
reform. Social action and social legislation.
Role of social worker in Community Organisation and Social action.
Text Books
1) Dunham, E. Arthur, Community Welfare Organisation Principle and Practice,
1985.
2) Gangrade, K.D. Community Organisation in India, Popular Prakashan,
Bombay, 1975.
Reference Books
1) Hillman and Arthur, Community Organisation and Planning, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1967.
2) Ross Murray, G. Community Organisation Theory and Principles, Harper and
Brothers, New York, 1977.
3) Murthy, M.V. Social Action, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1987.
4) Murphy and G. Campbell, Community Organisation Practice, Hougton Mifflin
Co., New York, 1984.
5) Morgan, A.E., The Small Community, Harper Brothers, 1986.
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SECOND YEAR
CONTENTS
Lesson Title Page No.

1. Community: A Sociological Concept 1
2. Community Power Structure 9
3. Minority Groups 14
4. Community Dynamics Integrative and Disintegrative

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Process of Community
5. Conflict Resolution System 29
6. Community Organisation 34
7. Role of the Community Organiser 42
8. Principles of Community Organisation 46
9. Methods of Community Organisation 61
10. Phases of Community Organisation 68
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11. Community Organisation in Emergency Situation 73
12. Community Organisation in Different Settings 80
13. Social Action 84

LESSON – 1
COMMUNITY: A SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Community is a permanent social group embracing a totality of ends or
purposes. McIver defines community as “an area of social living marked by some
degree of social coherence.” We know that a person rarely exists alone. He is linked
in many ways to his fellows who farm a group. We cannot however expect a man to
become the member of all the groups existing in the world. He can establish
relations only with the people who reside near him in a definite part of the territory.
It is in evitable that people who over any length of time reside in a particular
locality should develop social like ness, should have a common social ideas,
common traditions and sense of belonging together. This fact of social living and
common specific area gives birth to community.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
 To facilitate the students to have a clear understanding about the features of
community.
1.3 CONTENTS
1.3.1 Definitions of Community
1.3.2 Elements of Community
1.3.2.1 Community as Locality
1.3.2.2 Community as Sentiment
1.3.3 Types of Community
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1.3.4 Rural Community
1.3.5 Features of Rural Community
1.3.5.1 Community Consciousness
1.3.5.2 Role of Neighbourhood
1.3.5.3 Joint Family
1.3.5.4 Faith in Religion
1.3.5.5 Simplicity
1.3.6 Urban Community
1.3.7 Features of Urban Community
1.3.7.1 Namelessness
1.3.7.2 Homelessness
1.3.7.3 Class extreme
1.3.7.4 Social Heterogeneity
1.3.7.5 Social Distance
1.3.7.6 Energy and Speed
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1.3.8 Tribal Community

1.3.9 Features of Tribal Community
1.3.9.1 Territorial Community
1.3.9.2 Common Descent
1.3.9.3 Practice of Taboos
1.3.9.4 Endogamous Group
1.3.9.5 Political Organisation
1.3.1 DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNITY
A community is that collectivity the members of which share a common
territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities –Talcott parsons.
Community is “a human population living within a limited geographic area and
carrying on a common inter-dependent life – Lundberg
Community is “a any circle of people who live together and belong together in
such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only, but whole
set of interests –Mannheim
Community is “a social group with some degree of “we felling” and “living in a
given area”-Bogardus.
1.3.2 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY
In the concept of community the two basic elements are those of geographic
area and sentiment of community.
1.3.2.1 Community as Locality
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The community is a territorial group which shares a common soil as well as
shared way of life. It is no accident that people concentrate at a particular place
and cluster together. Nearness facilitates contact, furnishes protection and makes
easier the organisation and integration of the group. People living in the same
locality come to have a distinctive community life. Once a group of people get
settled, an element of space enters into the social relationship. Local groupings
become more important than even blood relationship. People, who live in the same
locality, though they belong to different bloods, form a community. Even an
immigrant who does not belong to kinship may become a member of the local
community.
An important aspect of the physical structure of the community to which
attention may be drawn is its unplanned physical structure.No long range
preconceived plan stands behind the different areas of modern community, the
village, the city and region. The result has been congestion, use of physically
deteriorated habitations and other buildings, unbalanced development of various
areas of living and of business activity. This situation so general of large cities
needs proper community planning for its solution.Some of the leading countries
like great Britain, united states, soviet Russia have put into operation some of the
proposals for planning the community. In Punjab, the town Chandigarh has been
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built according to a plan dividing the town into numerous sectors earmarked for
specific habitations. But the task of rehabilitating the physical structure of a
community is a complex one being faced with several difficulties of a practical
nature like scarcity of materials, design difficulties, opposition of vested interests. It
may be easy to design the shape of new community but it is all the more difficult to
redesign one already established.
1.3.2.2 Community as Sentiment
Community is more than the locality it occupies. It is also sentiment. The
people living at a common place and leading their lives in one another’s company
come to develop “we-feeling”. The place they occupy is to them much more than a
portion of earth’s surface – it is their “Home”. Living together makes them share
common memories and traditions; customs and intuitions. It shapes their attitudes
and interests. Sense of community becomes impressed in their depths of their
personality. The community sentiment becomes a part of his own individuality. The
individual identifies his interest with larger interest of the group. He feels
indissolubly bound up with it so that to him the community is “bone of his bone
and flesh of his flesh”. He carries a sense of dependence of the community, which is
both physical and psychological since his materials wants are satisfied within it
and since it sustains him and provides him solicitude. In the community every
individual has his own status and he should make his contribution towards the
working of the community in accordance with this status. The community
sentiment induces this desire for contribution because this is a part of community
sentiment. Thus, community sentiment is marked by three ingredients of we-
feeling, sense of dependence and roll feeling. Every community has its own
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customs, interests, beliefs, superstitions, folktales, myths and folkways.
It may, however, be noted that community sentiment is a changing
phenomenon. Today none of us belongs to one inclusive community, but to wider
communities at the same time. Man today is a member of several groups, which
satisfy the diverse needs of his personality. He feels attached to these groups which
replace the community sentiment. This is most observable in a large city when
neighborhood as a community may not exist at all. The development of local
transport also has lessened the coherence and intensity of community sentiment.
Then the developing physical contacts of the rural people with the urban people
facilitated by the modern rapid means of transport have weakened the attachment
to the village community and reduced the extent of dependence upon it. In short
under modern conditions attachment to local community is decreasing. Man today
has tended to find it in the appeal of larger groups.
1.3.3 TYPES OF COMMUNITY
Human communities may be classified on the basis of many different criteria.
A large number of classifications of human communities have been made and have
been found useful for different purposes. A very broad and familiar classification is
based on the size and density of the population, in terms of which we classify
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communities as, rural, urban and, tribal. In this chapter we shall discuss vividly
about all these three types of communities for infusing more ideas about them.
1.3.4 RURAL COMMUNITY
Life in village community is simple and uniform as opposed to urban
community. A rural community is marked by primary contacts between its
members which involve persons living close to and well acquainted with each other.
As a result in the village everybody knows everybody personally. There are
immediate contacts between the neighbors in the village. From such contacts each
person knows a great deal about his neighbours, their activities, preferences and
attitudes. Status of each one in the village community is well known. Thus there is
a strong we-feeling in the rural community.
1.3.5 FEATURES OF RURAL COMMUNITY
The features of village community are marked by several features. The
important ones are the following.
1.3.5.1 Community Consciousness
The village dwellers have sense of unity. The relations between the village
people are intimate. They personally know each other. Their customs, convention
and culture are common. They jointly take part in religious celebrations.
Structurally and functionally the village is a unit.
1.3.5.2 Role of Neighbourhood
In a village neighborhood is of great importance. There is not enough of
individuality and speed in the life of the village to disable one from paying attention
to his neighbor –his sorrow, and joys. In the village people assist each other and
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thus they have close neighborhood relations.
1.3.5.3 Joint Family
Though in the cities the joint family system is breaking down, yet in the
villages it still retain its hold. The agricultural occupation requires the cooperation
of all the family members. The men plough the field, the women harvest the crops
and the children graze the cattle.
1.3.5.4 Faith in Religion
The people in the village have deep faith in religion and deities. Their main
occupation is agriculture which largely depends upon the vagaries of nature. The
farmer acquires an attitude of fear and awe towards natural forces and starts
worshipping them.
1.3.5.5 Simplicity
The village people lead a simple life. It is not ostentatious. They are far away
from the evils of modern civilization. They are simple and plain people believing in
god. They do not show pretensions. Their behavior is natural and not artificial.
They live a peaceful life. They are free from mental conflicts. They do not suffer
heart strokes. They are sincere, hospitable and hard working. The level of mortality
is high. Social crimes are very rare. Their life is governed by norms. In this way, the
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village is a community whose members have a sense of unity, close neighborhood

relations, faith in religions, and a simple life in a joint family.
1.3.6 URBAN COMMUNITY
It is a “loose integration of several family groups”. Nearness between the
members of the community counts much less in urban community compare to
rural community. In large cities, it is largely a group of “neigh-dwellers”
characterized chiefly by the fact that the members reside with in a particular
geographic area. In a city neighborhood the people generally do not come into close
contact and sometimes do not even know each other. Some of you must have
experienced the difficulty of finding the house of your relative in the big city if you
did not know it already. We may say it in cities neighborhood community does not
exist.
1.3.7 FEATURES OF URBAN COMMUNITY
1.3.7.1 Namelessness
The urban group is known for namelessness by virtue of its size and
population. The inhabitants of a city do not come into primary contact with each
other. They meet and speak without knowing each others name. Although
superficial means of politeness and mutual convenience evolve in the city, they are
mechanical. The city dweller treats the strangers he meets as animated machines
rather than human beings. A citizen may live for several years in a city and may not
know the names of one third of the people who live in the same city area. “The
urban world puts a premium on varied recognition”. In short, urban contacts are
segmental. It is a part of persons, not a whole person that are known. Anonymity is
a loss of identity in a city teeming with millions. Many urbanites live in a social void
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or vacuum in which institutional norms are not effective in controlling or regulating
their social behavior. Although they are aware of the existence of many institutional
organisations and many people around them, they do not feel a sense of
belongingness to any one group or community. Socially, they are poor in the midst
of plenty”.
1.3.7.2 Homelessness
Homelessness is another disturbing feature of city community. The house
problem in a big city is very acute. Many low class people pass their nights on the
pavement. The middle class people have but insufficient accommodation without
any play space for play. A city environment puts a premium on the child less ness.
1.3.7.3 Class extreme
Class extreme characterize urban community. In a city are found the richest
as well as poor people, the people rolling in luxury and living in grand mansion as
well as the people living on pavements and hardly getting two meals a day. The best
forms ethical behavior and the worst racketeering or both to be found in the cities.
Superior creativeness and chronic unemployment are alike urban features. The
cities is the home of opposites.
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1.3.7.4 Social Heterogeneity

The city is more heterogeneous than the village. It has “been the melting pot of
races, peoples and cultures, and is a most favorable breeding ground of biological
and cultural hybrids. It has not only tolerated but rewarded individual differences.
It has brought together people from the ends of the earth because they are different
and thus useful to one another rather than because they are homogeneous and
likeminded. The Personal traits, the occupations, the cultural life and the ideas the
members of the urban community vary widely than rural inhabitants.
1.3.7.5 Social Distance
Social distance is a product of anonymity and heterogeneity. The city dwellers
feels lonely. There is masking of one’s true feelings. Most routine social contacts are
impersonal and segmented. Formal politeness takes the place of genuine
friendliness. Urbanities become night dwellers, not neighbors.
1.3.7.6 Energy and Speed
Energy and speed are the final traits of a city. People with ambition work at a
tremendous speed, day and night, which stimulate others also to work similarly.
Stimulation and inter stimulation are endless. People indulge into many activities
and inconceivable efforts which ultimately eat their nerves and kill their energies.
Urban life promotes greater emotional tension and insecurity than rural life does.
Cities may be called consumers of population. They are consumers of population in
the sense also that due to congestion, insanitariness, unhealthiness they adversely
affect the health of inhabitants. It may be of interest to note that the death rate in
rural areas is lower despite that fact that rural areas spend very little money on
public health while cities spend much and in cities facilities for preserving health,
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such as hospital and medical specialist, are many and excellent. Sickness rates are
higher in cities. There are more cases of in sanity and heart failures in urban
community than in rural one.
1.3.8 TRIBAL COMMUNITY
The tribe generally refers to territorial communities living in a relative isolation
of hills and forest. They represent a collection of families or group of families,
bearing a common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak same
language, and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession and
occupation and have developed a well assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality
of obligation. A tribe is ordinarily an endogamous unit, is a political unit in the
sense that the tribal society owns a political organisation. Tribal community is
known for following features.
1.3.9 FEATURES OF TRIBAL COMMUNITY
1.3.9.1 Territorial Community
Tribal’s represents a collection of families or group of families. This tribal
collection used to occupy a particular locality in the hills and forest for their group
living. As the locality is the physical basis of community, the tribal’s who begin to
reside in a definite locality is called as territorial community.
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1.3.9.2 Common Descent

Generally, tribal’s are claiming a common descent from a mythical or historical
ancestor and occasionally from animal. Hence, the tribes are referred as a social
group with common descent.
1.3.9.3 Practice of Taboos
Tribal’s are observing certain taboos in their day today life with regard to
marriage, profession or occupation and even in their religious and economic life to
maintain control over the group member as well to accomplish the ordered life in
their community life.
1.3.9.4 Endogamous Group
Tribals are endogamous group. As a rule the members marry mostly within
their own tribal group. The tribal system does not permit the practice of marriage
outside the caste.
1.3.9.5 Political Organisation
Each tribe has its own political organisation. There is a chief of the tribe who
exercise authority over all the members of the tribe. The tribal chief occupies an
eminent position in the tribal organisation.
1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Community is permanent social group embracing a activity of ends are
purposes.
2. The community is territorial group shares a common soil as well as shared
way of life.
3. The community sentiment becomes part of his own individuality. The
individual identifies his interest with larger interest of the group.
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4. Human communities may be classified on the basis many different criteria,
bases on the size and the density of the population as rural, urban and
tribal communities.
5. The tribe generally refers to territorial communities living in a relative
isolation of hills and forest.
6. Community is referred as a group of people living in a geographical area, due
to dependency, inequality and exploitation in social work practice.
1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define the concept of community
2. Explain the Characteristics of Tribal community.
3. Distinguish between the rural community and urban community.
1.6 SUMMARY
Community is referred as a group of people living in a geographical area
which is affected due to dependency, inequality and exploitation in social work
practice. So, the community has to make an effort either spontaneously or through
the guidance and stimulation of an individual expert in the realm of community
organisation to accomplish independency, equality and non-exploitative social
milieu.
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1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES

1. Bring out the different elements of Community.
2. Define the different types of Community.
1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Journals and Periodical related to Community and Community
Organisation.
1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define the Community Organisation and its elements.
2. Bring out the features of rural Community.
1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS /REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
1. Ram, Ahuja, 1993, Indian Social System, New Delhi, Rawat Publication.
2. Bhushan, Vidya, and Schdeva. D.R, 20008, XLII Edition, An Introduction to
Sociology, New Delhi, Kittab Mahal.
1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Couple of Seminars and Workshops may be arranged on Community
Organisation.
1.12 KEY WORDS
Community, Community consciousness, Rural community, Urban community,
Tribal community.

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LESSON – 2
COMMUNITY POWER STRUCTURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Power is defined as the capacity to control the behaviour of others even against
their will. Floyed Hunter who conducted a study on power has said that power is
not based on one’s individual characteristics but on his ability to influence the
actions of others. In other words, power is existed in the relationship with others.
Individuals, of course, may have various bases of power. The main bases are
Money, intelligence, information, hard work and position. Social psychologist –John
French and Bertran Raven- have identified five important powers upon the above
said bases of power. They are reward, coercive, referent, expert and legitimate
power. Reward power is based on the leader ability to give recognition, promotions
money, or goods to followers. Coercive power exist when an individual punish
someone who fails to do what is expected. Referent Power is based on the leader’s
personal traits. Charm, charisma, sensitivity, and creativity are all intangible but
very real characteristics of most leaders. They can command are, respect, and
loyalty. Expert power stems from the belief that we should what others tell us to do
because they have more knowledge than we do. Legitimate power produces
compliance because some people believe that obedience is appropriate in some
circumstances
2.2 OBJECTIVES
 To infuse knowledge on the community power structure.
2.3 CONTENTS
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2.3.1 Theories of Power
2.3.2 Community Power Structure
2.3.3 Characteristics of Power Structure
2.3.4 Exertion of Community Power
2.3.4.1 One Person
2.3.4.2 Tightly–Knit Group
2.3.4.3 Split Community
2.3.4.4 Power Pool
2.3.4.5 Amorphous
2.3.1 THEORIES OF POWER
Elitism and pluralism are the two major theories of power. According to the
theory of pluralism, decision making is the result of competition, bargaining and
compromise among the diverse special interest groups. In this view power is widely
distributed throughout a society or community. On the other hand, according to
the theory of elitism, a community or society is controlled from the top by a few
individuals or organisations. Power is said to be concentrated in the hands of an
elite group with common interests and backgrounds. Individual who exercise the
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power is termed as power actors. The power actor forms the power structure in the
community. The word “structure ’’ implies something rather static, but coalitions
change and shift depending on the issue and circumstance.
2.3.2 COMMUNITY POWER STRUCTURE
Community power structure is a universal aspect of social integration.
Community power structure refers to distribution of power at the local community
level in making community decision. It plays an important part in shaping relations
among the members of a group. In groups, some members are more powerful than
others and this fact has important consequences for group functioning. Further, all
forms of social interaction involve differences in the relative power of the
participants to influence one another. Thus power differences enter into
determining the relations between the members of the community.
It is not necessary that a man who has power in one situation will not be
powerful in all the situations. In other words, power is relative matter. Until some
one’s power is actually tested in a particular situation, there is only a certain
probability that he will be able to carry out his despite position. In a different
situation the probability will be different the extent of one’s power is known from
two things First thing speaks about total number of people influenced by their
behavior. Second refers anent the number of occasions their behavior has
influenced others. The more the people are influenced for more and more times, the
more powerful a leader is. The extent of power of a person may determine the
status of the person exercising power. A person like the Prime Minister possesses
great status in societies because he possesses great power, but sometimes a person
may also possess great status independently of his power, for example Rabindra
Nath Tagore enjoyed great status thought he had little power to influence the
behavior of the people.
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2.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER STRUCTURE
1. The power does not operate independently.
2. Power is always a pact of relationship
3. As a community changes from small, tightly, -knit, and rather
homogeneous, It involve from simple to more complex.
4. In urban setting, where the power structures are more complex, these is a
greater emphasis on specialization of skills & knowledge.
5. It is more specialized and focused.
2.3.4 EXERTION OF COMMUNITY POWER
The distribution of power in society is closely related with the distribution of
statuses and offices. Usually the whole social structure may be viewed as a
legitimate power system. A man may exercise power because of his status and
position which he enjoys in the social structure. Thus the power of a teacher over
his students, an employer over his employees, and a principal over his staff may be
due to the position or authority which they enjoy. But a man may also have power
over others independently of his position. A child may influence the behavior of his
parents, though the parents may have authority over the child. Thus we may
distinguish between what may be called structural or positional power and all other
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kinds of power. The first may be given the name of authority and the other may be
called unauthorized power. When the ability to influence is determined solely by
one’s status – for instance, in the relation between the teacher and students, it is
structural or positional power. It need not be referred that the bases of status are
numerous. Among the most important are positions in a formal organisation,
money, social connections, prestige due to past performances, knowledge, skill and
physical characteristics. Any of these bases may give power to a person over others.
If, therefore, we want to know the source of a man’s power in a given case, part of it
may be due to his status and part may be from his role in this status.
Lundberg and others have mentioned three kinds of power: coercive power,
utilitarian power and identities power. The coercive power is that power which uses
or threatens the use of physical means to obtain compliance. The utilitarian power
uses material rewards. The identities power use’s symbols that are not physical
threats nor material rewards but which influence people to identify with the
organisation, viewing its interests as their own.
Power has also been classified on the basis of influence into three types i.e.,
force, domination and manipulation. Under force the person influences the
behavior of others through physical force e.g. the force of a wrestler. When power is
exercised through order or advice it is of domination type, e.g. the power of the
parents over the children or of the teacher over the students. When a person
influences the behavior of others without telling his own intentions, it is known as
manipulation, e.g., propaganda or advertisement.
From the legal point of view, power has been classified into (i) legitimate and
(ii) Illegitimate. Legal power may be of three kinds i.e., legal power, traditional power
and charismatic power. Legal power is the power given by the law and the
constitution of the country, for example, the power of the army or the police. The
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sources of traditional powers are the customs and traditions of the society, e.g. the
power of the parents or the teachers. The source of charismatic power lies in some
peculiar quality, e.g. the power of religious ‘guru’ like Sai Baba over his followers.
Illegitimate power is one not recognized by the society, e.g. the power of dacoits.
The contemporary sociologist has classified the power structure into five. They
are one person, Tightly–knit group, split community, power pool and amorphous.
Now let us discuss this contemporary classification of community power structure.
2.3.4.1 One Person
An individual makes all the community’s decision in this type. Like pyramidal
structure, the social power will be concentrated on single person. It is fairly a rare
situation in current times, even in rural areas.
2.3.4.2 Tightly–Knit Group
A small group of power actors with common interest and a great deal of
interaction represent this tightly–knit group. This group could also designate as a
cohesive or clique power structure. Like the previous one, this is also a rare
phenomenon.
2.3.4.3 Split Community
Two opposing groups or individuals who are vying for dominance is called as
split community. This situation is probably most visible when some, type of strong
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outside pressure for change develops. Other variations are the factional or
competitive power structure where two more interest groups or power blocks
compete for control.
2.3.4.4 Power Pool
A loosely knit group of power actors who know each other, but are not all
involved in every decision. It is similar to a fragmented structure which is
comprised of many cliques forming temporary coalitions. It is most common in large
urban communities. Coalition power structures are shifting coalitions which come
together around specific issues.
2.3.4.5 Amorphous
New communities, such as apartment complexes mobile home parks, etc., may
have on apparent pattern of interaction and no identifiable power actors. Thus
power structure is subject to a wide array of outside forces such as state and
federal laws and sources of money outside the community etc.
People obey the power for several reasons. The police power is obeyed in the
basis of law. The obedience to the parental power is traditional while the reason for
obeying a leader may be some selfish interests or social welfare.
People feel uneasy during a discussion of power. According to them concept of
power does not fit the pluralistic society of today. But even a democratic social
order is held together by an overall power structure. There is submission to overall
power in democratic as well as authoritarian society. The majority submit to overall
power because they have no alternative. The conviction that the social order is
“unjust” will not destroy it. Throughout most of the part, a majority have
submitted, obeyed blindly, and suffered a continual injury. Overthrow of the
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holders of power has been rare. Once established, every power structure tends to
continue because of habit and inertia, as well as indoctrination. The larger a total
power system becomes, the more difficult it becomes to overthrow it.
It is very obvious that power may be exerted directly or indirectly. The former
occurs in a formalized relationship from a superior to a subordinate. When power is
exerted indirectly, the individuals may not be aware that they are being influenced.
Such indirect exertion is found both in primary groups and secondary groups.
Power may be exercised through enlightenment, distortion, advice, command,
appeal, inducement, coercion and use of force. Since leadership is generally
conceived as a composite of power functions, the ability of a leader to influence
others with in his group may be derived from any combination of these modes.
It is also evident that power structure perceptibly differs in rural and urban
community. As community changes from small, tightly-knit, and rather
homogeneous, the power structure evolves from simple to more complex. In urban
settings where the power structure is more complex, there is greater emphasis on
specialization of skills and knowledge. Therefore the power structure will be more
specialized and focused. For example the, people who have expertise concerning a
specific community issue may become a source of power when that issue is of
particular concern.
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2.4 REVISION POINTS

1. Power is classified as the capacity to control the bahaviour of others even
against their will.
2. The main bases of power are money, intelligence, information, hard work
and position.
3. Community power structure is a universal aspect of social integration.
Community power structure refers to distribution of power at local
community level in making community decision.
4. The distribution of power in society is closely related with the distribution of
statuses and officer.
5. Usually the whole social structure may be viewed as legitimate Power
system.
6. Power has been classified on the basis of influence in to three types i.e.
force, domination and manipulation.
7. Power has been classified into i) Legitimate ii) Illegitimate.
8. Legal power may be of three kinds i) Legal power ii) Traditional power iii)
Charismatic.
1. Discuss the concept of Power.
2. Describe the characteristics of power structure
2.6 SUMMARY
It is disregarded by the elite theorist that there may be different scopes of
power and that a group having a high degree of influence over one scope may not
necessarily have the same degree of influence over another scope within the some
system. But there are several criticism in her model. Understanding the power
structure can help the community worker more effectiveness work to being about
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community change. This programme has been designed to help develop some tools
for effectively identifying that structure.
1. Define the Characteristics of Power
2. Define the concept of different theories of Power.
2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MAERIALS
1. Hillan and Arthur, Community Organisation and Planning.
2. Morgan A.E, The Small Community.
2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define the various theories on Power Structure.
2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCE BOOKS/ SET BOOKS
1. Bhushan, Vidya, and Schdeva.D.R, 20008, XLII Edition, An Introduction to
2. Shepard.M.Jon. 2000, Sociology, New York, Harper &Row.
1. Seminars and conferences may be organised for the discussion in
Community Power Structure.
2.12 KEY WORDS
Power, Power structure

14
LESSON – 3
MINORITY GROUPS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In everyday usage, minority refers to a relatively small number of people. But a
sociological definition of a minority can apply to groups numerically larger than
others in society. For example, Blocks in South Africa and in parts of southern
United States are minorities even though they outnumber whites. If small number
does not necessarily make minority, what does make minorities. Louis Writh a
famous sociologist has noted the most important characteristics of minority
According to him minorities as a group of people, who because of their physical and
cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they
live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regarded themselves
as objects of collective discrimination. The existence of minority in a society implies
the existence of a corresponding dominant group with higher social status and
greater privileges. Minority carries with it the exclusion from full participation in
the life of the society.
There are several key ideas in the definition of a minority. First, a minority
must possess some distinctive physical and cultural characteristics that can be
used to distinguish its members from the majority. Such Characteristics are used
both as a reminder to the majority that the minority is different and as means of
determining whether a given person is a member of a minority. This is more evident
in the case of physical characteristics than it is for cultural ones. Culturally, a
minority member can “pass” as the member of the majority by a change in name,
the loss of an accent, or the adoption of the majority’s culture.
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Second, whatever its numerical size, the minority is dominated by the
majority. This dominance is reflected especially in a society’s stratification
structure. In almost any society there are desired goods, services and privileges.
Because these “good things “are usually in limited supply, there is a competition for
them. The majority dominates largely because it has accumulated enough power to
obtain an unequal share of the desired goods, service and privileges. The dominant
group can deny minority group members access to desirable resources by limiting
opportunities to compete on equal basis. Minorities, For example, can be denied
good jobs by limiting them to inferior schooling or by not hiring even those who are
qualified.
Third members of minority are denied equal treatment. The distinctive culture
or physical traits of a minority are usually judged by the majority to be inferior to
their own. This per summed inferiority is then used as justification for the unequal
treatment.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
 To give an idea about minorities and the manner of lacking their issues
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3.3 CONTENTS
3.3.1 Classifications of Minorities
3.3.1.1 Racial or Ethnic Minorities
3.3.1.2 Religious Minorities
3.3.1.3 Gender and Sexual Minorities
3.3.1.4 Age Minorities
3.3.1.5 Disabled Minorities
3.3.2 Minorities in Law and Government
3.3.3 Social Work Intervention with Minorities
3.3.4 Steps in Socio Cultural Intervention
3.3.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MINORITIES
Minority groups are being broadly classified into racial or ethnic minorities,
religious minorities, gender and sexual minorities, age minorities and disabled
minorities.
3.3.1.1 Racial or Ethnic Minorities
Every large society contains ethnic minorities. They may be migrant,
indigenous or landless nomadic communities. In some places, subordinate ethnic
groups may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in South Africa under
apartheid. International criminal law can protect the rights of racial or ethnic
minorities in a number of ways. The right to self-determination is a key issue.
3.3.1.2 Religious Minorities
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Persons belonging to religious minorities have a faith which is different to that
held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now
widely accepted in the west that people should have the freedom to choose their
own religion, including not having any religion (atheism or agnosticism), and
including the right to convert from one religion to another. However in many
countries this freedom is constricted. For example in Egypt, a new system of
identity cards, requires all citizens to state their religion - and the only choices are
Islam, Christianity or Judaism (See Egyptian identification card controversy).
A 2006 study suggests that atheists constitute a religious minority in the
United States, with researchers concluding: "Americans rate atheists below
Muslims, recent immigrants, gays and lesbians and other minority groups in
'sharing their vision of American society.' Atheists are also the minority group most
Americans are least willing to allow their children to marry."
3.3.1.3 Gender and Sexual Minorities
While in most societies, numbers of men and women are roughly equal, the
status of women as a "subordinate" group has led some to equate them with
minorities. In addition, various gender variant people can be seen as constituting a
minority group or groups, such as intersexuals, transsexuals, and gender
16
nonconformists — especially when such phenomena are understood as intrinsic

characteristics of an identifiable group.
An understanding of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people as a
minority group or groups has gained prominence in the Western world since the
19th century. The acronym LGBT is currently used to group these identities
together.
The phrase sexual minorities can also be used to refer to these groups, and
in addition may include fetishists, practitioners of BDSM, polyamorists and people
who prefer sex partners of a disparate age. The term queer is sometimes
understood as an umbrella term for all non-normative sexualities and gender
expressions, but does not always seek to be understood as a minority; rather, as
with many Gay Liberationists of the 1960s and '70s, it sometimes represents an
attempt to uncover and embrace the sexual diversity in everyone.
3.3.1.4 Age Minorities
The elderly, while traditionally influential or even (in a gerontocracy) dominant
in the past, have in the modern age usually been reduced to the minority role of
economically 'non-active' groups. Children can also be understood as a minority
group in these terms, and the discrimination faced by the young is known as
adultism. Discrimination against the elderly is known as ageism.
Various local and international statutes are in place to mitigate the
exploitation of children, such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child, as well
as a number of organisations that make up the children's rights movement. The
youth rights movement campaigns for social empowerment for young people, and
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against the legal and social restrictions placed on legal minors. Groups that
advocate the interests of senior citizens range from the charitable (Help the Aged) to
grass-roots activism (Gray Panthers), and often overlap with disability rights issues.
3.3.1.5 Disabled Minorities
The Disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of
disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by
society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates
of disability rights emphasise difference in physical or psychological functioning,
rather than inferiority — for example, some people with autism argue for
acceptance of neurodiversity, much as opponents of racism argue for acceptance of
ethnic diversity. The Deaf community is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural
minority rather than a disabled group, and many Deaf people do not see themselves
as disabled at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social
institutions that are designed to cater for the dominant group.
3.3.2 MINORITIES IN LAW AND GOVERNMENT
In the politics of some countries, a minority is an ethnic group that is
recognized as such by respective laws of its country and therefore has some rights
that other groups lack. Speakers of a legally-recognized minority language, for
instance, might have the right to education or communication with the government
17
in their mother tongue. Countries that have special provisions for minorities
include China, Canada, Germany, India, Romania, Russia, and the United Kingdom
(which does maintain the concept of a British supra-nation, however), or the
Frisians in the Netherlands.
Differing minority groups often are not given identical treatment. Some groups
are too small or too indistinct compared to the majority, that they either identify as
part of the same nation as the members of the majority, or they identify as a
separate nation but are ignored by the majority because of the costs or some other
aspect of providing preferences. For example, a member of a particularly small
ethnic group might be forced to check "Other" on a checklist of different
backgrounds, and consequently might receive fewer privileges than a member of a
more defined group.
Many contemporary governments prefer to assume the people they rule all
belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The
United States asks for race and ethnicity on its official census forms, which thus
breaks up and organizes its population into different sub-groups, but primarily on
racial origin rather than national one. Spain does not divide its nationals by ethnic
group, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages.
Some minorities are so relatively large or historically or otherwise important
that the system is set up in a way to guarantee them comprehensive protection and
political representation. As an example, the former Yugoslav republic of Bosnia and
Herzegovina recognizes the three main nations, none of which constitute a
numerical majority, as constitutive nations, see nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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However, other minorities such as Roma and Jews, are officially labeled as "others"
and are excluded from many of these protections - for example they may not be
elected to a range of high political positions including the presidency.[7]
The issue of establishing minority groups, and determining the extent of
privileges they might derive from their status, is controversial. There are some who
argue that minorities are owed special recognition and rights, while others feel that
minorities are unjustified in demanding special rights, as this amounts to
preferential discrimination and could hamper the ability of the minority to integrate
itself into mainstream society - perhaps to the point at which the minority follows a
path to separatism or supremacism.
3.3.3 SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION WITH MINORITIES
There are two models that seem to hold promise for systematic social work
intervention in to the problems of minority groups. The first model is a three stage
model proposed by De Hoyos et al. who utilize the stages of (1) individual
intervention (2) interactional intervention (3) social cultural interventions as their
basic frame work. Of the three, one and two have been utilized with both non-
minority and minority clients rather effectively. Hence, the third stage of
intervention –socio cultural intervention is very much needed.
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3.3.4 STEPS IN SOCIO CULTURAL INTERVENTION

As the socio–cultural level, social workers know that without conditionally
rewarding roles individuals can only remain forever unrewarded, marginal and
alienated. On the basis of the understanding, professionals can objectively and
openly help minority clients to identify goals by choosing to (1) accommodate to the
majority structure so as to share in its social rewards (2) to reject the
accommodation to the majority structure and build majority institutions (3) strike a
compromise between accommodation to rejection of the majority structure
The second model is entitled as biculturalism presented by De Andi in 1984.
Her thrust was to socialize minorities in two cultures simultaneously an overlap
between the minority and the majority cultures which provides shared values and
norms.
3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Minority refers to a relatively small number of people.
2. A minority must pass same distinctive physical and cultural characteristics
that can be used to distinguish its members from the majority.
3. The minority is dominated by the majority. The dominance is reflected
especially in Society’s stratification structure.
4. The distinctive culture or physical traits of minority are usually judged by
the minority groups are being broadly classified into racial or ethnic
minorities, religious minorities, gender and several minorities, age minorities
and disabled minorities.
5. Two models of social work interaction to the problems of minority groups are
3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS DDE

individual intervention and interactional intervention. refers
1. Explain the concept of minorities

2. Elucidate the types of minorities
3. Elaborate the methods of social work intervention with minorities
3.6 SUMMARY
There is more to minority than small numbers. A minority possesses some
distinctive physical or cultural characteristics, is dominated by the majority, and is
denied equal treatment. Historically, many racial and ethnic groups have been
treated like minorities. Members of the minorities also pay psychological cost for
their subordination. Prejudice and discrimination harm their self esteem as well
their racial or ethnic pride. These psychological cost may be reduced somewhat as a
result of the recent emphasis on racial and ethnic pride.
1. Discuss the methods of social work intervention for minorities.
2. Bring out the different types of minorities.
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1. Morgan A.E, The Small Community.
2. Murthy, M.V, Social action – Asia Publishing House.
3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the minority groups and its different types.
3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS\ REFERENCE BOOKS/ SET BOOKS
1. Ross, MG, 1955, Community Organisation. Theories, Principles and
Practices, New York, Harper & Row.
2. Shepard. M.Jon. 2000, Sociology, New York, Harper & Row.
3. Mishra. P.D, 1994, Social Work Philosophy and Methods, New Delhi,
Inter-India Publication.
1. A group discussion and Workshop may be arranged with experts from
Minority groups.
3.12 KEY WORDS
Minorities, Ethnic or Racial Minorities, Disabled Minorities, Age Minorities,
Religious Minorities, Gender and Sexual Minorities

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20
LESSON – 4
COMMUNITY DYNAMICS INTEGRATIVE AND
DISINTEGRATIVE PROCESS OF COMMUNITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The community organisation worker is expected to know a good deal about the
forces in the community which make for or hinder community integration, and about
the techniques of planning. Hence, we begin with a frame of reference which provides
a guide for community organisation effort. But within this framework, that which is
feasible is determined in considerable degree by the nature of the situation, the
worker's understanding of it, and his skill in working in this situation.
Community is a complex whole, all parts of which are related, interact, and
influence one another. So selecting one part of this whole and identify it as the
primary cause of integration or disintegration is not possible. Even accepting the
"multiple theory" of causation, is difficult to identify the group of forces, which
produces community integration. Therefore almost everything that is said about
subgroups, leadership, symbols and rituals, apathy, etc. has relevance in the
integration of the community members to do developmental activities.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
 To get an idea about the forces that are paving for both integration and
disintegration of the community.
4.3 CONTENTS
4.3.1 Integrative Process
4.3.1.1 Social Structure
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4.3.1.2 Socio-Cultural Patterns
4.3.1.3 Subgroup Relationship
4.3.1.4 Leadership
4.3.1.5 Symbols and Rituals
4.3.2 Disintegrative Process
4.3.2.1 Apathy and Prejudice
4.3.2.2 Individual's Predisposition
4.3.2.3 Individual Develops Status Image for Himself
4.3.2.4 Time Perspective
4.3.2.5 Frame of Reference
4.3.3 Background
4.3.1 INTEGRATIVE PROCESS
The factors which help the community to get integrate are social structure,
socio-cultural patterns, sub group relationship, Leadership, symbols and rituals
and so on.
21
4.3.1.1 Social Structure

The social structure of a community is undoubtedly and positively related to
the degree of integration existing or possible in the community. It is easy to see the
marked differences in the social structure of the small village and city. The
differences in attitude and behavior of the people of these communities are stem
from the differences in organisation and orientation of these two communities.
Each of these is, thus, structured differently with different value systems, customs
and mores, and degree of integration. Even in towns and cities that appear similar,
there are significant differences in integration, and some of these differences may
well stem from unique (but hardly distinguishable) social structures.
What is important for us here is not simply the idea that communities are
structured differently. For the practitioner in community organisation it must also
be recognized that this difference in social structure conditions to some extent the
degree of social integration, the nature of the response of the community to any
community problem, and the manner and pace with which it will deal with such a
problem also differs variously in the different social structures. Like the educator
who adapts himself to the need, level, and capacity of a student, the worker in the
community not only recognize differences in social structure but must adapt his
methods to these differences. It may be pointed out here; also, that the social
structure of a community constitutes a whole, and that change in anyone part of
the structure reacts on all other parts.
It is emphasized that individual's behaviour, belief, and attitudes are shared
with members of his cultural group, it may be necessary to effect a change in the
goals or systems of behaviour of the whole group before any given individual's
behaviour will change in some particular respect. No knowledge of the way an
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individual of a given constitution and capacity may be able to accept or reject
change can ever be used alone, without giving due weight to the nature of the
culture of which he is a part, and his position in the particular social group within
which he lives.
All this is to emphasize the fact that all communities are structured uniquely,
although the differences may be small in some instances; that the parts of these
structures are closely related, and change in one part affects other parts; that the
relationship between parts of a culture is often difficult to recognize and identify;
and that planning in respect to change in any part of the community must consider
its effect on the whole community.
4.3.1.2 Socio-Cultural Patterns
Socio-cultural pattern refers to the traditional behaviour’s of the community
members. As the traditional behaviour’s are common to the whole community, it is
easy for the community organiser to integrate the community in order to
accomplish the community needs. Socio-cultural patterns, thus, refer certain
traditional ways of behaviour which determine to some extent whether the people
will participate actively and cooperatively in community affairs, and determine
almost completely the manner in which they will cooperate or resist. Some of the
practices of the certain communities also help to determine which groups will
22
cooperate with certain other groups, on what kind of project, and in what particular
way.
These are, of course, merely illustrative of the multiplicity of forces which
emerge from, and play upon, the community, influencing of the behavior of
individuals, relations between individuals, relations between groups, and patterns
of behavior in committee, conference, and community life. All these condition a
process such as community organisation, and constitute social facts which the
professional worker must understand and be prepared to cope with.
4.3.1.3 Subgroup Relationship
Subgroups, and the relationship between subgroups, are probably factors
which strongly influence community integration. It seems likely that physical
proximity or coexistence does not, in itself, determine integration or the lack of it.
However, there are three major factors besides nearness of the people, apparently,
may influence the sub group relationship in the community. One is internal -within
the subgroup. Immigrants who were members of highly cohesive groups (kinship,
ethnic, neighborhood, etc.) tended to be more flexible, more disposed to identify
with the whole community, more likely to participate in community affairs. This is
quite contrary to the usual assumption that strong subgroups make for "in-groups"
which develop and maintain their solidarity in opposition to other community
groups. Rather, it suggests a theory (plausible from the theory of individual
psychology) that the secure and well integrated may have less fear of the "outside
world" and more freedom to venture into it than do the insecure. If this were so, it
would, of course, suggest that the community organisation process would boorish
best in communities in which there were few weak and many strong subgroups.
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Second factor relates to the attitudes and practices of government
administrative officers who deal with the new groups. Consistencies of explanation,
of promise, of discipline are factors of importance. Close personal relations, such as
the ability and willingness of the officer to identify with the group, to share their
problems and their conditions of living, to provide friendliness, are characteristic of
government personnel who seemed to facilitate adjustment to, and identification
with, the new community.
The third condition of adjustment of the part to the whole-the subgroup to the
community-is a group of factors which may be met in varying degrees but of which
it may be said that the greater the degree of fulfillment of these conditions the
greater degree of community integration. They consist of (1) development of
subgroup values and aspirations compatible with the common values in the
community (2) extension of the scope of activities from within the group exclusively,
to include various community–wide activities (3) the extent to which the larger
community permits fulfillment of the role expectations and aspirations or
subgroups (4) the development of relationship of subgroup members with older
prestige” member of the community (5)the extent of Identification with the larger
community(6)the extent to which members of sub groups are oriented towards
23
“reference groups” in the wider community and the degree to which these “reference
groups” accept these members of subgroup.
4.3.1.4 Leadership
Community and subgroup leaders appear to play an important role in
determining the degree of community integration. It is also found by an experience
that leadership is an important factor in moral integration. As the leaders receive
extensive attention in the society, there is a continuous search for men with
leadership quality. As to who will be selected from the subgroups to take a position
of leadership in the community, it must be clear that a good deal depends upon the
purpose for which they are to be selected. However “an optimal leadership group
would be: (1) composed of well-educated persons; (2) composed of those whose
original involvement in community affairs sprang from their own interest, the
involvement of their friends, or the-nature of their profession (3) Widely
representative of socio economic groups within the city; (4) Made up in somewhat
equal proportions of those who were born in the city, those who were born
elsewhere but have lived in the community a long time, and those who have lived in
the community a decade or so, (5) Composed of those who have enough contacts
with other segments of the population to enable them to understand their points of
view (social realism): 6 Marked by congeniality but not ‘cliquishness”; (7) Composed
of those who realize the importance of effort and informal organisation in
overcoming public apathy toward community problems. These generalizations
believe to be not just plausible hypotheses but fairly reliable principles.
Community organisation must be concerned not only' with an adequate
identification of group life in the community, but with identification of those leaders
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whose participation in community activity will encourage the involvement and
participation of other members of the group of which they are the leaders. In most
groups we will find both informal and formal leaders. The latter are leaders who
hold their positions by virtue of some office such as teacher, priest, judge, the
president of a business, the mayor. Informal leaders are leaders by virtue of the fact
that some individuals or some group look upon them as persons upon whom "one
can count," whose opinions must be respected," "who can help you when you are in
a jam." Informal leaders depend on a "following" for their status, while formal
leaders may have prestige without a close loyal following. Both types of leaders, of
course, wield an influence; the attitudes of both are important in, moving
subgroups into closer contact with the larger community.
Studies indicate that the leader's influence in relation to his group positively to
the whole community is dependent upon the leader's own positive identification
with his group. If the leader finds his group related to (not blocking) his own
mobility aspirations, if the leader accepts and can live comfortably with his group,
and if in turn he is accepted by his group-given these conditions, the leader's
positive influence towards community integration may be considerable. This type of
leader, whom Eisenstadt calls the "positively identified leader," may not only help to
24
develop cohesion within his group but may also help to "integrate the group in the
larger community.
The "negatively identified leader” who finds, or feels, his own aspirations are
being blocked or modified by association with his group, whose identification with
his group is weak, who in turn is not an object of identification by the group and
may even be rejected by them-this type of leader not only adversely affects group
cohesion, but even if he tries to move the group into the wider community, is
usually unsuccessful. The "negatively identified leader" is often a "marginal man,"
not really belonging to any subgroup, for he is attempting to move away from one
group and into a group with greater status. Such leaders, because their mobility
aspirations stimulate them to move around in the community, are often noted by
other subgroups as "the natural leader of Group that we need in this community
council" Actually, the implication of Eisenstaedt’s study is that such leaders are a
hindrance to the community organisation process.
Angell has provided us with some safe assumptions about leadership in the
community. Beyond this our findings must be tentative, but it appears that those
concerned with community integration must be aware of the complex social
organisation of the community, be able to identify the major subgroups in the
community, and must discover the "positively indented leaders" of these subgroups.
4.3.1.5 Symbols and Rituals
Community-wide symbols, values, institution, celebrations, etc. are a stimulus
to community integration. It is indicated by experience that all people everywhere
have systems of belief which influence their behavior and which are in part: (1)
logical, i.e., based on experience and reason, (2) cultural, i.e., based on the pressure
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of other people's opinions, and (3) personal-emotional i.e., serving to satisfy the
aspirations and allay the fears of the individual. The most deeply ingrained and
unchangeable beliefs are predominantly those rooted in the two last mentioned. This
system of belief and the symbols and rituals associated with it provide a common
emotional experience and serve as integrative forces in the community
4.3.2 DISINTEGRATIVE PROCESS
The factors causing disintegration in the community consist of apathy and
prejudice, Individual‘s predisposition, status image which an individual develops for
himself, time perspective, background, frame of reference and conflict etc;
4.3.2.1 Apathy and Prejudice
Traditional practices of apathy, prejudice, and discrimination present
obstacles to a process leading to community integration. A community in which
apathy prevails in respect to community affairs, or in which prejudice and
discrimination are customarily directed at minority groups, is likely to be a
community with a low level of integration and one in which these attitudes and
practices constitute forces which resist any tendency to develop active cooperation
around common' projects with all parts of the Community involved.
25
The causes of apathy are complex and will likely to vary from situation to
situation. Social structure undoubtedly influences the degree of interest in the
community; the "company town" is likely to be more apathetic than a town of
homeowners; a series of unsuccessful efforts to carry out community projects may
cause withdrawal and resistance to further participation; high mobility rates
probably decrease interest and participation in the affairs of the community. In this
connection, the importance of goals and means' of obtaining goals in a given social
structure has been pointed by Merton. If goals are not clear, or if goals are clear but
achievement of them is limited to a few, or if goals are clear but means of obtaining
them are ill-defined, a society becomes relatively unstable; dissatisfaction, apathy,
and lack of participation may result. One may find in such situations what is often
called "mass apathy."
It is evident that the causes of apathy are manifold, and probably combine to
produce different degrees of both individual and community apathy. Similarly in
the case of prejudice, a variety of causal factors have been identified ranging from
historical forces to individual psychology. As in the case of apathy, a good deal of'
attention has been given to the various psychic factors which produce prejudice
and hostility in the individual. Bettelheim and Janowitz, in their study of this
phenomenon26; found some support for their four main hypotheses that (1) hostility
towards out-groups is a function of a hostile individual's feeling that he has suffer~
deprivations in the past; (2) this hostility is also a function of that individual's
anxiety about his future; (3) the individual blames that out-groups for past failures
and future fears, projecting undesirable characteristics in himself onto the out-
group, this behavior being indicative of a lack of ego strength and of inadequate
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internal controls; (4) ethnic intolerance is related more to the individual's movement
within society than to his position at a particular moment of the investigation.
Apparently, there are deep psychological needs which some people meet by
being apathetic or hostile and prejudiced towards others. It seems reasonable to
assume that when the social climate makes the expression of these dispositions
safe and acceptable, the) will become more pronounced than in a community where
such expressions of feeling are frowned upon. Further, the development of
community feeling for or against these attitudes will determine to a considerable
extent whether they spread, i.e., whether apathy or prejudice becomes a standard
to which one conforms or whether such attitudes are repressed by the weight of
community norms
The problems of apathy and prejudice, it is clear, are complex, and require
treatment at a variety of levels. The relevant question here is how the worker can
deal with these at the community level? Obviously in the community in which these
attitudes are acceptable and approved, the process of change in the community will
be long and arduous. But as change begins, as apathy and/or prejudice become
less acceptable, the social climate will be less favorable to these attitudes, new
satisfactions may be developed and found in cooperative work, and a gradual
change in community rates of apathy and prejudice may occur. But it is quite clear
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that a community approach will not eradicate those feelings which have deep
psychological roots. The intensely hostile individual will inevitably find a scapegoat.
Experience has indicated that the "climate" in respect to these matters can change
in the community, that fewer people will be apathetic or hostile, that more people
will repress prejudice, that expressions of apathy and hostility may be reduced,
that individuals and groups may learn to work together in a relatively congenial
atmosphere but that there will remain a hard core" of withdrawn, hostile, and
insecure individuals who will change only with therapeutic help. But change in the
community as a whole, meager though it may be, may effect a change in the social
climate, which may affect the second generation who may develop with less apathy
and fewer prejudices, and the process of change in long terms may have a profound
effect on the character of community life.
4.3.2.2 Individual's Predisposition
The disposition of the individual to participate in community affairs is
dependent upon a wide variety of factors. Significantly differences were found in
respect to: (1) age, 'e.g., "the moral order of a community is shared more completely
by middle-aged people than by any other group"; (2) income, e.g.) "families with
higher incomes participate more fully in community affairs"; (3) occupation-"those
in higher occupations definitely do participate more” than the individuals paid
less.(4) schooling-the higher grades attained, the more participation; (5) voting-"it is
striking that non-voting is strongly linked with lad of interest in other kinds of
community participation"; (6) nationality- the foreign-born feel a greater obligation
and desire to participate than the native-born; (7) race-"it is evident that Negroes
want to carry their share of community responsibility and are even more inclined to
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participation than are the whites"; (8) length of residence-"evidently. In addition to
these tendencies, it is possible to offer certain other rough generalizations in
respect to community participation.
4.3.2.3 Individual Develops Status Image for Himself
Individuals can be distinguished as those with flexible status image and those
with a ritual status image. The former, he suggests, have three major orientations:
(1) attainment of various personal goals, (2) attainment of cultural goals, and (3)
attainment of cohesive primary group relations of mutual affection and response.
The individuals with a ritual status image tend to focus on certain goal and
amenities such as money, job, and type of home.
It is found that those with ritual status images could not distinguish very
much between the attainment of the various types of goals and social relations. The
attainment of social solidarity is, for them, conditioned by the attainment of a
specific type of instrumental goals and pattern of life. Hence, they cannot
differentiate to any large extent between various reference groups, finding within
each one the satisfaction of a particular type of goal but focus all their aspirations
on one undifferentiated field with which they identify their overall status
aspirations.... On the basis of this analysis, it can be postulated that those with
ritual status image tend to choose their reference groups and standards in such a
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way as to maximize overall disintegration tendencies... while those with open status
image tend to choose their reference group so as to spread out the risks between
different types of disintegrative behavior and to maximize the possibilities of
adjustment within the social system.
4.3.2.4 Time Perspective
Individual who sees himself as a permanent member of a community, all other
things being equal, he will tend to be more identified and involved than the one who
sees himself as merely living in the community temporarily. This, of course, has
been implied in the discussion of mobility, but the emphasis here is on future
perspective, i.e., the individual's conception of his future in the community. In
industry it has been suggested that the worker who looks forward to spending the
rest of his working life in a particular firm is more disposed to participate in solving
problems arising in his work than the worker who sees himself moving in the near
future to another firm or industry. This, it is suggested here, may be equally
applicable in community affairs.
4.3.2.5 Frame of Reference
If the individual's own frame of reference excludes all but his own group or
subculture, his tendency to move outside his group is thereby lessened. The
individual whose sole aspirations are limited to his own group resists participation
in the community, whereas the individual whose aspirations are broader is much
more disposed to venture forth from the group and into the life of the larger
community.
4.3.3 BACKGROUND
The childhood experiences of an individual (in the home, school, gang,
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neighborhood) which encouraged active participation in the life of the group or
community is more disposed to greater participation in community activities than
the individual who has not had such experiences. The identification of these
generalizations suggests the variety of factors which may determine the extent,
nature, and scope of the individual's participation in community activities.
4.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Community is a complex whole, all parts of which are related, interact and
influence one another.
2. The factors which help Community to get integrate are Social structure,
Socio-cultural patterns sub-group relationships, Leadership, symbols and
rituals and so on
3. Social-Cultural patterns refers to the traditional behaviours of the
community members and participate actively and Co-operatively in
community affairs and determine almost completely the manner in which
they will Co-operate or resist.
4. Sub groups and the relationships between subgroups are probably factors
which strongly influence the Community integration.
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5. There are three major factors besides nearness of the people, apparently
they may influence the sub-group relationship in the Community, they are
Kinship, ethnic and neighborhood etc.
1. Describe the community dynamics in community organisation
2. Discuss the integrative and disintegrative process in community
organisation
4.6 SUMMARY
We have outlined here some illustrative material on community life which
forms a background for community workers in community organisation and
conditions the principles and methods they use. It was not our purpose to develop a
comprehensive picture of community life, but to select a few factors which serve to
illustrate the worker's dependence on an understanding of the dynamics of
community life, if he is to work with some degree of perspective, understanding,
and competence his task
1. Define Social Culture?
2. Explain sub group relationship?
3. Define the role of leadership in Community Organisation?
1. Gangrade K.D, Community organization in India Popular Praksham,
Bombay 1975.
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2. Ross Murray G, Community Organisation theory and principles, Hacper and
Brothers, New York -1977.
4.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the Integrative Process of Community?
2. Discuss the disintegrative process of Community?
4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCE BOOKS /SET BOOKS
Practices, New York, Harper & Row
1. Conducting Conferences and Workshop on discussion of the Community
Process.
4.12 KEY WORDS
Community dynamics, Integrative process, Disintegrative process.

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LESSON – 5
CONFLICT RESOLUTION SYSTEM
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Conflict is a fundamental human and societal trait. Some sociologist like
Ratzenhofer and gumplowicz regard it is underlying social evolution and progress.
According to Gumplowicz human society are characterized by ‘syngenism’, a
primordial feeling of the members that they belong together. Their development was
marked by a ceaseless struggle. According to Ratzenhofer, the struggle takes the
form of conflict in interests. Simmel maintained that a conflict-free harmonious
group is practically an impossibility. There is no denying the fact that society
requires for its formation and growth, harmony and disharmony, association and
disassociation. Conflict serves constructive and positive ends.
Conflict has always captured attention of the people and the society. It is the
stuff that drama feeds on. Conflict assumes between two parties there is no
common ground, no end higher than the interests which divide them, and that the
only solution is to eliminate the one or the other. Society makes efforts to control
conflict, but the irony is that, it, itself has created conflict situations had perhaps
cannot avoid doing so. By allowing different status to different occupations, it has
laid the basis for envy and resentment. By giving authority to one person over the
other it lays open the door for the abuse of authority and consequently retaliation.
By creating ends that are competitive, it makes it possible for competition to take
the form of conflict.
The truth is that there are elements of conflict in all situations. It is a part of
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human society. Individuals are separate organisms. They can co-operate for certain
ends but not for all. They have ends that are mutually exclusive. For the attainment
of these ends they come into conflict with others who are also after seeking these
very ends. Since human groups are loose units as compared to the body or even the
insect colony the miracle is not how much conflict there is, but how little. Efforts,
no doubt, are made to smooth over conflict through certain social mechanisms but
these are not universally successful.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
 To impart radiometry information about community conflict and the
resolution of conflict.
5.3 CONTENTS
5.3.1 Causes of Conflict
5.3.2 Types of Conflict
5.3.3 Role Conflict
5.3.4 Functions of Conflict
5.3.5 Conflict Resolution
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5.3.5.1 Yielding to Coercion

5.3.5.2 Compromise
5.3.5.3 Arbitration and Conciliation
5.3.5.4 Toleration
5.3.5.5 Conversion
5.3.5.6 Sublimation
5.3.5.7 Rationalization
5.3.1 CAUSES OF CONFLICT
Conflict is universal phenomena. It takes place in all times and places. There
has never been a time or a society in which some individuals or groups did not
come into conflict. According to malthus, reduced supply of means of subsistence is
the cause of conflict. According to Darwin, the principles of struggle for existence
and survival of the fittest are the main causes of conflict. According to Freud and
other psychologist, the innate instinct for aggression in man is the main cause of
conflict. Thus the causes for the conflict differs variously to the variously. But it
arises primarily from a clash of interest with in groups and societies. Conflict also
ensues as a result of the difference between the rate of change in the moral norms
of a society and men’s desire, hopes, dissatisfactions on demands. Thus the causes
of the conflict are categories as because of individual differences, Cultural
differences, Clash of interest and Social change.
5.3.2 TYPES OF CONFLICT
Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict. They are war, feud or factional
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strife, litigation and conflict of impersonal ideas. War is the kind of conflict our
human race is most familiar with. Prior to the development of international trade,
war provided the only means of contact between the alien groups. In this case, war
also dissociative in character, has a definitely associative effect. Simmel attributed
war to be a deep seated antagonistic impulse in man. But to bring this antagonistic
impulse to action some definite objectives is needed which may be the desire to gain
material interest. It may be said that antagonistic impulse provides a foundation for
conflict.
Feud is an intra group form of war, which may arise because of injustice
alleged to have been done by one group to the other. Litigation is a judicial form of
conflict when an individual or group asserts its claims to certain rights on the basis
of objective factors, subjective factors being excluded.
Conflict of impersonal ideals is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for
themselves but for an ideal. In such, a conflict each party attempts to justify
truthfulness of its own ideals.
5.3.3 ROLE CONFLICT
Conflict is a fundamental human and societal trait. Sociologist regarded it as
underlying social evolution and progress. It is said that human societies are
characterized by syngenism; a primordial feeling of the members that that they
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belong together. Their development was marked by a ceaseless struggle. This

struggle for life takes the form of conflict in interests. Sociologist maintained that a
conflict free harmonious group is practically impossible. There is no denying fact
that society requires for its formation and growth harmony and disharmony,
association and disassociation. Conflict serves constructive and positive end. It is
stressed by the social scientist that conflicts results in the in the elimination of
annihilation of opponent at its most rudimentary level in human society, however,
most conflicts end in some sort of agreement or accommodation or in the fusion of
the two opposing elements. In corporate conflicts ‘that is, in conflict between two
groups and societies, solidarity and fellow feelings are increased. It is aptly
remarked that in corporate conflict each nation gains cohesion and strength
through emphassing its own destiny as against that of other nations. Internal
harmony and external conflict are, therefore, opposite sides of the same shield.
That is why war is held to be in evitable in a world of sovereign nations. But conflict
which causes a war or takes a hostile form may destroy lives and property of the
people, and what is more, may cause great psychological and moral damage. The
results of personal conflict i.e. intra- group conflict are largely negative in that such
struggle lowers the moral and weakens the solidarity of the group. Personal conflict
of course has its positive side also. The opposition of the individual by the other is
the only way in which the continued relationship can be made personally tolerable.
Vicious gossip aimed at an unpopular officer at times permits subordinates to
funnel off their aggression without quitting the job or attacking him physically.
Similarly the verbal conflicts of friends, lovers and married couples often clear the
air and permit once again the acceptance of the relationship.
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5.3.4 FUNCTIONS OF CONFLICT
1. Conflicts tend to stiffen the morale and promote the solidarity of the group.
2. Conflict, concluded with victory, leas to the enlargement of the victor group.
3. Conflict leads to redefinition of value system.
4. Conflict may lead to the working out of non-violent techniques for resolving
crises.
5. Conflict may lead to change in the relative status of the conflicting parties.
6. Conflict may lead to consensus.
5.3.5 CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict is a continuous though intermittent societal process. But life cannot
go long but groups are engaged in conflict. Conflicts are exhausting if not
annihilating. These must, therefore, be resolved for making social life peaceful.
Conflict resolution may be brought out in many different ways and accordingly may
assume various forms, the most important are
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5.3.5.1 Yielding to Coercion

Conflict can be resolved by coercion. This happens when the conflicting parties
are of unequal strength. By using the force or by threatening the use of force, the
stronger party makes the weaker party accept the conditions of agreement.
5.3.5.2 Compromise
When the contending parties are almost equal in power, they resolve conflict
by compromise. In compromise; both parties under conflict follow ‘give-and-take’
policy. They make certain concessions to one another and come to an agreement.
5.3.5.3 Arbitration and Conciliation
When the contending parties are not able to resolve their differences
themselves, they may turn towards arbitration or conciliation by a third party to
settle the conflict. If the third party is an arbitrator, his decision is binding on both
conflicting parties. If the third party is a conciliator, his suggestion is optional. The
parties may accept or reject it. If they accept it, the conflict gets settled.
5.3.5.4 Toleration
This is another method of resolving conflict. Under this method, one of the
contending parties accepts the viewpoint of the other without giving up its own
stand. In this way, it tolerates the other party so that things can move smoothly.
5.3.5.5 Conversion
Under this method, one of the parties abandons its claim and accepts that of
the other. Accordingly it may go over the other side and identify itself with the new
point of view
5.3.5.6 Sublimation
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In this method, the conflicting groups substitute non-aggressive attitudes and
activities for the aggressive ones. They substitute love for hatred. As a result,
conflict is obviated.
5.3.5.7 Rationalization
It involves excuses or explanation for one’s behavior. When a party wants to
avoid conflict with the antagonist, it tends to attribute its involvement in the
conflict to others or to the fate. Instead of accepting its responsibility, it throws the
blame on others or on the fate. This is one way of avoiding or stopping to continue
the conflict.
5.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Conflict is fundamental human and Scrotal trait.
2. Conflict assumes between two parties theories to common ground, no end
higher than interests which divide them that solution is to eliminate the one
or the other.
3. The causes of the conflict are categorized as because of individual
differences, Cultural differences, Clash of interests and Social change.
4. Four types of Conflicts – are as follows: 1. War 2. Feud 3. Fractional strife
and litigation and Conflict of impersonal ideal.
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5. Conflict resolution may be brought many different ways and accordingly may
assume various forms.
1. Elucidate the concept of power.
2. Explain the form of conflict resolution.
3. Elaborate the types of conflict.
4. Explain the functions of conflict.
5.6 SUMMARY
Conflict is common feature of the community. Conflict assumes that between
two parties there is no common ground, no end higher than the interest which
divide them, and that the only solution is eliminate one or other. So the community
organiser has to make an effort to control the conflict for the attainment of the
common community ends or the ends of the members of the community with
available social mechanism.
1. Bring out the general causes of conflicts?
2. What are the types of Conflict?
3. Define Conflict Resolution?
5.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS:
1. Mishra.P.D, 1994, Social Work Philosophy and Methods, New Delhi,
2. Murthy, M.V., Social Action, Asia Publishing house, Bombay -1987.
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5.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the Conflict Resolution Process?
2. Discuss the functions of Conflict?
2. Bhushan, Vidya, and Schdeva.D.R, 20008, XLII Edition, An Introduction to
1. Seminars and Workshops may be conducted to understand the concept of
Conflicts-Merits and Demerits by Experts.
5.12 KEY WORDS
Conflict, Conflict resolution, Arbitration, Conciliation, Sublimation.
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LESSON – 6
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Community organisation as a social work process distinct from case work and
group work, which are concerned with the welfare of individuals through inter –
personal and intra- group relationships, is interested in inter group relationships. It
is directed to providing services for people with special needs. Community
organisation is a process in which efforts are directed towards meeting the
community needs and developing integration within the community.
The term community organisation became an important concept in the social
work profession due to the publication of the lane committee Report in 1939 which
identified community organisation as a method of social work. Here we are giving
some of the important definitions of community organisation formulated by
different thinkers and practitioners.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
 To introduce the concept as well basic idea on community organisation
6.3 CONTENTS
6.3.1 Definitions of Community Organisation
6.3.2 The Scope and Nature of Community Organisation
6.3.3 Historical Background of Community Organisation
6.3.4 Objectives of Community Organisation
6.3.5 Philosophy
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6.3.6 Assumption of Community Organisation
6.3.7 Community Development and Community Organisation
6.3.1 DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
According to Lindemen community organisation is that phase of social
organisation which constitutes a conscious effort on the part of a community to
control its affairs democratically, and to secure the highest services from its
specialists, organisations, agencies and institutions by means of recognized inter –
relations.
According to Ross communication organisation is a process by which a
community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these needs or
objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at those needs.
According to Dunham community organisation is a conscious process of social
interaction and a method of social work concerned with any or all of the following
objectives: 1. the meeting of the broad needs and bring and marinating adjustment
between needs and resources in a community or other areas; 2. helping people deal
more effectively with their problems and objectives, by helping them develop,
strengthen and maintain qualities of participation, self –direction, and cooperation;
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3. bring about the changes in the community and group relationships in the
distribution of decision making power
Dunham has expressed the need to bridge the gap between the needs and
resources and also the distribution of decision – making power. In this process the
community has to be helped in such a way that if strengthens participation and co-
operation of the people.
Gangrade (1971) defines community organisation as the process by which the
social system of the community provides for integration and adoption within the
community. This is a process, which continues regardless of the work of the
community organizer whose functions are to initiate, Nourish and develop this
process. In participating in this process the community organizer will have regard
for certain values relating to the forms of social change and the means by which
they may be brought about.
There are, thus, number of definitions on community organisation and from
the definitions of Ross (1955) and Dunham (1976) the following are the most
important aspects of community organisation.
1. Community identifies its needs
2. Gives priorities
3. Finds out the internal and external resources
4. The community develops co-operative and collaborative attitude and
practices.
5. The community has to be helped
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6. An adjustment has to be brought about between the needs and resources.
It is very clear from the above definitions that community organisation is a
continuous process and it is the responsibility of the community to identify its own
needs and problems. The importance is given to the community because the
community has to identify its problems (or) needs, fixes, objectives, develops
confidence and will to work at those problems and mobilizes resources needed to
fulfill those needs, in doing so the community ensures the participation of the
community.
6.3.2 THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
The scope of community organisation is broad and its content is varied. It is
needed in all types of communities in hamlets and villages in towns and cities and
metropolitan areas — in primary service communities and in distributing
communities, in industrial communities, educational centers, resort towns and
political centers. "The community organisation" process is used, consciously or
unconsciously, in many fields or human activity — in politics, in art, in education,
in economic life. Where ever individuals and groups seek ways to pool their
resources and efforts to achieve an improvement in community life, the community
organisation process is at work.
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The increasing necessity for more effective community organisation of social

welfare services grows out of a number of factors:
1. Communities are becoming more complex;
2. The number of social welfare agencies has been increasing;
3. Social welfare needs are constantly expanding;
4. Higher standards for services and more effective administration of them are
required;
5. The increasing specializations must be more effectively integrated;
6. Hazards to unity and coordination are becoming more evident in many
communities;
7. Understanding and skill in cooperative relationship are also becoming more
and more necessary.
6.3.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
Community organisation is as old as community life because wherever people
live together, some organisation becomes essential. But when life became more
complex, some formal organisations were set up for the wellbeing of the community.
Elizabethan poor Law in England was one of the first efforts to lend help to the
needy. But the Charity Organisation Societies set a model for modern community
organisation. The first attempts to coordinate community activities and actions
stemmed from the London Charity Organisation Society, begun in 1869, which
tried to eliminate duplication and fraud in relief administration. Its aim was to
improve total services in the community through better cooperation and
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coordination. The first organized attempt to coordinate and systematize social
services in the United States was made in 1877 with the establishment of the
Buffalo Charity Organisation Society; The need was great because many private
agencies had been established and this brought about much duplication, with
many gaps in total services, as well as unnecessary competition.
In 1909 in Pittsburgh and Milwaukee, the first community welfare councils in
the United States were established. They were called Councils of Social Agencies.
They have since spread and been extended so that most of the larger population
centers now have community welfare councils. There are over 450 of them in the
United States today. A few have developed to the extent that they have several
persons on their staffs that spend full-time in research, helping to locate and
interpret information that will be of value to the community.
These councils, organisation-wise, generally focus on three main areas: health,
welfare, and recreation. Most of them have a council delegate body representative of
all of the agencies in the community that join the council. This membership body is
the basic authority for carrying out the council's activities. Usually a board of
directors, elected by the delegate body, is the operating authority. The board of
directors appoints various administrative committees, which consider such matters
as membership, personnel, and budgets. It also sponsors project committees or
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task forces that deal with particular problems; for example, a committee to work on
the problem of transients, services to the aged, drug abuse, or school dropouts.
Social policy and action committees often play important roles.
Historically the development of federated financial drives was also an
important aspect of community social work. Originally private social service
agencies conducted individual drives for money to maintain themselves and their
services. As additional agencies came into being, various leaders suggested that it
might be best to join hands to collect money and then divide it among the several
agencies. In 1873 in Liverpool, England, the first such federated drive took place. In
1887 the first federated drive in the United States originated under the auspices of
the Associated Charities in Denver. Twenty-three agencies joined together and
raised a total budget of about $20,000. After World War I the name Community
Chest became popular in designating federated fund driving. Expansion has taken
place in these drives in 1958 and United Funds and Community Chests raised
$427,262,622 in 2,100 American communities for the support of services of the
27,700 participating agencies. These united campaigns enlisted the efforts of
3,300,000 volunteers and secured 26,700,000 contributions.
Community organisation has been the last basic social work method
to emerge. Casework gained status and recognition in the 1920s, as group work did
in the 1930s. In 1909 the first section meeting of a national conference. The
National Conference of Charities and Corrections, was held on the helm .
"Neighbourhoods and Civic Improvement” This appears to be the beginning of
specific interest in community organisation in social work. In 1939 significant
discussions on community organisation as a field and method were held at the
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National Conference of Social Work. In 1944 the curriculum for the schools of social
work included community organisation as one of the "basic eight." By 1946 enough
interest had developed in community organisation so that, at the annual meeting of
the National Conference of Social Work in Buffalo, the Association for the Study of
Community Organisation was founded. Its purpose was "to increase understanding
and improve professional practice of community organisation for social welfare."
From its beginning until it merged with six other associations in 1955 to form the
National Association of Social Workers, it had a membership that varied from about
500 to 1,000 individuals.
In 1950 representatives at the National Conference of Social Work at Atlantic
City presented several papers on community organisation topics and agreed that
community organisation was one of the basic processes in social work. In 1950
there were about 100 field work placements in community organisation in some 16
of the accredited schools of social work. On November 1, 1962, there were 116
students in training in community planning services in the United States and
Canada.
On November 1, 1984, there were 1719 or 8.1 percent of the total of 21,551
full-time or part-time master degree students who were taking community
38
organisation as a separate concentration or in combination with administration and

planning.
The 1962 Curriculum Statement of the Council on Social Work Education
reaffirmed the importance of community organisation in both training and practice
by specifying it as one of the basic methods of social work.
The 1982 Curriculum Policy Statement gives broad guidelines pertaining to
social work practice and lists community organisation under both the professional
foundation and concentration areas. In other words, the Council of Social Work
Education is recommending that every social work student should have some
understanding of the knowledge, values, and skills of community organisation
practice and that some students should have the opportunity to pursue a
community organisation concentration.
6.3.4 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
1. Meeting of broad needs and bringing about and maintaining adjustment
between needs and resources in a community or other area.
2. Helping people to deal more effectively with their problems and objectives by
helping them to develop, strengthen and maintain qualities of participation,
self direction and co-operation and
3. Bringing about changes in community and group relationship in distribution
of decision making power.
6.3.5 PHILOSOPHY
1. To help people to make use of their own capacities and of environmental
resources, this will result in personal satisfaction and social adjustment.
personal and social problems.DDE

2. To help in the modification of the environment so that people will have fewer
3. To reduce the gap between the need and the resources of the community.
The basic philosophy of community organisation gives thrust on the social
problems and the change in the environment. So that the individuals or the groups
will have fewer problems and they may attain personal satisfaction. In the process
of community organisation the gap between the needs and the resources has to be
reduced. The capacity of the people is given importance and any effort to the
consolidated depends on the capacity of the people.
The community organizer (or) the external agents who have entered the
community for the community work has to locate the capacity of the people and the
common problems encountered by the community. The efforts of te community is
towards modification of the environmental resources so that the people attain
personal satisfaction and social adjustment on one hand and on the other the
number of problems (or) the severity of the problems are reduced. Ultimately, the
needs and resources of the people have to be brought closer.
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In the professional social work, community organisation is a process of

planning and developing social services, organizing people and mobilizing human
and material resources in order to meet the all welfare needs of a community and to
ensure community’s integral development. Basically the philosophy of social
community organisation i.e, to help people to make such use of their own capacities
and of environment resources as well result in personal satisfaction and social
adjustment, to help in the modifications of the environment, so that people will
have fewer personal and social problems.
6.3.6 ASSUMPTION OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
1. Community of people can develop the capacity to deal with their own
problem.
2. People of community want to change (or) they can change their quality of
life, behavior, whatever may be
3. People should participate in making adjusting (or) controlling the major
change taking place in their communities.
4. Changes in community living that are self imposed (or) self developed having
a meaning and permanents rather than imposed changes to know do not
have.
5. A wholestic approach can deal successfully with problem with which
fragmental approach cannot with scope. Fragmental approach will not whole
the solve the problem.
6. Democracy requires co-operative participative and action in the affairs of the
community people to people must learned and skills make this possible.
DDE
7. Democracy mean every person having has take the own decision making.
Community organisation is changes the self imposed.
8. Frequently the community needs the organisation to deals with their need &
just as many individual need help in facilitate coping there are own
individual needs.
6.3.7 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
The term "community development" designates the utilization under one single
programme of approaches and techniques which rely upon local communities as
units of action and which attempts to combine outside assistance with organized
local self-determination and effort, and which correspondingly seek to stimulate
local initiative and leadership as the primary instrument of change...
In agricultural countries in the economically underdeveloped areas, major
emphasis is placed upon those activities which aim at promoting the improvement
of the basic living conditions of the community, including the satisfaction of some
of its non-material needs.
Community development can be tentatively defined as a process designed to
create conditions of economic and social progress for the whole community with its
active participation and the fullest possible reliance upon the community's
40
initiative. Community development implies the integration of two sets of forces

making for human welfare, neither of which can do the job alone: (1) the
opportunity and capacity for cooperation, self-help, ability to assimilate and adopt
new ways of living, that is, at least latent in every human group; and (2) the fund of
techniques and tools in every social and economic field, drawn from world wide
experience and now in use or available to national governments and agencies.
Community development may be defined as "the process by which the efforts
of people themselves are united with government authorities to improve the
economic, social and cultural conditions of communities to integrate these
communities into the life of nation and to enable them to contribute fully to
national progress.
6.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Community organization is a process in which efforts are directed towards
meeting the Community needs and developing integration within the
Community.
2. Community organization is a continuous process and its responsibility of the
community to identify its own needs and problems.
3. Community organization process is used consciously or unconsciously in
any many fields of human activities – in Politics in art, in education in
economic life.
4. The process by which efforts of people themselves are the united with
government authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural
conditions of communities.
the
DDE
1. Describe the nature and scope of community organization.
2. Differentiate between community organisation and community
Development.
3. Discuss the philosophy of community organisation.
6.6 SUMMARY
Community development programmes are made available by the government
to the people basically for the economic development. Here the main emphasis is on
improvement of conditions of people through the expert services of the government.
Community organisation is a pr6cess through which attempts are made to make
adjustment between community's felt needs and community resources. It also
directs its resources for the promotion of community integration and collaboration
among the people. "Thus in community development it is the government having
interest in the economic development of community which organizes a network of
extension and other services necessary for the fulfillment of felt needs for improving
the conditions of people living in it by encouraging people's participation in
organisation of such services. In community organisation, in addition to
improvement in conditions, mainly economic, sought to be achieved in planned
41
manner it is the development of cooperative and collaborative attitudes and

practices which are primarily stressed by the community organizer who is not an
extension worker but a social worker. Thus the community organisation is different
from community development.
1. Define the historical background of Community Organisation.
2. Bring out the objectives of Community Organisation.
3. Define the assumption of Community organization.
6.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS:
1. Gangrade, K.D, 1971, Community Organisation in India, Mumbai, Popular
Prakashan
2. Mishra.P.D, 1994, Social work philosophy and Methods, New Delhi,
6.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the basic idea and concept of Community Organisation.
2. Bring out differences between Community Organisation and Community
development.
2. Shepard.M. Jon. 2000, Sociology, New York, Harper & Row.
Organisation.
6.12 KEY WORDS
DDE
1. Making Exposure cum visit to the well knowing NGO’s and Government
Community organization, Community development


42
LESSON – 7
ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY ORGANISER
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Social workers in community organisations should have good technical skills
and be able to get along well with people. Much of community organisation is
done to change systems, and many times the system resists change. The
resistance usually comes in the form of anger or hostility from people who are
going to be affected by the change. The community organizer needs to be able to
systematically apply a relevant body of knowledge which is guided by social
work values. Rubin and Rubin have defined four key roles in community
organisation as follows:
7.2 OBJECTIVES
 To make the students to law an understanding on various roles to play in
the community, organisation process.
7.3 CONTENTS
7.3.1 Role of Teacher
7.3.2 Role of Catalysts
7.3.3 Role of Facilitators
7.3.4 Role of Co-ordintor
7.3.5 Role of Advocate
7.3.6 Role of Motivator
7.3.7 Role of Councellor
7.3.8 Role of Enabler
7.3.1 ROLE OF TEACHER DDE
Consistent with the ideal of community-development, it is fundamental for a
community organizer to believe in the objectives of increasing human capacity. One
way of doing so is through the creation and encouragement of local leadership, that
is, the activation of potential partisans into roles in which they directly confront
authorities. Building capacity is teaching people that they can be leaders.
7.3.2 ROLE OF CATALYSTS
A community organizer is also a catalyst, a person who stimulates actions in
others. Organizers start community organisations by finding common problems
that community members feel to be important, bringing together people who may
not know each other, or working to create a sense of community that can become
the basis for organizing. Organizers try to target initial actions so that they bring
about victories to keep people interested and active. Organizers gradually enlarge
people's vision of what is possible and thereby get them active on a range of issues.
7.3.3 ROLE OF FACILITATORS
Community organizers do more than start people on solving a problem; they
also act as facilitators. Too often, community actions fail because members lack the
43
experience or patience to keep an organisation going. Probably, more organisations

fail from lack of follow-through than from lack of original enthusiasm. The
community organizer facilitates keeping an organisation going and ensures the
follow-through.
7.3.4 ROLE OF CO-ORDINTOR
The fourth role often played by organizers is in bridging the gap between the
organisation, its members, and the community. There are many ways in which
linking is accomplished.
Sometimes, linking involves a broad search for information: What is
the political climate? How much support will the group receive for its cause? At
other times, linking is limited to a very specific task. For example, one person
in a woman's rape counseling center may work as a liaison with police to
discuss testimony, protection, or training police to deal with victims....
The community organizers should have the ability to relate to people, to
analyze problems, to locate resources, to see potential for change, and to be able to
create effective structures for problems solving. These abilities combined with skill
in the roles of teacher, catalyst, facilitator, and creators of linkages are essential for
community organisation effectiveness.
7.3.5 ROLE OF ADVOCATE
The role of the advocate is to be a representative or persuade the members of
the community and pre pare them to be a representative as well as represent the
issues to the concern body to bring the solution to the unmet needs. The advocacy
role is an important role to the present context. The needs and problems of the
DDE
people have to be represented and the required support and networking is essential
to create the pressure on the oppressive forces. In the role of an advocate, the
community organizer champions the right of others.
7.3.6 ROLE OF MOTIVATOR
The community organizer stimulates and sustains active interest among the
people for reaching a solution to the needs and problems the people. The
community organizer encourages the community to take up a minor task and
complete it successfully, which would enable the people to carry out the arduous
task. In such a process the people at times may not take up any initiatives or
contented with what they have. Therefore the organizer motivates people by making
to observe, analyse, understand and respond to the situation.
7.3.7 ROLE OF COUNCELLOR
The community organizer continues to give counselling to the community
members at the time difficulty and to proceed in the correct direction. As a
counselor, the community organizer has to be a patient listener. Also he has to
apply empathy emphatically to understand and respond the community situation.
People, thus, when they are in need, there should be some one to listen to them. In
all such circumstances, the organizer has to perform the role of counsellor
inevitable in the community organisation process.
44
7.3.8 ROLE OF ENABLER

The community organizer facilitates the process in the community for a
change. He does not carry out any work by himself but he enables the community
to do the work. The organizer should give importance to the process than the
product. By playing the role of enabler the organizer would create dependency
among the people rather dependency.
The community organizer is present with the people and encourages and gives
different directions so that the people are able to decide the activities to be carried
out and the manner of carrying out. The community organizer only initiates the
process and people have to follow and at times of difficulties they refer back to the
organiser. Therefore, the role of community organizer is to understand the process
and to stand on their own.
7.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Social Workers in Community organization should have good technical skills
and be able to set along well with people.
2. The Community organizer needs to be able to systematically apply a relevant
body of knowledge which is guided by social work values.
3. It is fundamental for a Community organizer to believe in the objectives
increasing human capacities.
4. The creation and encouragement of local leadership i.e. the activation of
Potential Partisans.
5. Building capacity is teaching people that they can be leaders.
DDE
6. Organisers start Community Organisation by funding common problems
that Community members feel to be important bringing together people who
may not know each other or working to create a sense of Community that
can become the basis for organizer.
7. Community Organiser does more than the start people on solving a problem
they also act as facilitates.
1. Portray the role of community organizer.
2. Depict the facilitator’s role of community worker.
7.6 SUMMARY
Community organisation is a continuous process of social interaction by which
the social system of the community provides integration and adoption within the
community and identifies it needs or objectives, given priorities generates
alternatives and selects, mobilizes resources required to deal with them, to bridge
the gap between the needs and resources. The community either on its own or
through the help of the community organiser develops strengthens and maintains
qualities of participation, self-direction, and co-operation in the distribution of
decision –making power.
45

1. Explain the Community organiser as – Faciliator.
2. Explain the Community organiser as – Co-ordinator.
3. Explain the Community organiser as – Catalyst.
Prakashan.
2. Mishra.P.D, 1994, Social work Philosophy and Methods, New Delhi,
Inter-India Publication
7.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the significant Role of a Community Organiser in Community
Organisation.
2. Christopher.A.J, William Thomas. A. 2006, Community Organisation and
Social Action, Mumbai, Himalaya Publishing.
1. Arranging Workshops and Group discussion of Role of Community
Organiser.
7.12 KEY WORDS
Teacher, Catalysts, Facilitators, Co-Coordinator, Advocate, Motivator,
DDE
Councellor, Enabler

46
LESSON – 8
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The principles of community organisation are shaped by the frame of reference
for community organisation which we have provided. This framework derives from a
specific value system, certain conceptions of the problem of community, and some
general assumptions as to method. Within this general field, however, principles are
shaped and focused more sharply by some understanding of the social forces which
impinge on the individual and the group in the community, some understanding of
the planning process, and some knowledge of empirical work in groups and
Communities. All these influence or determine the principles of community
organisation. In the preceding chapters all this has been outlined in detail, and we
turn now to a consideration of specific principles-the elementary or fundamental
ideas regarding initiation and continuation of community organisation processes.
These principles will be discussed in terms of the nature of the organisation or
association and the role of the professional worker.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
 To keep the students to have an understanding on guiding principles of
community organisation practice.
8.3 CONTENTS
8.3.1 Principles of Community Organisation
8.3.1.1 Discontent in the Community must initiate and /or Nourish
the Association
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8.3.1.2 Discontent must be Focused and Channeled in respect to
Specific Problems
8.3.1.3 Discontent which Initiates Community Organisation must be
shared in the Community
8.3.1.4 Organisation must Involve Leaders Identified by the Subgroups
in the Community
8.1.3.5 Organisation must have Goals and Methods of Procedure of
High Acceptability
8.3.1.6 Organisation must have some Activities with Emotional
Content in its Programme
8.3.1.7 Organisation should seek to utilize the good will which exists
in the Community
8.3.1.8 Organisation must develop active lines of Communication
8.3.1.9 Organisation should seek to Support and Strengthen the
Groups for Cooperation
8.3.1.10 Organisation should be Flexible in its Organisational
Procedures
47
8.3.1.11 Organisation should Develop a Pace for its Work in the

Community
8.3.1.12 The Association should Seek to Develop Effective Leaders
8.3.1.13 The Association must Develop Strength, Stability, and
Prestige in the Community
8.3.1 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
8.3.1.1 Discontent in the Community must initiate and /or Nourish the Association
In every community here are always dissatisfaction and discomfort with regard
to certain community features. But the community may be living with this
discomfort without bothering the difficulty due to their ignorance and helplessness.
The culture of poverty and culture of silence suppresses the feelings of the people
anent their discontent about community features and fail to raise their voice
against it. The discontent, which exists within the community, should be widely felt
by its members. In other words it becomes the felt need of the community. Every
such discomfort in the community should be focused so that the members of the
community are able to understand about their situation to take action to rectify it.
It is must that such discontent cannot be artificially induced and has to arise
spontaneously. It is when these discontents are verbalized and agreed upon that
the community association may spring into life or may take on a new and dynamic
quality which makes it possible for the community to resolve cooperatively some of
its common problems. Thus, the deep and widely shared feelings of discontent with
respect to certain features of community life may well be a more effective
springboard for creation and development of an association that will have sufficient
motivation and dynamic to overcome the many difficulties that confront diverse
community. DDE
individuals and groups seeking a common means of dealing with problems of their
8.3.1.2 Discontent must be Focused and Channeled in respect to Specific Problems

Discontent per se is of doubtful value. To provide motivation for action,
discontent must be focused on something specific. In fact, unfocused discontent is
often a major block to any kind of action. But it is only when get focused and
ordered, it becomes a healthy and suitable motive for action. Generalized discontent
inevitably festers and becomes poisonous. It is not healthy simply because it is
focused dearly on the condition of community. But when it has reached this stage,
action about the condition of the discontents can be taken, and this action provides
for release of some of the frustration which may accompany the discontent.
Therefore, the discontent needs not only to be focused but to be channeled
into a structure through which something may be done 'about the problem. In
community organisation, people who are aware of and disturbed about a problem
need to come together, to begin discussions about the problem and its scope, to
begin to plan how to deal with it, and in the light of this to begin a program of
action. Those who undertake release, focusing, and channeling of feelings of
discontent may do so with assurance of the value of the procedure. It is better from
48
the standpoint of the health of the individual and the community for discontent to
be specific rather than general; it is better that this discontent be explored than be
left dormant; it is better that action be taken in respect to this discontent than it is
just to talk about it. This process experience suggests, is sound. But it is not
without dangers. To encourage hope that unrealizable goals can be secured may
simply increase frustration and create the condition of anomie. Exploration of
discontent needs to be realistic and resolution must be focused on some achievable
goals.
Further, the community is assisted to discuss and decide the symptoms and
causes and severity. In order to address any such discontent the community
members accept responsibility and make a plan of action in other words the
community is formed into an organisation and formulates a plan of action in
respect to specific problems
8.3.1.3 Discontent which Initiates Community Organisation must be shared in the
Community
Discontent is an appropriate springboard for organizing the community as well
to find solution the community problems. Hence the discontent must therefore be
recognized and understood by the major parts of the geographic or functional
community. Some parts of the community will be more disturbed by the problem
than others. Some parts of the community may at first be only casually interested.
But the problem on which discontent is focused must be one which potentially
many members of the community will recognize and wish to come forward to tackle
the community problem. It is understood that community is not only concerned
simply solving certain “ community problems “but also with developing the capacity
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of the community to function in respect to these and other similar problems It is
essential, therefore, that the discontent should focus on common problems.
8.3.1.4 Organisation must Involve Leaders Identified by the Subgroups in the Community
Community organisation requires the participation of the people of a
community. But everyone in the community cannot be involved in face-to-face
contact with all others in the community. So, a means must be devised for
participation through representation. This requires, first, identification of the
leaders of both formal and informal of the community. In the process of identifying
the leaders for community organisation all the major groups, both formal and
informal, of the community should be given representation.
Formal leaders such as schoolteachers, ministers, priests, village
administrators, etc. must be included in a community association as well. Some of
these leaders are leaders in the sense that they “have a following” and some do not.
But as a group they have a great deal of power, and without the interest and
support of these formal social organisations. It is suggested that the formal leaders
of a community tend to form an elite, and that there is considerable mutual
confidence and trust among members in this group. Since not all formal leaders
are, or can be, included in the association, it will be important to discover here the
49
persons who are recognized leaders of the “leadership elite”, for these would be the
best representatives of the formal leadership.
As already implied, inclusion of the respected and trusted leaders with whom
the major subgroup identify provides a major step in integrating the community
and makes possible initiation of a process of communication which, if it becomes
effective, will nourish and sustain the process of community organisation.
8.1.3.5 Organisation must have Goals and Methods of Procedure of High Acceptability
The association brings together the diverse elements in the community, each
with its own interests, attitudes, and behavior patterns. The task of welding these
diverse elements and the groups they represent can be made comfortable in the
community organisation practice by establishing common ' goals and agreed-upon
procedures. It is an important step so that they have a direction towards which
they can move forward. While fixing the goals and objectives there is a necessity
that the community understands the problem and generates the different
alternatives towards solving the problem and accordingly the objectives and goals
are fixed. Based on the objectives and goals along with the socio-economic
background of the people the programs and activities have to be planned for
implementation
The discontents discussed earlier may provide specific goal and in moving
towards these, the association may work out a procedure. But, if the association is
to continue, it will require a statement of its general goals and methods as well
procedure. Most of the groups formulate the constitution so quickly. But if the
statement of purpose and methods of procedure is to be meaningful to all members,
it cannot be developed quickly, but must emerge with practice, experience, and
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discussion. The reason why so many constitutions are formulated and then filed
away and forgotten is that they do not represent a frame of reference for the
association, but rather a mechanical and meaningless ritual which has little if any
adhesive quality in the life of an association.
It is perhaps less important that the purposes and procedures be carefully
written and filed as they represent "the common life" and the frame of reference for
the association. These purposes and procedures provide a way of life for the
association, a "way of behaving in many situations, a' way of carrying out the
association's business. Such purposes and procedures need not only to be
developed, not to be articulated frequently for new members and old members alike,
and adhered to practice. It is just such purposes and procedures which permit
expressions of aggression and hostility within the association without severely
damaging it.
It is a usual practice of taking long hours to develop a constitution at early
meetings of an association and then continuing to operate as if no such document
had been developed. It may well be that it is enough to begin with a simple
statement of purpose and to allow procedures to develop with experience. But once
these have been developed through practice or but in written form, it seems
50
important that they be used as they constitute the common frame of reference. In
periods of disagreement, disturbance, or conflict they can he referred to both as a
means of discovering direction and as a means of illustrating the common purpose
for which the group exists. Urbanization tends to segmentalize life, and most
groups find it difficult not to be diverted in their efforts. Frequent reference to goals,
to "what we agree on," to "our accepted way of doing this," to "our tradition," to
"our form of organisation," to "our established procedures," provides for security,
stability, and consistent direction which is essential in an association made up of
diverse groups in the community.
8.3.1.6 Organisation must have some Activities with Emotional Content in its Programme
The preparedness of the community in understanding the community
problems and an emotional appeal accelerates the response towards solving the
problem. Many times the community is neither prepared nor the actions touch the
emotions of the people. The members of the community have to acquire the critical
level of consciousness so that they are prepared to respond. The caution to be kept
in mind is that emotional appeal does not mean instigate the emotions of the
community.
An association often develops strength and cohesion in ways similar to the
family. There are friendship, mutual support, difficult tasks, hardship, conflict,
celebrations. There are times for work, for laughter, for relaxation. Similarly in the
association which brings the community together there is variety of activity-hard
work, but time also for celebration and festive occasions. These latter are far more
significant than is commonly recognized, for they build that community sentiment
essential for community integration. Such activities of the association may provide
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rich emotional experiences, which contribute tremendously to the binding mortar of
common sentiment in the community. Far from confining its activities to serious
discussions, the community association should encourage and sponsor community
celebrations consistent with the nature of its community.
Man needs not only a sense of common purpose with his fellows but constant
dramatization of it. Part of this may come through ceremonies and observations
that have emotional content and meaning for the individual. Rituals which
symbolize the values for which the association stands are valuable not only
because, they reinforce loyalty to those goals but also because they unify the group
around these goals.
8.3.1.7 Organisation should seek to utilize the good will which exists in the Community
Whenever any work is initiated with the community the confidence level and
the good will of the community have to be gained at first. The community should
take up a minor task, which could be achievable without much difficulty so that the
community feels that they have the will power and confidence to undertake bigger
task of the community.
In every community there are large numbers of people who are willing to
contribute to, identify with, and participate in any constructive work. But this fact
51
is frequently ignored by those who are convinced that only apathy and indifference
exist. So the extent of this good will is seldom recognized and seldom utilized. It is
most unutilized largely because (a) workers are unaware that such good will exists,
or (b) Recognizing that it exists, they are unable to "tap," to release, or to utilize it
as their concern is too complex or remote to interest these people. Hence, it is
suggested that the extensive sources of good will and support available in the
community needs to be mobilized for cooperative community endeavors
No rules for utilizing the “good will “ can be provided, since the way this is
done must be related to the type of community and the tradition and patterns of
belief in the community. Three general comments may be made at this point,
however. One is that the subgroup leaders are likely to be the wisest people in
knowing how to communicate with groups in the community, what level of work
will appeal to groups, and how their support may be ensured. The association must
depend for its life on the wisdom of the people and their leaders. The point at which
the leaders need help is not the content of what shall be done, but the ways by
which broader participation and support may be achieved.
Second, it seems fairly safe to generalize that more appeals to people for
support should be on a personal basis. Third, people should be given the
opportunity of participating and contributing at the level at which they can make
their contributions comfortably and in a manner that has meaning for them.
Awareness of the point at which groups are able to participate is especially
important in the early stages of involvement. Later, as interest broadens and
knowledge of the association grows, individuals and groups may extend the nature
of their participation. In the beginning, if withdrawal is to be avoided, participation
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at' comfortable level is a prerequisite.
8.3.1.8 Organisation must develop active lines of Communication
In order to get a need to be fulfilled and a problem to be solved in a community
the members of the community as well as the community organizer, there should
be an open and transparent system of communication so that the members are
aware of the problem and action plan and the justification for the action plan and
the after effects of the action. The essence of community organisation is thus
communication. For without communication there cannot be any inter action by
which common meanings, common life, and common values are established. This
implies that communication involves a Good deal more than the mechanical
process of receiving and transmitting messages. It posits a process by which the
area of common understanding and shared values is widened in the community.
Ideally, community organisation provides a suitable means for developing
"community", in this sense, for bringing together diverse groups in a common
undertaking and sets in motion a process by interaction through which effective
communication may be established. Unfortunately such a process does not often
emerge and develop without difficulty.
52
To begin with, effective communication within a group, or between groups,

depends to a considerable extent on the quality or relationships between the people
involved. Where hostility, fear aggression, distrust, disrespect predominate in these
relationships, communication will be far less effective than where there are
friendliness, mutual respect, and trust. This suggests the importance of the
creation of a social climate which permits and facilitates communication. It can be
hypothesized that communication meetings will be more effective when people feel
comfortable on the secure; when there is freedom from fear and anxiety about
others in the meeting; when people feel on equal-status terms; when contributions
to discussion are not only welcomed but there is a subject and persistent pull to
ensure such contributions; and when contributions to the discussion are received
with appreciation and understanding. If this hypothesis has validity, and there is
some evidence to suggest it has, it emphasizes an essential task in the association
devoted to community organisation, namely, development of an atmosphere in
which participants feel safe and able to express themselves freely. This does not
mean that there will not be conflict or that interpersonal relations will necessarily
be intimate. But it does imply that relations between the persons involved will be
such that fear is a minor, and security a major, element.
Second, the way in which communication is structured also of importance.
There are two aspects to this. One has to do with the arrangements of people and
their relationships that are made to facilitate communication and the other with the
methods that are used to make interaction meaningful. The second consideration
which relates to the structuring of communication has to do with reliance on formal
presentation in either written or verbal form as a means of establishing common
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understandings. But just as memory is selective, so is one's perception of what one
sees and hears. Each individual sees and hears through a screen that each builds
for himself. A message of any complexity transmitted from one person to another,
without the second person having an opportunity to question or clarify the meaning
of the message with the sender of the message, seldom has the same meaning for
these two persons. Each tends to interpret the message in his own way.
To rely on a simple exposition, either verbal or written, of complex matters is
unrealistic. People need opportunity to understand, assimilate, and use new ideas
and new information. The method suggested above, of small group discussion of
essential matters, may facilitate such understanding. But this will require a more
limited agenda than many associations are ready to consider. Yet it seems clear
that if real understanding is to ensue in the community organisation process, the
content must be limited to a few manageable items, and sufficient time for
interaction in respect to these must be provided.
It has been suggested, also, that communication systems can easily be
overloaded. Messages can be sent out in such volume and Dumber that they have
little if any meaning. Over loading the communication system can causes confusion
and makes for ineffectiveness in transmitting message. But lack of communication
may lead to what has been called the "starvation phenomenon." Persons in an
53
association or community who are not recipients of any messages, who are not
informed, who are not consulted, will feel rejected and will find development of
community attitudes difficult. Just as the child grows only through communication
with others, the individual will develop in the association and community only
through communication with others in these settings. In communication, therefore,
there must be neither “overloading” nor "starvation." These may both be viewed as
points on a scale, and only careful study of a communication in a particular
situation which permit one to find a point between these and which with satisfy
this particular requirement for effective communication.
Some studies of communication suggest that messages move, more effectively
through accepted channels than through new channels. That is, a message about
the association will be more widely distributed and received with more
understanding, if it is relayed through channels that are familiar to those for whom
the message is intended. These channels will vary in all communities, and only
study of local customs will reveal them.
On the whole, community groups will be more understanding if messages are
transmitted to them by their own leaders instead of by an outsider or stranger.
Again this is a point at which the wisdom of the local people themselves must be
relied upon, for it is often these people who know what kind of communication is
possible, and what media are most effective.
One of the most effective communication devices in the less-developed
countries is the pilot project, in which the problem is worked out on a small scale
by the people who will later decide whether to expand the range and size of the
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project. The pilot project provides an Opportunity to see and hear (perhaps to "feel")
at first hand the nature of an idea, technique, or operation with which
communications extremely difficult. It provides for participation, demonstration,
and understanding in a way that is difficult to match except in development of the
full project itself
All this indicates the complexity of the communication process. Yet the nature
of the association which brings people together in face to face contacts holds the
potentiality of overcoming many of the difficulties. Common errors are to develop
one large committee, work on too many projects, "overload" a few people in the
community, and to fail to utilize effectively existing media of community. More
effective work would, it is suggested, require one large central organisation with a
number of small task forces in which there is an intimate sharing of ideas about
the problems at hand; development of a feeling of responsibility and skill on the
part of group leaders in serving as communicating “links" between the association
and the community; processing of material so that there is emphasis on quality of
communication rather than quantity; use of existing media (e.g., involvement of the
neighborhood newspaper editor); identification of effective communicators (people
who communicate well) and more adequate use of these skilled people in the
association and the community.
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8.3.1.9 Organisation should seek to Support and Strengthen the Groups for Cooperation
The association seeks to be an organisation of the community. The community
participates through the units or groups into which it has divided itself. These units
come together through their leaders to achieve objectives all have defined as
desirable. The association does not exist apart from these units-it represents the
"common life" of these units.
The association is no stronger than the sum of its parts-the groups which
compose it. If the association is made up of groups which are themselves
disorganized, torn by dissension, or apathetic, it has a narrow base of participation
and support in the community, for weak groups are so withdrawn, or concerned
with their own problems, that they have little capacity for cooperative activity.
Therefore, while a leader of a weak group may participate in the association, he will
find it difficult to involve his group in the planning and activities of the community
association.
If, therefore, the association is to be strong, the units which compose it must
themselves be strong cohesive groups. The attitude of the association must be one
which seeks to provide support, encouragement, and help to its member groups. It
can do this by creating an atmosphere in which all groups feel accepted, free from
criticism, and needed to help in achieving common goals. It encourages
development of weak groups by exchange of ideas among the various groups-of
ways difficulties were overcome successful groups. And, it can provide direct
services to the weak groups by studies, coaching of leadership, assistance by
professional staff workers, etc. There must be consistent effort to help groups
achieve cohesion and capacity to function independently. This may well mean
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applying the concept of community organisation in the life of the weak group so
that they become involved in identifying their problems and begin themselves to
resolve these difficulties.
8.3.1.10 Organisation should be Flexible in its Organisational Procedures
In the process of community organisation there are various procedures which
are followed in a sequence, but at the same time the procedures should not restrict
in any way to hinder the community to co-operate and participate. There should
not be rigidity in the procedures and therefore if there is a need to change the
procedure or make it more flexible it can be done.
It is emphasized the importance of accepted "rules of order and methods of
procedure which, as they become established to suggest flexibility is not to argue
for disruption of these established procedures. These latter, especially in respect to
decision making must remain inflexible if active interest and participation are to be
maintained. But 'within these established procedures there is an opportunity for
use of a variety of methods. At one point a group of knowledgeable people from the
community may be involved; at another point all the members of one of the
participating groups may be invited to contribute because of their special interest in
the problem under discussion; at several times the official meeting may adjourn to
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become a committee of the whole; on other occasions the association may authorize
studies, make visits, appoint commissions; each spring the association may decide
to move to a camp for a week-end meeting on some special problem. A great variety
of patterns for acquiring data and consensus may be used without, at any point,
taking responsibility away from the group charged with decision making.
8.3.1.11 Organisation should Develop a Pace for its Work in the Community
In the community work the people have their own style of functioning. The
response of the people may not be as per the expectation of the organizer due to
various reasons, which would discourage the community organizer. Instead the
organizer has to understand that the community works on its own pace which
should be taken into consideration while doing any work with the community.
The concept of pace has two connotations here. One refers to the pace which
the association develops for its own work, and the second to the pace of life which
exists in the community and which will condition the tempo of a community
program.
As to the first, the association must acquire a pace for its own work. This
develops as members learn to work together, as procedures are established, and as
agreement comes as to accepted responsibilities. Some groups will meet weekly,
others monthly; some will expect subcommittees to report at each meeting of the
major association, others will be content with an annual report; some groups will
expect members to assume heavy responsibilities, others will assign heavy duty to
staff members and consider themselves mainly responsible for policy decisions.
Whatever the tempo and responsibilities may be, they need to be understood
throughout the association so that a pace for work becomes established. This
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requires to be a pulsation in the organisation which all members feel and to which
all adjust. Failing this, there will be disorder if not chaos, which parts of a plan
being carried forward without any conception of the, whole, or with different parts
of the emerging without coherence. Establishment of major objectives with minor
objectives assigned, all with agreed-upon time schedules, may help to bring about a
pace of work in the association to which all adjust.
Many associations tend to maintain a pace with one project to another to
relax, to meditate before continuing. Such a rhythm may be, in the long run, more
productive, more meaningful, and closer to the needs of people than the steady
(and heavy) pace of work which often becomes routine and monotonous. It is also
facilitate the community to involve itself in a community venture. Many workers in
the community field like technical experts, social workers, mental health experts-
are what can only be termed "eager beavers." They are ambitious for their
community, impatient for results, anxious to induce change. In casework, the
importance of adapting treatment procedures with the pace which the client finds
comfortable and feasible is clearly recognized. The same principle applies in
community organisation. One begins at the point at which the client is at the
present time and works at his pace.
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If these changes are to be worked through, the community must be thoroughly

involved. The degree to which this latter is possible and the pace at which it occurs
depends on prior relations between groups, attitudes towards the community, the
strength of the association, and its leadership. Pace must be adjusted to these
realities. But even when these factors are all favorable, more time is required than
is ordinarily expected.
The structure of the association in which leaders of various groups are
involved in determining what project shall be worked upon, in what way, and at
what speed, provides for realism in respect to pace. On the whole, such leaders will
select projects that have meaning and will establish a pace that is consistent with
that of the community and comfortable for it.
8.3.1.12 The Association should Seek to Develop Effective Leaders
Primarily, we are concerned here with development of those kinds of leaders
who will facilitate the community organisation process, who will help the central
association to be productive, and who will contribute to the development of morale
both in the association and in the community. It is a common fact about leadership
that it is a complex role with a multiplicity of functions, and with many changing
and interacting forces determining what is appropriate behavior in this role.
In every small work groups there need to be both a "popular leader" and a
"task leader." The latter emphasize to keep the group' engaged in its work, but his
consistent pressure for decision and work on the part of the group tends to provoke
irritation and to injure the unity of the group. The 'popular leader" or the "best-
liked person" helps to maintain and to restore group unity and to keep the
members of the group happy. Two such leadership functions are seldom found in
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one person. But where these two types of leaders recognize and accept each other's
role and work together for group ends, they constitute a strong leadership team.
In the community organisation process, some group member may assume
leadership functions in matters of content or special kinds of content; others may
assume leadership functions in matters of process or special aspects of process;
some may perform special leadership functions in respect to special aspects of both
content and process. This does not do away with the value and functions of a
central figure in the group, but it suggests that he does not perform all the
leadership functions, and indeed, that the leadership functions he does perform
depend also upon the leadership capacities of members of the group of which he is
the chairman or central figure.
It seems clear, though, that however much the leadership functions are
distributed in the group, the central figure or chairman or formal leader will
facilitate group productivity when he is accepted and supported by members of the
group.
On every criterion of effective group functioning as measured by the
participant observers' ratings, the mean ranks of the strong formal leadership
groups were higher than weak formal leadership groups. The mean ranks of the
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former were at least two positions higher in volume of participation, usefulness of

suggestions, extent of participation, degree of cooperation, and assumption of
responsibility.
It may well be that effective groups contribute to the development of "strong
leaders," but in any case, it seems clear that there is an association between
cohesion and productiveness in group life and leaders that are accepted and
supported.
The central figures who recognize the varied nature of the leadership role and
ensure that it is decentralized so that many persons in the group assume various
aspects of this role to consistently better results in terms of group productiveness
and cohesion.
Thus each individual member of the group affects group productiveness and
cohesion. And one might logically expect that distribution of leadership functions
throughout the group would increase the influence of the individual member on
these group characteristics. It may well be, therefore, that in community
organisation what is required is less training of individuals in the community and
more training of groups to the end that all members of the groups will cooperatively
define their roles, learn to coordinate these with others, and implement them with
skill.
The implications of these data and speculations for the association seeking to
develop cooperative work in the community are manifold. First, because of their
importance as communication links, and as status figures in the community, it is
essential that the positively identified leaders (both formal and informal) of the
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various groupings of people in the community be involved in the association.
By the same token, it is important that subgroup leaders who constitute
members of the association should have as their chairman or central figure
someone whom they will accept and with whom they can identify. The question of
which way the group will distribute its leadership functions' is usually one of great
delicacy. For here we have a group of "recognized leaders," each with his own
conception of leadership, each from a somewhat different background, each with
rather different expectations of how the chairman should perform. As with other
procedures, this must be worked out by "trial and error," but probably at the
conscious level. This implies conscious awareness of the "leadership problem,"
articulation of methods used to deal with it, sharing in the evaluation of results,
searching for agreement of the "most effective way to operate." This will be, in effect,
of "leadership training," but leadership training at the group level, where all
participate and where the processes of identifying and assigning leadership
functions may increase leadership skills and strengthen group cohesion. Various
new techniques such as the use of the observer, "feed back" procedures, use of
sound recorders, and other devices, may greatly facilitate the development, and
have as yet hardly been used in this, the most complex group relationship in the
community.
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8.3.1.13 The Association must Develop Strength, Stability, and Prestige in the Community
Community organisation is a process which moves toward in increasing
cooperation among community groups as the latter deal with common community
endeavors. It requires to be made more meaningful to the community, and this can
be accomplished in part at least by the successful achievements of the association,
by persistent and consistent interpretation, and by the high prestige of the
association, be it a council, committee, or board. The association can become a
symbol of community cooperation. The people in the association, and the way the
association functions, can represent the actuality of the idea for many people in the
community. If it is to do this effectively, the association must have strength both in
terms of its involvement of accepted group leaders and in terms of its ability to work
through difficult community problems. Such an association will win the
participation and support of the people, and will be a symbol which stands for, and
induces community cooperation.
One of the fundamental aspects of this development is the relationship
between the association and the groups whose leaders constitute its members. If
the association becomes a competitor of, or takes over projects or activities that
traditionally belong to, groups in the community, the opportunities for cooperative
work are greatly reduced. People in a free society do not cooperate when they are
threatened. And an association which threatens in any way the existence of certain
traditional groups becomes not an object for loyalty but an object of suspicion.
Ways must be found, therefore, to clarify this relationship; the association exists to
carry on planning only in those areas which members agree to represent common
concern and suitable fields for cooperative work. If this is understood if the at
atmosphere of the association, meetings is accepting and non-critical, and if
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support is provided for the activities of subgroups, the chances for cooperative work
are thereby improved.
If, therefore, the association can undertake a process which leads to some
degree of self-understanding, it can anticipate a great release of creative effort in its
work. But such a process cannot be recommended without reservation to
community groups. It would be an unusual community group that would not
require highly skilled professional help in this process. Without this help many
associations must learn to withstand the storms and stresses of operation by the
strength of the bonds which hold them together. The individual with sufficient ego
strength can withstand many shattering experiences without therapy and without
understanding their nature, cause, or effect. Similarly an organisation can develop
sufficient strength through conviction about its purpose, mutual friendship and
respect among its members, confidence in its capacity to fulfill its purpose, to be
able to endure many difficulties. To face internal and external expressions of fear
and hostility with full understanding is undoubtedly preferable, but to engage upon
a search for such understanding prematurely and without skill may be a completely
shattering experience. The association without highly skilled professional help
should seek, therefore, to build those bonds of friendship, respect, acceptance, and
conviction of purpose which will permit it to endure and overcome attacks from
within or outside the organisation.
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Many organisations "live through" such experiences just as families endure

periods of stress. It is undoubtedly true that this could be done more effectively
with insight into the sources of stress. But insight is not a substitute for existing
strengths in an organisation, bonds of friendship and affection, feeling of
responsibility conviction about purpose. Perhaps, therefore, the community
association must begin by seeking to build upon its common purpose, its shared
feeling about community problems, its conviction that the community can work
together, its vision of the future. These are fundamental bonds of strength. From
this foundation the association moves into a process of self-education in which it
learns to develop procedures, its members begin to understand and accept one
another, it has success and failure and it seeks to understand each, it takes on
additional responsibilities and grows in doing so, its leaders and its members
become more knowledgeable about the community, themselves, and how to work
together. The result of this process is a gradually maturing association and
community. With skilled professional help, members may begin to understand why
certain items on the agenda always seem difficult, why there is always heated
discussion around Mr. M's report, why a few leaders never seem to become part of
the association. As the association goes through this process, creative energies are
released, the association moves with new freedom and confidence.
8.4 REVISION POINTS
1. The principles of community organization shaped by the frame derives from
specific value system certain conceptions of the problems of the Community
and some general assumptions as to method.
2. Specific principles the elementary or to fundamental.
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3. The discontent needs not only to be focused but to be channel into a
structure through which something may be done about the problem.
4. In community organization, the community is assisted to discuss and decide
the symptoms and causes and security.
1. Illustrate the principles of community organisation
2. Exemplify the need of leaders in community organisation
8.6 SUMMARY
Community is a social system having democratic principles in dealing with the
problem or need of the community. These principles should linger in the mind of
the organizer from the moment of locating the problem encountered by the
community to up till identifying the capacity of the community members in
modifying the community with the available resources. The community, thus, has
to be made to bring about solutions by using these principles by the organizer that
will strengthen the total community and enrich the lives of its members.
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1. Explain the need for Local resources mobilization in Community action?
2. Discuss the role of group Co-operation for the Community Organisation
activities?
1. Murthy.M.V., Social Action, Asia Publishing House, Bombay.
2. Hillman and Arthur Community Organisation and planning, The Macmillan
company, New York.
8.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss the significant role of different principles of Community
organization.
2. Christopher. A.J, William Thomas. A. 2006, Community Organisation and
Social Action, Mumbai, Himalaya Publishing.
Prakashan
1. Conducting group Conferences and Workshop to know the relevance of the
principles of Community Organisation.
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8.12 KEY WORDS
Discontent, Communication, Good will, Emotional content, Subgroups

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LESSON – 9
METHODS OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Although there are various classifications and descriptions regarding the
methods utilized in community social work practice, those commonly discussed
and utilized are presented in the following pages. It is important to understand
some of the commonly used underlying methods before looking at the specific
process involved.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
 To make the students to understand as various methods of community
organisations practices
9.3 CONTENTS
9.3.1 Planning
9.3.2 Awareness Creation
9.3.3 Education
9.3.4 General Education
9.3.4.1 Family Education
9.3.4.2 Community Education
9.3.4.3 Occupational Education
9.3.4.4 Methods of Education
9.3.4.5 Formal Education
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9.3.4.6 Non–Formal Education
9.3.5 Communication
9.3.6 Participation
9.3.7 Leadership
9.3.8 Resources
9.3.9 Community Action
9.3.10 Co – ordination
9.3.11 Legislative and Non–Legislative Action
9.3.1 PLANNING
Planning is simply the introduction of orderly thinking in to the areas of life
which have hitherto been ruled by unconsidered judgments. Planning is the
conscious and deliberate guidance of thinking so as to create logical means of
achieving agreed upon goals. Planning always and inevitably sets priorities and
calls for value judgment. Planning is a basic and fundamental approach or way of
dealing with the human problems which beset us. Planning is point of view, an
attitude, an assumption that says it is possible for to anticipate, predict, guide and
control our destiny. It is very essential step in community organisation to fulfill the
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needs and requirements of the community. It is has to be carried out by

representatives of various factions of community with the guidance of the
community organizer.
The community planner as a "concertmaster," who has a challenging
opportunity to build and maintain support, particularly to coordinate and integrate
various activities and developments related to the understanding of social problems
and their solutions. They discuss the community planner as a "technician," who
must have a considerable amount of information and ability in interpreting
information and helping with the mechanics and actualization of social action,
including use of concepts and principles from management such as Program
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), Program Planning and Budgeting
Systems (PPBS), Management by Objectives (MBO), and systems analysis.
9.3.2 AWARENESS CREATION
It refers to knowing, understanding and responding to the circumstances. By
creating awareness the individuals, the group and the community is enabled to
come to know about the condition of the community, understand the situation by
its causes and effects and finally the members respond to the situation to alter or to
fulfill the needs and problems of the community. This practice would make the
community to come together to understand their own situation and the need to
respond and the ways and means to respond. In this method the levels of
consciousness have to be kept in mind and the community should be assisted to
reader the critical level of consciousness from the magic and native levels of
consciousness. Only when the people attain critical level of consciousness they
would be in a position to respond for a change in their situation.
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Community organisation as a process aims at bridging the gap between the
needs and resources. In other words it requires a technical job to decide about what
to do and how to do in order to reduce the gap between the needs and problems.
Sometimes the term planning is would be in a position to participate. The
community should be mislead by such kind of ideas and therefore the community
is made to understand their situation and in order to respond, they have to prepare
an action plan, where the planning method is very much useful. Moreover, the
community should be made to realize that they can do the planning in other words
they are capable of making decisions about their own destiny
9.3.3 EDUCATION
The educational process is one of increasing group and community knowledge
about social problems and possible actions regarding them. It involves obtaining
unity of thinking among a given group, working out plans for action on a
democratic basis, and mobilization of community resources in obtaining the desired
action.
In thinking of the educational process, it is important to keep in mind that not
only facts and knowledge are important, but even more vital in many ways are the
feelings the people involved possess. Community social workers, in particular, try to
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help people in the community to understand the problems and their feelings toward
them. Action results especially when feelings are congruent with the thoughts and
rational plans.
Educating the community, which should enable them not merely learning the
skills of reading, writing and arithmetic but it should be more than that. The
community education is a method of learning the art of learning. In general the
present banking system of education enables an individual to acquire information
and store it in their memory, which could be retrieved but there is no guarantee
that we would be able to retrieve all the information stored. However, there are
different types of education, which could be used in the process of community
organisation as a method. Educational programmes are organized to attract the
people to equip themselves in information and knowledge in basic and different
aspects of the community.
9.3.4 GENERAL EDUCATION
It is imparting of knowledge and information to the members of the selected
group or the voluntary group or to the whole community with all the possible and
required information so that the members attain a basic understanding about the
community in general.
9.3.4.1 Family Education
A specific area is selected to provide the knowledge and information to the
people. The education on health, nutrition, childcare, home making and family
planning are the different areas which are considered to educate the people so that
they would be able to manage their own personal needs and the community needs.
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9.3.4.2 Community Education
In order to strengthen local and national institution, local and national
government, co-operation, participation and community projects and educational
programmes are organized which would enable the community to improve their
standard of living and increase the infrastructure and solve various problems of the
community through self help.
9.3.4.3 Occupational Education
Instead of providing mere information imparting into the minds of the people it
is essential to design the educational programmes to provide particular knowledge
and skills, which are useful in making a living.
9.3.4.4 Methods of Education
Informal education is a life – long process and day – to – day activity for
anyone to learn. The whole environment of the society contributes in providing
opportunities to acquire knowledge.
9.3.4.5 Formal Education
Formal Education is provided through institutionalized and structured
activities, which are being carried out by the government or with the aid of the
government. In a formal setting one cannot except awareness based education or
consciousness based education.
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9.3.4.6 Non–Formal Education

Non–Formal Education is organized, in a systematic way, being carried out,
outside the formal system. Usually in the community, either the volunteers or
voluntary organisations concentrate on such educational programmes. Community
organisation uses non – formal, functional literacy and adult education activity in
educating the community.
9.3.5 COMMUNICATION
Communication is the flow of information between and among the members of
the community as well as between the community and the community organizer.
Communication plays a vital role in community organisation. In the process of
community organisation the information have to be shared and by sharing the
community is brought together to avail and utilize the information. Information is
power and hence the possessing of information makes the community more
powerful and sharing the same involves sharing of power. The communication has
to be mutual and two – way. There should be dialogue and conversation rather than
arguments in the process of communication. Proper communication will enable to
community to get united for further action. Communication enables the whole
community being prepared for any eventuality and attained preparedness.
9.3.6 PARTICIPATION
It is a process in which the people come together, think together, plan together
act together and share together. The participation is in terms of sharing
information, power and resources. Participation is not merely listening and
receiving on the other hand communicating and sharing what one has and what
one wants. While doing so the decision – making component, the haring of
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information, power and resources take place. The participation could be direct or
indirect, active or passive, individual or group, short term or long term, temporary
or permanent, voluntary or involuntary etc. by encouraging participation in the
community whatever may be the type of participation it would enable the
community to come united to think about themselves and act if necessary.
9.3.7 LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the ability in an individual to influence others in getting things
done. The influencing ability depends on the qualities of integrity of the leader. By
increasing the ability of the people enables them empowered.
In any community work depends on the leadership. The community organizer
may depend on the formal and informal leaders. At times in order to carry out the
community activity the community has to assign duties and responsibilities to the
suitable persons. If such persons are not readily available such qualities have to be
inculcated into the individuals so that they would be fit to accept responsibilities.
By providing opportunities to individuals or by organizing activities to enable the
people to acquire leadership qualities, the community could be made to undergo
the community organisation process.
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9.3.8 RESOURCES
For the execution of any plan there is a need for resources. The resources are
manpower, money, material and time. When the community plans its community
activity, it also decides about the resources needed and the ways and means to
mobilize such resources. Resource mobilization is used as a method of
community organisation. It is also a technique one should learn while working with
a community. In the process of community organisation where the people identify
their problems, prioritize them, work out the alternatives, select the best
alternatives, assess the resources needed and design the methodology in mobilizing
the required resources. While mobilizing the resources it is also stated that we can
mobilize the unutilized resources, which are available either internally or externally.
Resources mobilization method makes the community to self – reliant by tapping
the local and inter – resources and if need by mobilize resources from outside.
9.3.9 COMMUNITY ACTION
Community organisation is used as a means to achieve. The actions to address
any problems are planned and executed with active participation of the people. The
planning of actions and execution of plans involve the members of the community.
Community action here refers to the action taken by the community in order
to address a problem, which could be within the community or against an
oppressive force. The action could before the welfare of the community and
development of the community. In the action process the members of the
community, volunteer and accept responsibilities in taking part in the actions and
the possible outcome of the positive and negative effects of the actions.
9.3.10 CO – ORDINATION
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Co–ordination is the process of working together to avoid unnecessary
duplication, effort and conflict in the community organisation process. On the
positive side, it is joining of people, agencies, and forces to support and strengthen
each other, making possible increased effective services that surpass what could be
done unilaterally.
Co–ordination is more than co operation. Co operation is working together to
accomplish a given end. It is usually utilized positively to bring about effective
actives. Ordinarily it involves a specific, single goal. Co- ordination generally
encompasses a combination of goals and affects several people or groups. In
community organisation it means that various people s and agencies in the
community join hands in to support each other, and help each to attain better
individually and mutually shared goals.
In the community organisation process there are different stages and phases
wherein the members of the community are able to contribute their ability and
skills. But if such efforts were not properly co-coordinated it would lead to
confusion, duplication and overlapping which would result in wastage of time,
energy and resources. Therefore, by co-coordinating the activities the community
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would be able to practice the process of community organisation on one hand and
on the other achieves the desired goals.
9.3.11 LEGISLATIVE AND NON–LEGISLATIVE ACTION
The activities of the community can be promoted by enacting certain new
legislation or modifying legislation or using of legislation in solving the problem. A
non – legislative action can also be initiated to take up the community development
activities.
A number of community problems may necessitate a legal intervention. If there
are legal provisions to handle with such a problem, it can be approached through
the existing legal measures. Otherwise, the community makes an effort in urging
the authority to introduce legal measures to take care of such problems. Such a
method is known as the legislative action. Sometimes the existing legal measure
has to be altered for which too legislative actions are promoted. Some of the
problems can be approached without any legal measures, which could be known as
the non -legislative action by the community.
9.4 REVISION POINTS
1. It is very essential step in Community organization needs and requirements
of the Community.
2. Planning is simply the introduction orderly thinking in to the areas of life
which have lither to been ruled unconsidered judgments.
3. It refers to knowing understanding and responding to the circumstances by
creating awareness the individuals and the groups and the Community is
enabled to come to know about the Condition of the Community.
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4. Only when the people attain critical level of consciousness they would be in
a position to respond for a change in their situation.
5. The educational process is one of increasing group and community
knowledge about social problem and possible action regarding.
6. Communication is the flow of information between and among the members
of the Community as well as between the Community and the Community
organizer.
7. It is a process in which the people come together, think together, plan
together, act together and share together.
8. Leadership is the ability in an individual to influence others in getting things
done.
9. The execution of plan there is a needs for resources. The resources are man
power, money, material and time.
10. Community action refers to the action taken by the community in order to
address the problem which could be within the Community or against
oppressive fauce.
11. Co-ordination is the process of marking together to avoid unnecessary
duplication, effort and conflict in the community organization.
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1. Explain the methods of community organization.
2. Explain the importance of communication in community organization.
9.6 SUMMARY
The skills of community organizer should be part of himself / herself. It should
be employed spontaneously. Skills should be developed highly so that it could bring
automatic response to the situation in the community. Thus the community
organizer should use the skills to relate to people, to analyse problems, to locate
resources, to see potential for change, and to be able to create effective structure s
for problem solving.
1. Define the method of Planning in Community Organisation?
2. Illustrate the method of Education in Community Organisation?
3. Bring out the Leadership quality in Community Organisation?
1. Skidmore, Rex, A and Shilton. G. Thackery, 1976, Introduction to Social
Work, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
9.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the role of different in Community Organisation?
2. Explain the method of Education in Community Organisation?
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Practices, New York, Harper &Row
2. Christopher.A.J, William Thomas. A. 2006, Community Organisation and
Social Action, Mumbai, Himalaya publishing.
Prakashan
1. Conducting a Workshop utilizing different methods of Communication
practically solving a problem in a Community.
9.12 KEY WORDS
Planning, Awareness creation , Education, Communication, Participation,
Leadership, Resources, Community action, Co–ordination, Legislative and Non–
Legislative Action.

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LESSON – 10
PHASES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Community organisation is a process which is continuous and therefore there
are different steps or stages being followed which are called as phases. Theses
phases given below are neither an exhaustive list nor mutually exclusive and more
over for any community organisation process all these phases need not be present
or to be followed in the same sequential order
10.2 OBJECTIVES
 To make students to have a knowledge on various phases of community
organisation
10.3 CONTENTS
10.3.1 Rapport Building
10.3.2 Study of Community
10.3. Assessment
10.3.4 Discussion
10.3.5 Organisation
10.3.6 Action
10.3.7 Evaluation
10.3.8 Continuation
10.3.1 RAPPORT BUILDING
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Relationship building or the rapport building between the community
organizer and the community is needed for any activity to be carried out in the
community. Relationship building is a purposeful interaction between the
community and the community organizer. Relationship building is to be initiated
through Informal conversation by talking in formally with local citizens, often in
their homes where people feel “at home”,. In the process of informal conversation,
the community organizer should facilitate the people to articulate their fears,
concerns, and frustrations, slowly and tactfully the conversation proceeds to
exploring the interest in, and ideas for, cooperative self – help with others in the
area. This phase may require several day, weeks or even months. Or the community
organizer may be get introduced as a representative of some employing program or
agency. Often this identification with an organisation will initially be a handicap as
the local citizens are apt to have certain prejudices toward the organisation or
toward “bureaucrats” the manner of his / her purposes. Thus meting the
individuals, families, the members of the community, village elites, formal and
informal leaders, key persons and informants through house visits the community
organizer can build rapport.
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10.3.2 STUDY OF COMMUNITY

In order to develop an understanding about the basic information about the
community, the community organizer has to study the community. Social survey,
Community survey, Rapid Rural Appraisal, formal or informal survey may be
conducted to collect the information about the community. The survey could be
taken up by the community organizer or the process could be initiated through the
members of the community. The study of basic information about the community
includes history of the community, details about the population, their conflicts,
their frustrations, and their hopes and fears. In particular, the community
organizer needs to be aware of recent events affecting the population, the present
events that are taking place in the future.
This phase also involves the invitation of the community organiser from the
community to take the developmental activities in the community. So as to
legitimatize his / her role, an the community organiser should come to a local area
only when he/ she receives an invitation, generally from an organisation or a small
group that is discontented about present conditions. Often the community
organizer has to tactfully work out to receive such an invitation, by speaking to
friends who will speak to others who will make it known that help is available for
social improvement.
10.3. ASSESSMENT
The community organiser seeks to find some common problems or concerns or
needs that the local citizens are willing to try to resolve through informal
conversations. The needs and problems, which are widely felt by the community,
are identified and given priority according to the urgency. After prioritizing the
for further action

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problem, the symptoms, the causes, the magnitude and severity could be assessed
The number of people who are willing to work at a problem is often very small
at first, perhaps as small as two or three. This small chunk forms the ‘nucleus”. A
nucleus is defined as a small group of serious – minded citizens who should have
the following characteristics: (1) know and trust each other, even when
disagreements arise, (2) have a concern about local problems and a desire to
improve conditions for all their neighbors, and (3) are conscious of standards of
right and wrong. They become the means for involving others.
In this stage the community organizer has to make an attempt to precisely
define and agree upon the area of interest through the informal meetings. Often
there will be many considerations, differing points of view, and long, long
discussions. The initial few in the nucleus are encouraged to invite their friends
and neighbors to these meetings to enlarge the size of the nucleus.
At times local participants become aware that they are lacking in some skill
viewed as important to accomplishing their objective. Perhaps a need is recognized
for training in record – keeping of events, meetings, and encounters with people.
Or, perhaps a community survey is viewed as essential to accomplishing the
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purpose, and a need is felt for training in such research, when such a training need
is agreed upon, a qualified and sympathetic outsider may be invited in to provide
training or act as a resource discussant.
10.3.4 DISCUSSION
Members of the formal structure created for the development of the
community is encouraged to examine the problem that brought them together in
order to choose some aspect that they can realistically hope to improve. Certain
related aspects of the problem, because of their complexity, have to be postponed
for later consideration. Narrowing the problem by selecting some aspect requires
self discipline among members. Often members need to learn the art of creative
discussion. Some may need to learn that disagreeing with someone is not a
personal attack, but an opportunity for broader understanding. Others may have to
learn to be more assertive in expressing their concerns, misgivings, and fears.
Others may need to switch from talking about their discontentment’s to focusing on
“doing” something to improve conditions.
After the problem is precisely defined, there should be a listing of as many
alternative ways of resolving a problem as the members can think of. When the
alternatives are being discussed, it is helpful to make decisions in terms of
consciously accepted standards of value as well the advantages and disadvantages
of the proposed solutions. At this time the organizer can and should ask questions
about ultimate objectives to draw attention to the standards by which the rightness
or wrongness of proposed alternatives are to be judged. The aim is to facilitate the
process of developing a “value basis” for choosing. Eventually, a decision is to be
arrived at to take certain specific steps to work toward resolving the agreed- upon
problem.
10.3.5 ORGANISATION DDE
The meetings of the community nucleus by the organizer almost always lead to
a recognition that the group needs to be organized to accomplish the proposed
improvements. The formality of the structure that is decided upon may vary from a
few officers (chair and secretary – treasure) with perhaps constitution, bylaws, full
slate of officers and a number of subcommittees.
After a structure is agreed upon, it is important that the group members arrive
at a commitment to work together for some time with a defined purpose. This
commitment is often adopted in a form that can be circulated to potential new
members and to the news media.
10.3.6 ACTION
Action plan has to be implemented with the active participation of the
community members. The action plan also has to be monitored by the members of
the community to ensure the time frame and resource allocation. It is also must to
let out the whole actions of community organisation to enable the community either
to face untoward incidents, if takes place in the implementation process or to share
the benefit of community project. Work project for people prone to blame others and
71
lacking in self confidence, a small project that requires little outside help is
generally advisable. More complicated projects, involving interactions with the
power structure, can come later. Reporting – a report is made to the nucleus on the
work done and on its effectiveness.
10.3.7 EVALUATION
The members of the organisation formed to take up the community project
have to discuss and critically evaluate the results of the work project. Often, the
organizer finds that the members will judge themselves harshly and be vigorous in
self criticism. Sometimes the organizer needs to soften the self--criticism, especially
if certain participants react overly defensively. With such discussions participants
and the nucleus frequently begin to make some revisions in their practical value
systems.
10.3.8 CONTINUATION
One of the major goals of community development is establishing a permanent
organisation in the community. The healthy growth of community nucleus may
result the permanent organisation in the community. So, the need for outside
support to organisation will not necessary after the nucleus has developed the self–
confidence to maintain on its own. At this point the organizer has to withdraw
himself from the organisational activities. The organizer may withdraw gradually,
perhaps by attending fewer meetings and contributing very less in the
organisational dialogue. The organizer may withdraw completely, except perhaps for
friendly letters and an occasional visit. Or, perhaps the encourager will remain “on
call” for complexities that arise. The nature, timing, and rapidity of the withdrawal
are matters of judgment that should be based primarily on the needs of the
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nucleus. As the nucleus continues to grow in size and confidence, it is anticipated
that the nucleus will take on increasing responsibility by tackling problems of
increasing complexity.
10.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Phases of community organization facilitate the sequential steps to be
followed to the community organisation.
2. Each phase community organisation explains its relevance of reaching the
goal of community organisation.
1. Vividly discuss the phases of community organisation.
2. Describe the elements to be studied for organising community.
10.6 SUMMARY
Community organisation is a process which is continuous and therefore there
are different steps or stages being followed which are called as process. These
stages given below are neither an exhaustive list nor mutually exclusive and more
over for any community organisation process all these need not to be present or to
be followed in the same sequential order.
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1. Describe the various phases of Community organisation
Prakashan.
2. Skidmore, Rex, A and Shilton. G. Thackery, 1976, Introduction to Social
Work, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
10.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss the role of different phases of community organisation.
2. Chowdhry, D.P Introduction to Social Work, New Delhi, Atma Ram.
1. Conducting Seminars and Conferences on phases of Community
Organisation with experts.
10.12 KEY WORDS
Rapport building, Study of Community, Assessment, Discussion,
Organisation, Action, Evaluation, Continuation

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LESSON – 11
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION IN EMERGENCY SITUATION
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Communities face several problems whenever a disaster hits. In a specifically
short span of time a community which was hitherto prosperous is rendered
homeless, its economic assets wiped out or damaged irreparably. It is faced with
current and future crisis of magnitudes which have both short – term and long
term implications on survival and recovery. Secondly, hazards like earth quakes do
not have warning systems; thus no preparedness measures can be taken. In the
case of other disasters, like, floods even though problem areas are identified,
economic and livelihood conditions check communities from protecting themselves.
The word emergency means, “Unexpected events requiring immediate
attention”, Disaster is the one of the emergency situation. Emergency Assistance
Work System 1989 regards disaster as an extra–ordinary event of limited duration
or strictly speaking a natural event causing serious disruption of countries
economy.
Community Organisation activities in the in Emergency Period comprises of
three stages. They are (1) Pre disaster stage (2) Emergency stage (3) Post disaster
stage. Pre–Disaster stage includes preparedness and mitigation for the disaster. The
preparedness for disaster in general comprises of (1) Preparing hazard zonation
maps, predictability / fore casting warning (2) Preparing disaster preparedness plan
(3)Land use zoning (4)Preparedness through IEC.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
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 To create an awareness on activities to be carried out at the time of disaster
situation in the community.
11.3 CONTENTS
11.3.1 Pre-Disaster Stage
11.3.1.1 Hazard Zonation Maps
11.3.1.2 Disaster Preparedness Plan
11.3.1.3 Land Use Zone
11.3.1.4 IEC for Preparedness
11.3.1.5 Disaster Mitigation
11.3.2 Emergency Stage
11.3.2.1 Search and Rescue Operation
11.3.3 Post-Disaster Stage
11.3.3.1 Restoration of Educational System
11.3.3.2 Rehabilitation of Vulnerable Sections of Society
11.3.3.3 Economic Aspect
11.3.3.4 Agricultural Rehabilitation
11.3.3.5 Rehabilitation of Artisans
11.3.3.6 Housing
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11.3.1 PRE-DISASTER STAGE

11.3.1.1 Hazard Zonation Maps
It is one of precautionary measure to be carried out in tackling the emergency
situation. The most sensitive regions to various hazards have to map up for the
identification of community organisation workers. Experts in the field have carried
out hazard zonation mapping for some selected portions of the region. Recent
techniques (i.e.) remote sensing, geographical information system (GIS) etc., may be
used for accurate mapping. Geo-environmental studies by evolving various
parameters such as geology, lithology, soil type, minerals forming the rocks and
soils water resources, ground and surface vegetation, climate etc. may be other
additional information taken care of while preparing hazard zonation maps.
11.3.1.2 Disaster Preparedness Plan
In disaster prone areas, a well co-ordinated cooperative preparedness plan is
very essential for disaster mitigation. This plan can be prepared by different
departments separately, clearly, depicting its preparedness for the emergency
situation.
11.3.1.3 Land Use Zone
In the region, rapid growth of population is a matter of great concern. This has
forced the people to reside and to agriculture in very fragile zones. The
Madhyamaheshwar valley (where landslides caused more than 50 deaths in 1998)
is one such area where people have developed agricultural fields on very steep
slopes making it unstable and fragile.
To avoid such situations, it is of utmost importance that a land use plan is
prepared for whole of the disaster prone region. Geographical information system
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and remote sensing data may also be invoked for this task. Based on this plan, the
activities in sensitive areas may be redesigned. The satellite data may be used to
produce various land use information data base at micro and macro level.
11.3.1.4 IEC for Preparedness
Information education and communication are means for creating awareness,
wisdom and knowledge among people in order to prepare them for disaster
mitigation. In the region these three components can play an important role in
disaster mitigation. Various tools (i.e.) rapid appraisal, action plan awareness
campaign etc can be used to make people aware and knowledgeable about natural
disasters management in the disaster prone area.
11.3.1.5 Disaster Mitigation
In general development is treated as the causative factor for disasters. But it is
true for unplanned and non – scientific development. A planned and systematic
development is a region certainly helps in reducing the susceptibility of a region
and society to losses and thus mitigating disaster.
Keeping this in view in disaster prone areas, disaster management activities
are to be considered as developmental activities and vice versa. The approach of the
developments activities and programmes in such areas should be positive, with
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stress on buildings, strong and resistant socio – economic and physical structures,
capable to resist the impact of natural hazards. It is also necessary to view disaster
management activities as a developmental activity while revitalizing reduction
strategies.
Thus the main emphasis of a disaster management system should be on
reducing the vulnerability which will automatically take care of other two stages
(i.e.) emergency and post disaster up to large extent. As development pattern and
vulnerability are two aspects of a single problem and are inter- dependent the
approach of an appropriate disaster management should be tailor made
development of the region in such a manner that the susceptibility of a society to
disaster is minimized. This is applicable not only for pre-disaster but for the post
disaster stage also.
The risk of a society to disasters is dependent on its vulnerability and type of
natural hazards. Risk= vulnerability X nature and intensity of disaster. As the type
and intensity of an natural hazards is beyond human control, the emphasis of an
appropriate disaster management should be to reduce the vulnerability of the
society, so that the risk is minimized and this can be achieved by moulding the
developmental processes.
The appropriate response is that the development should take due care of four
essential aspects of socio – economic and physical system of a society, i.e. politico –
administrative economic, social and environmental aspects. There should be
politico – administrative will for such type of development. The development should
be acceptable to political / administrative bosses and all other sections of the
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society.
While considering social aspect, the development should (take care of all the
economic) be acceptable to the people and in tune to their local needs. To take care
of the economic aspects the development, should take care of all the economic
requirements of each and every section of the society and should not be
heterogeneous. The most important aspect for appropriate development, especially
in disaster prone area is the environmental strategies to combat the vulnerability.
11.3.2 EMERGENCY STAGE
This stage of disaster management comprises of rescue and evacuations,
shelters for victims, relief for livestock, disposal of dead and finally damage
assessment survey. This stage requires literally a “Rapid action Task Force”, that is
aware of contextual social norms and conditions and is psychologically attuned to
face the abnormal human conditions. The term should have the concern and
technical knowledge and skills to conduct such operations.
The contextual findings of the region of disaster reveal that during emergency
stage the major role is played by administration alone. With limited resources, the
administration can hardly perform these operations effectively. To deal with this it
is required that local people are trained to handle emergency situation. The
formulation of disaster management committees at local level may be another
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alternative. If various NGO’s local bodies (Panchayats), National Social Services

Core, and other voluntary organisations are given adequate responsibility and
resources to tackle emergency situation, the results will be better and satisfactory.
11.3.2.1 Search and Rescue Operation
It is very strongly felt that during rescue and relief at the time of disaster,
there is an urgent need for a specialized national facility to provide professional for
a specialized national facility to provide professional training in search and rescue.
It is proposed that a centre for training in search and rescue operation be
immediately created. Organisation like Army, Para Military Forces, BSF, CISF,
SCOUTS, NCC, cadets, teachers, Postman, Village Panchayat, NGO’s community
leaders need to be trained for this purpose by the community organizer.
The centers may be developed at centrally located areas so that trained people
can move quickly to the affected areas. The facility should be able to provide
professional training and also handle situations arising out of may and all of the
following happenings: (1) Earth quakes, (2) Landslides, (3) Avalanches, (4) Floods,
(5) Fire.
The proposed centers need be networked and equipped with instant mobility in
air, land, hills etc, instant community system, inventory of rescue equipment and
trained manpower available, life detecting devices like dog squads etc and other
advance equipments, portable generators, pumps & lights, drills, RCC cutters,
winches, hoists, cranes etc special light weight equipments will be of much use in
hilly terrains, life saving and survival kits.
11.3.3 POST-DISASTER STAGE
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The most important phase of disaster management starts with the passing of
emergency phase. In the disaster prone areas, rehabilitation should not be simply
viewed as only shifting of people from one place to another and resetting them
properly. Social Aspects also involved too in this post disaster stage. Social aspect
of rehabilitation covers the traditional and cultural values of the community
strengthening the educational system and health facilities and rehabilitation of
vulnerable group, (i.e.) women, children and old persons affected by the disaster.
11.3.3.1 Restoration of Educational System
Restoration of education system is also an important aspect in the
rehabilitation process. After disaster (i.e.) earthquakes or landslides, the
educational buildings are damaged and it is seen that schools are closed almost for
months and over for years in some causes. For proper restoration of the education
activities the teachers and the children of the disaster affected areas require
constant counselling. They require encouragement and motivation to start their life
once again. Hence the role of local NGO’s may be very effective in this aspect. The
responsibilities assigned to these local groups may include counseling and
encouraging the children to attend the schools regularly, helping the schools
administration for ensuring participation and cooperation of the children in all
activities of the school, developing an atmosphere for students to seek knowledge
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and information, inculcating conductive attitudes among the students enabling

term to develop a positive role in self development, establishing the village level
education committees for proper monitoring of schools within the village and
restoration of confidence among the people.
11.3.3.2 Rehabilitation of Vulnerable Sections of Society
Aged people, women and children are the most vulnerable groups of the
society at the time of disaster. The rehabilitation programme for these groups
should include an attempt must be made to attach the windows and orphans
within their extended family or through a foster family in case of orphans, the
mental health of such affected groups must be strengthened through programmes
of regular counseling and psychological treatment, the proper health, nutrition and
hygiene aspects must be taken care of within the long term rehabilitation of the
women and children group, the economic independence of widows must be ensured
with the help of various programmes, (i.e.) small scale industries, formation of self
help groups etc and the group should be rehabilitated in familiar environment
11.3.3.3 Economic Aspect
The economy of disaster affected areas is another important aspect of the
emergency situation. This economic aspect of rehabilitation includes agricultural
rehabilitation, rehabilitation of artisans, and housing to be given utmost priority.
11.3.3.4 Agricultural Rehabilitation
The agricultural fields are mostly on slopes, and thus more prone to
degradation. In brief the agricultural practices in the region are not economically
and environmentally viable. The agricultural practices make the are vulnerable to
erosion and degradation. In the area are forced to survive on agricultural due to
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scarcity of other livelihood sources. Thus there is urgent need to discourage that
unscientific agriculture practices and use this agriculture land for more eco-friendly
activities like horticulture, social forestry etc. All necessary support and
cooperation should be extended for achieving the some.
11.3.3.5 Rehabilitation of Artisans
The economic status of artisans and other small business persons is also not
at all satisfactory in this region. These groups survive on a day to day basis and
during disaster the financial condition of such groups become really miserable. In
case of a large number of people under this category, the disaster results in loss of
a market place for their finished products or raw material. It is advised that they
should be provided small work sheds necessary tool – kits and soft loans to enable
them to secure raw materials and to market the unfinished / finished products.
Another way is to rehabilitative. The affected people by initiating rural industrial
units at block level within the disaster affected areas. In these units, various
artisans like carpenters, black smiths’ goldsmiths, tailors, potters, mechanics etc.
may be provided with basic infrastructural facilities like working sheds, internal
roads, electricity, water supply, raw material etc.
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11.3.3.6 Housing
During disaster maximum damage was caused to houses and household
properties. The collapse of houses was also responsible for most of the casualties in
the area. It was observed that the traditional housing pattern in rural constructed
with local materials and techniques have survived the onslaught of the recent
earthquakes, while the newly constructed houses were severely damaged. The place
of traditional houses constructed of mud, and states have been taken by brick and
stone house with lintered roots.
1. Communities face several problems whenever disaster hits. It is faced with
current and future crisis of magnitudes which have bath short term and
long term implications on survival and recovery.
2. Community organization activities in the emergency period comprises of
three stages.
a. Pre-disaster stage = disaster proxe areas-Co-ordination and Co-operative
preparedness.
b. Emergency stage = Rescue, evacuations and relief
c. Post-disaster stage = Rehabilitation and Re-setting of the normal Social
system.
3. During the rehabilitative process, during the Construction of the houses,
besides technical aspect, the Socio-cultural traditions and needs of the
people are also to be given due consideration.
DDE
1. Discuss the pre-disaster plan in emergency situation.
2. Describe the search and rescue operation in emergency situation.
3. Depict the areas of post–disaster plan in emergency situation
11.6 SUMMARY
In the recent past various research have been carried out regarding disaster
resistant house and their construction. These newly developed techniques houses
and there, are to be used for site selection, layout and design, while constructing
houses. Beside technical aspect the socio – cultural traditions and needs of the
people are also to be given due consideration during construction of the houses.
1. Explain the significant role rehabilitation measures in after the disaster
management?
2. What are the aspects included in the Emergency stage?
1. Murphy and Campbell, Community organization Practice, Haughton Mifilin
Co., New York 1984.
2. Morgan, A.E., The Small Community, Harper Brothers, 1986.
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11.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Narrate the steps taken during the Pre-disaster stage.
2. Define the activities undertaken during the rehabilitation measures after
disaster management?
2. Gangrade, K.D, 1971, Community Organisation In India, Mumbai, Popular
Prakashan
3. Mishra. P.D, 1994, Social Work Philosophy and Methods, New Delhi, Inter-
India Publication
1. Arranging Field Exposure visit to the students to disaster Proxe area and
explain them different steps and rehabilitation measures taken by the
Community Organisation.
11.12 KEY WORDS
Emergency situation, Disaster, Rehabilitation, Disaster Mitigation.

DDE
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LESSON – 12
COMMUNITY ORGANISATION IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Community organisation is one of the helping methods in social work. It is
applied not only for the development of communities but also in too many areas or
settings. In this lesson the application of community organisation in medical
setting, Family welfare setting and in the urban slum. Community organisation in
these settings is concentrating on simplistic nature of activities to psychedelic
nature of activities by organizing the community participation. Let us discuss those
activities in the settings mentioned.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
 To give an idea anent application of community organization method in
various settings.
12.3 CONTENTS
12.3.1 Medical Setting
12.3.2 Public Health Services
12.3.3 Family Welfare Setting
12.3.4 Slum Setting
12.3.1 MEDICAL SETTING
Medical social work is social work in responsible collaboration with medicine.It
is practiced in hospitals, clinics and in other settings commonly identified with the
practice of medicine. The clientele of medical social work are those whose needs are
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social and psychological and whose functioning has been or is in danger of
becoming impaired because of illness, disease, or disability.
The ill person, to the social worker is one who is not performing adequately in
the various social roles appropriate for him or her. There are many factors to illness
and, in work with ill person, the social worker address him –or herself to those
bearing directly on the person’s performance in various roles –employee, employer,
husband, wife or child.
Illness has various and different meanings for the individual, family, and the
community. The family’s activities are centered on the sick person, who is in
position to control the activities of the household.
Medical and health agencies within the community are established to assist
the family in the performance of its role. The meaning of illness to the community
lies largely in the need of the community to promote the health of the citizens.
Social workers particularly, those in health care settings, are in strategic position to
give direction to the development of services in community.
12.3.2 PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES
A community is a society of individuals that plans for the welfare of its
members for mutual advantage. No community can afford to disregard the needs of
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the people who are ill or who might to require medical care even if the family cannot
bear the burden without help. Recognizing various motives, the community must
take steps to protect the health of its members. The sick person, the handicapped
one, and the disabled one who cannot get the care, he or she needs can not be
healthy, contributing force within the community. Therefore, in its own self interest,
the community provides hospital, clinics and other health services.
Community work is gaining prominence, particularly in the practice of
community medicine and in comprehensive mental, health centers. They also serve
for alcoholism and planned parenthood. Increasingly, they are taking leadership on
the health team, especially as health care is moving out of the hospital and into
community. Community workers also involved in research and evaluation,
especially in patient satisfaction measures, which is likely to increase in the years
ahead. In various ways, thus, social workers are relating themselves increasingly to
the community aspects of care.
12.3.3 FAMILY WELFARE SETTING
Family is recognized as mankind’s basic institutions. Everyone has accepted
that family is fundamental to society. No other established pattern has been found
more effective in molding personality of children and adults. Social, personal and
emotional ties are more intimately in this relationship than in any other social
dimension.
The family is the cradle for children, not only physically and psychologically.
So powerful is its influence that many experts indicate a child’s basic personality
traits have been developed by the time he or she is two years of age, with the family
playing the major role in their formation. Hence the social work focuses on family
welfare.
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Family welfare focuses mainly on Marriage and family counseling services.
Child welfare also being concentrated under the family welfare. Under child welfare
a widely diversified programme such as adoption, foster care and protective services
are being cared.
Foster care is a residential arrangement for children who are unable to live
with their natural parents. Group –living experiences may be necessary for certain
children in need of substitute family care. Adoption agencies provide a service for
those who wish to adopt children. Services to unmarried mothers give help with
social and personal problems. Protective service is one means by which family
strength and organisation are maintained and children are helped to adjust in their
own homes. Family day care services are set up for children whose mothers work
outside the home.
12.3.4 SLUM SETTING
During the last century and a quarter, there has been a far –reaching
redistribution of population in the world from rural to urban settlement out of
industrialization. This has resulted in shortage of accommodation and this, in turn,
has given rise to slums with over crowed shabby living quarters. These slums are
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populated by workers and other indigent people. The person living in these slums
are constantly exposed to all kinds of diseases and are liable to become social
deviates and criminals; the loss of morals is an individual’s consequence of living
slum. The slum huts are worse than the pens of cattle’s. So, the social work
concentrates both on development oriented and problem solving activities in the
slum areas.
Social work activities under slum improvement include housing, drinking
water, sanitation and light, drainage facilities, medical care and education and so
on. However, much of the slump improvement programmes in our cities falling
short of achieving their results due to over population, non co-operation of slum
dwellers and so on.
1. Community organisation is one of the helping methods in social work. it is
not only applied for the development of communities and also in too many
areas and settings.
2. The application of Community Organisation in medical settings, Family
welfare setting and the urban slum.
3. Community Organisation in these settings is concentrating on simplistic
nature of activities of psychedelic nature of activities by organising the
Community participation.
4. A Community organiser has to be familiar with the roles of Community
Organisation.
DDE
1. Explain the community organisation in Medical setting.
2. Elucidate the community organisation in Family welfare setting.
3. Explain the community organisation in urban slum.
12.6 SUMMARY
Community organisation can be used by a community organizer in different
settings like rural, urban, tribal, institutional –Non Institutional settings. Whatever
may be the settings depending upon the model of the community organisation Like
locality development, social planning and social action, the community organizer
has to apply different roles respectively. Therefore, a community organizer has to be
familiar with the roles of community organisation.
1. Define the Health services in the Medical settings?
2. Explain the activities carried out in the family setting?
83

Prakashan.
2. Skidmore, Rex, A and Shilton.G. Thackery, 1976, Introduction to Social Work,
New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
12.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss the different methods adopted in Community Organisation.
2. Chowdhry,D.P Introduction to Social Work, New Delhi, Atma Ram.
1. Exposure and Practicals may be arranged for the students Community
Organisation in different settings – Medical setting, Family and Public
settings.
12.12 KEY WORDS
Medical setting, Family welfare, Urban Slum

DDE
84
LESSON –13
SOCIAL ACTION
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Social action is one of the secondary methods of social work.Mary Richmond
was the first social worker who used the word 'social action' in 1922 and defined it
as "mass betterment through propaganda and social legislation. It is to bring out a
change in social and economic institutions of the society by organizing the segment
of the community population. The radical meaning of social action state that let us
organize to destroy our oppressors.
Social action could not get due place among the methods of social work but it
has received much attention in the developing countries. "In developing countries,
social action is crucial and must precede social work. It is wasteful in a developing
country to start with social work and leave social action behind social
action…..creates the necessary conditions and climate in which social work could
be done more effectively”
13.2 OBJECTIVES
 To improve the understanding of the students on social action method to
practice in their professional life.
13.3 CONTENTS
13.3.1 Definitions of Social Action
13.3.2 Objectives of Social Action
13.3.3 Forms of Social Action
DDE
13.3.4 Principles of Social Action
13.3.4.1 Principle of Credibility Building
13.3.4.2 Principle of Legitimization
13.3.4.3 Principle of Dramatization
13.3.4.4 Principle of Multiple Strategies
13.3.4.5 Principle of Dual Approach
13.3.4.6 Principle of Manifold Programmes
13.3.5 Process of Social Action
13.3.6 Strategies of Social Action
13.3.6.1 Collaboration
13.3.6.2 Competition
13.3.6.3 Disruption
85
13.3.7 Models of Social Action

13.3.7.1 Institutional Model (Staff)
13.3.7.2 Institutional Social Model
13.3.7.3 Social Institutional Model
13.3.7.4 Populist / Movemental Model
13.3.7.5 Gandhian Model
13.3.8 Role of Social Worker in Social Action
13.3.1 DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL ACTION
Social action is “the attempt to change the social environment in ways which...
will make life more satisfactory. It aims to affect not individuals but social
institutions, laws, customs, communities”. - Coyle, grace l.
Social action is legally permissible action by a group (or by an individual trying
to promote group action) for the purpose of furthering objectives that are both legal
and socially desirable”. - Fitch, john
Social action might be described as organized group effort to solve mass social
problems or to further socially desirable objectives by attempting to influence basic
social and economic conditions or practices. - Hill, john.I
Social action is an individual, group or community effort, within the
framework of social work philosophy and practice that aims to achieve social
progress, to modify social policies and to improve social legislation, health and
welfare services.- Friedlander,W.A
DDE
Social action as "organized effort to change social and economic institutions as
distinguished from social work or social service, the fields of which do not
characteristically cover essential changes in established institutions. Social action
covers movements of political reform, industrial democracy, social legislation, racial
and social justice, religious freedom and civil liberty, its, techniques include
propaganda, research and lobbying. –Baldwin
Social action is a process in which conscious, systematic and organized efforts
are made by some elite(s) and/or people themselves to bring about change in the
system which is instrumental in solving problems and improving conditions which
limit the social functioning of weaker and vulnerable sections. it is, on the practical
plane, nearer to social reform than to social revolution which aims at smashing the
entire existing social structure and to build up a new social set-up. It is confluctual
in nature but at the same time non-violent. -Singh, S.
Social action should be seen as an endeavour to bring about or prevent change
in the social system through a process of making people aware of the socio-political
and economic realities conditioning their lives and by mobilizing them to organize
themselves for bringing about the desired change, or to prevent the change that
adversely affects them, through the use of whatever strategies they may find
workable, with the exception of violence.
86
Social action is a conflictual process of varying intensity, initiated and

conducted by the masses or by a group of elites, with or without the participation of
the masses in the action against the structures or institutions or policies or
programmes or procedures of the government and/or relevant agencies and/or
power groups to eradicate/control any mass socio-economics political problem with
a view to bringing betterment to any section of the underprivileged at a level larger
than that of a sociologically defined community.
13.3.2 OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL ACTION
The objective of social action is the proper shaping and development of socio-
cultural environment in which a richer and fuller life may be possible for all the
citizens. The following goals have been identified, prevention of needs, solution of
mass problems, improvement innfass conditions, influencing institutions, policies
and practices, introduction of new mechanisms or programmes, redistribution of
power, resources (human, material and moral), decision-making, effect on thought
and action structure, and improvement in health, education and welfare.
13.3.3 FORMS OF SOCIAL ACTION
Britto has identified two types of social action:
1. Action initiated and conducted by the elites for the benefit of the masses.
2. Popular social action.
He identifies three sub-models of each type of social action. In the first model
he has mentioned the following types:
a. Legislative action model: In this model elites try to modify the social policy
by creating public opinion against the problems.
DDE
b. Sanction model: The elites by gaining control over some economic, social,
political or religious weapon try to obtain benefits for the society.
c. Direct physical model: Elites take action and punish those responsible for
the cause of injustice.
The second type of social action has the following three sub-models.
a. Concretization model based on Paulo Friere's concept of creating awareness
among masses through education.
b. Dialectical model promoting conflict to exploit the contradictions in a
system, with the belief that a better system will emerge as a result.
c. Direct mobilization whereby specific issues are taken up by the actionists
and the masses are mobilized to resort to protests and strikes to achieve the
objectives.
13.3.4 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL ACTION
Britto has described the following principles of social action which emerged out
of the analysis of the methodology used by Gandhiji to mobilize the masses during
the freedom movement.
87
13.3.4.1 Principle of Credibility Building

It is the task of creating a public image of the leadership, the organisation and
the participants of the movement as champions of justice, rectitude and truth. It
helps in securing due recognition from the opponent the reference-public, and the
peripheral participants of the movement.
13.3.4.2 Principle of Legitimization
Legitimization is the process of convincing the reference public and the general
public that the movement objectives are morally right. The ideal would be making a
case for the movement as a moral-imperative. Movement makers might use
theological, philosophical, legal-technical, public opinion paths to establish the
tenability of the movement's objectives.
13.3.4.3 Principle of Dramatization
Dramatization is the principle of mass mobilization by which the leaders of a
movement galvanize the population into action by emotional appeal to heroism,
sensational news - management, novel procedures, pungent slogans and such
other techniques.
13.3.4.4 Principle of Multiple Strategies
There are two basic approaches to development: Confictual and non-
confictual. Taking the main thrust of a programme, one can classify it as political,
economic or social. Four developmental strategies have been identified by Zeltman
and Duncan. These are:
1. Education strategy - (a) adult education (b) education by demonstration,
2. Persuasive strategy,
13.3.4.5 Principle of Dual Approach DDE

3. Facilitative strategy, Power strategy.
Any activist has to build counter-systems or revive some moribund system

which is thought to be beneficial to the needs of the mobilized public on a self-help
basis without involving opponents. Counter system must be built up and
traditional systems must be transformed or humanized in any developmental
operation.
13.3.4.6 Principle of Manifold Programmes
These are of three categories: (i) Social programmes (ii) Economic programmes
(iii) Political programmes
13.3.5 PROCESS OF SOCIAL ACTION
The first step in the social action process is to make people aware about the
social problems and situations responsible for these problems. The next step is to
develop an organisation to deal with the situations. Strategies to achieve the
defined goal are the third step. Fourthly, efforts are made to mobilize people to
organize activities on the lines of strategies to achieve the goal.
88
13.3.6 STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION

There are three types of strategies for social action:
13.3.6.1 Collaboration
In this strategy the social workers collaborate with the local authority and
other authorities or agencies in order to bring about improvements in the existing
social policy. The basic assumption of this approach is homogeneity of values and
interests, through which substantive agreement on proposals is obtainable. No one
stands to lose a great deal of power, authority or money, since change occurs
within a consensus that includes both values and interests.
13.3.6.2 Competition
In this strategy contending parties utilize commonly accepted campaign tactics
to persuade, to negotiate and to bargain, with a willingness to arrive at a working
agreement.
13.3.6.3 Disruption
This strategy signifies more militant approach and it may include strikes,
boycotts, fasts, tax-refusal, sit-ins, etc. Richard Bryn postulates two sets of
strategies – bargaining and confrontation. Bargaining means lobbying, submitting
petitions, information and publicity campaigns, etc, whereas confrontation includes
strikes, demonstrations and 'sit-ins'.
Hornstein has mentioned the following strategies for social intervention:
individual change, techno-structural data-based, organisational development and
cultural change, violence and coercion, and non-violent action - accommodation,
exposures, living examples, public support, presentation of proposals, competition,
DDE
lobbying, agitation and subversion, etc. Sharp has identified as many as 198
methods of non-violent action. Hornstein has classified them as under:
1. Direct action tactics: Picketing, marches, fraternization, haunting, leafleting,
and renouncing honours.
2. Non-cooperation: Strike, boycott, tax refusal
3. Intervention: Sit-in, fast, reverse strike, obstruction.
13.3.7 MODELS OF SOCIAL ACTION
Singh has mentioned the following models of social action.
13.3.7.1 Institutional Model (Staff)
The state generally takes an indirect action and is directed for the benefit of
the people with or without their participation. The approach is parliamentary,
representational, bureaucratic and elitist. The action is organized or sponsored
within the framework of law, or may be legalized subsequently i.e. regularization of
unauthorized settlements. State action may include residual/institutional (mixed)
models.
89
13.3.7.2 Institutional Social Model

It visualizes social action by non-governmental institutions aided or unaided
which initiate action directly or otherwise and in the course of time secure people's
active support. In the beginning the action is initiated for the people but
subsequently it progresses with and through them. The thrust of such action may
be welfare or normative and may take place within the framework of law.
13.3.7.3 Social Institutional Model
Here the social action may be organized by the citizens, self-help groups,
elites, the deprived, and others for their benefit but in its progression and
development may seek support from formal groups· and institution(s) which may
like to espouse its cause. Depending upon its success it may institutionalize itself
formally.
13.3.7.4 Populist / Movemental Model
It relies on popular social base and power, rejects dependency, and stresses
self-reliance through collective effort, active participation and continuing education.
This is an ideal form of social action, in that participants experience thinking,
deciding and working together in helping themselves and in the process also
strengthen their social base and power.
13.3.7.5 Gandhian Model
This model emphasizes on spirituality, purity of means and ends, non-violence
as a creed, austerity (limitation of want), and moral rearmament of people.
13.3.8 ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER IN SOCIAL ACTION
Clarke has mentioned the following role of social worker in social action:
DDE
1. All social workers are interested in Promoting the welfare of the individual
and as a consequence every social agency sooner or later is concerned with
some aspect of social action... Social work practitioners have the
responsibility of keeping their constituency informed of conditions creating
the problems they handle so that the agency which is composed of
supporters, staff, and clients, can share in achieving social change.
2. It is agreed that every social worker as a citizen has a constitutional right to
participate in any form of legal social action that he chooses whether it be as
a trade union member fighting for the principles of his group; as a member
of neighbourhood camp, advocating slum clearance; as an individual
espousing the cause of religious freedom, racial equality, civil liberties, free
birth-control clinics, disability and health insurance; as a member of a
political party; or as a member of a citizen's political action group...
3. The Rev. Mr. Dwight J. Bradley, Director of the Religious Association of the
National Citizens Political Action Committee, urged an active participation in
political movements. It was then that in a democratic society all reforms are
eventually bound up with political action, hence if we are to be realistic
about social change we cannot evade association with political action
groups.
90
4. Social workers as individuals or professional persons will support specific

programmes because they believe in them, not because they have
professional expertise of them.
5. Social worker may participate in social action as a primary or secondary
activity.
The profession of social work in India has hitherto not paid an adequate
attention either to education or to practice of social action. Major concerns of the
professionals in this area have revolved largely around Disaster Situations or
Disturbances.
1. Social action is one of the Secondary methods of Social work.
2. Social action is to bring out a change in social and economic institutions of
the society by organizing the segment of the Community Population.
3. Social action is a process in which conscious, systematic and organised
efforts are made by same elites and or people themselves about change in
the system.
4. The objective of social action is the proper shaping and development of
Socio-Cultural environment in which ricter and fuller life may be possible for
all the citizens.
5. Social action is a process of bringing about the desired changes by deliberate
group and Community effort.
1. Portray the concept of Social Action.
DDE
2. Figure out the models of Social Action.
3. Point out the role of social worker in Social Action.
13.6 SUMMARY
Social action is a process of bringing about the desired changes by deliberate
group and community effort. Social action does not end with the enactment and
signing of social legislation, but that the execution of policies is the real test of the
success or failure of social action.
1. Define the different forms of Social action?
2. Bring the different Principles of Social action?
3. What are the objectives of Social action?
Prakashan.
2. Skidmore, Rex, A and Shilton.G. Thackery, 1976, Introduction to Social Work,
New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
91
13.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss the different models of Social action in Community organization?
2. Narrate the different principles of Social Action in Community Organisation?
2. Chowdhry, D.P Introduction to Social Work, New Delhi, Atma Ram.
1. Conducting Social Work Seminars and Conferences on knowing about the
principles, and models of Social Action – in Community Organisations.
13.12 KEY WORDS
Social Action, Models of Social Action, Principles of Social Action

DDE
471E210
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY PRESS 2018 – 2019

470 e 210 Community Organisation Practice

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470E210

Master of Social Work (MSW)

Dr. P.Chiristuraj Dr. R.Murugesan

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (MSW)

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK (MSW)

Lesson Title Page No.

2. Community Power Structure 9

4. Community Dynamics Integrative and Disintegrative

5. Conflict Resolution System 29

7. Role of the Community Organiser 42

8. Principles of Community Organisation 46

9. Methods of Community Organisation 61

10. Phases of Community Organisation 68

12. Community Organisation in Different Settings 80

13. Social Action 84

1.3.8 Tribal Community

village is a community whose members have a sense of unity, close neighborhood

1.3.7.4 Social Heterogeneity

1.3.9.2 Common Descent

1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES

2.4 REVISION POINTS

nonconformists — especially when such phenomena are understood as intrinsic

3.3.4 STEPS IN SOCIO CULTURAL INTERVENTION

3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS DDE

1. Explain the concept of minorities

3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

4.3.1.1 Social Structure

5.3.5.1 Yielding to Coercion

belong together. Their development was marked by a ceaseless struggle. This

5.3.5.1 Yielding to Coercion

The increasing necessity for more effective community organisation of social

organisation as a separate concentration or in combination with administration and

personal and social problems.DDE

In the professional social work, community organisation is a process of

initiative. Community development implies the integration of two sets of forces

manner it is the development of cooperative and collaborative attitudes and

Community organization, Community development

experience or patience to keep an organisation going. Probably, more organisations

7.3.8 ROLE OF ENABLER

7.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES

8.3.1.11 Organisation should Develop a Pace for its Work in the

8.3.1.2 Discontent must be Focused and Channeled in respect to Specific Problems

To begin with, effective communication within a group, or between groups,

If these changes are to be worked through, the community must be thoroughly

former were at least two positions higher in volume of participation, usefulness of

Many organisations "live through" such experiences just as families endure

8.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES

needs and requirements of the community. It is has to be carried out by

9.3.4.6 Non–Formal Education

9.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS

10.3.2 STUDY OF COMMUNITY

for further action

10.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES

11.3.1 PRE-DISASTER STAGE

alternative. If various NGO’s local bodies (Panchayats), National Social Services

and information, inculcating conductive attitudes among the students enabling

12.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

13.3.7 Models of Social Action

Social action is a conflictual process of varying intensity, initiated and

13.3.4.1 Principle of Credibility Building

13.3.4.5 Principle of Dual Approach DDE

Any activist has to build counter-systems or revive some moribund system

13.3.6 STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION