Ias Baba World History

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Integrated Learning
Programmme (ILP) - 2022
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IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1
Contents
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION...................................................................................................................................... 6
Beginning of Renaissance ........................................................................................................................................10
The impact of Renaissance ......................................................................................................................................13
Pre-industrial Europe ...............................................................................................................................................15
Agricultural Revolution ............................................................................................................................................15
Factors that led to Industrial revolution ..................................................................................................................17
Why did the Industrial Revolution Start in England? ...............................................................................................18
Impact of Industrial Revolution ...............................................................................................................................22
The Global Impact of Industrialization ....................................................................................................................25
Positive Effects of the Industrial Revolution ............................................................................................................26
The Industrial Revolution led to economic, social, and political reforms ................................................................27
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................29
THINK .......................................................................................................................................................................30
FRENCH REVOLUTION .......................................................................................................................................... 31
The Causes of the Revolution ..................................................................................................................................32
The revolution in France ..........................................................................................................................................35
Role of Women in French Revolution ......................................................................................................................41
Impact of Revolution on France...............................................................................................................................42
Impact of French Revolution on the World .............................................................................................................45
France under Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) ..............................................................................................................46
CONGRESS OF VIENNA ......................................................................................................................................... 50
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................51
NATIONALISM IN EUROPE ................................................................................................................................... 53
Features of the Sovereign Nation-state System ......................................................................................................54
UNIFICATION OF ITALY......................................................................................................................................... 55
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY ................................................................................................................................. 59
COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM ........................................................................................................................ 70
IMPERIALISM IN ASIA .......................................................................................................................................... 74
Imperialism in the Middle East ................................................................................................................................76
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Consequences of Imperialism ..................................................................................................................................76

AMERICAN REVOLUTION ..................................................................................................................................... 78
Series of Events Leading to American Revolution ...................................................................................................79
Causes of the War of American Independence .......................................................................................................81
The impact of American Revolution ........................................................................................................................85
MAINS QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE ....................................................................................................................... 87
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INTRODUCTION
Hello Friends,
Welcome to World History (WH) Module. We know that most of you specially the first timers
would be cursing UPSC for having WH in the syllabus. The thoughts like, why to read it and
know about so many events happened years ago? What is its relevance for my preparation and
all?
Top of it, UPSC in recent years is asking questions that cannot be solved simply by reading the
standard text books. Secondly the focus seems to shift from obvious topics to hidden and
associated topics, events, nature, significance etc.
Why on Earth UPSC expects to remember everything in fine detail?
Let us provide you a fine print of WH and its significance for your preparation and how
effectively can you enjoy studying the same.
What comes to your mind when you look at the keywords like:
• French, Industrial and American Revolution?

• World Wars
• Colonization and Decolonization etc.
You take them literally by heart and try to mug everything as you come across, right!
Assume yourself to be a Time-traveller and while you read the texts, try to fit in yourself with
the context of the topic. Imagine yourself to be living in that time, and feel the developments as
you go on reading about it.
Let’s say, you are studying about French Revolution. How will you incorporate the
imagination aspect we just mentioned in the preceding paragraph?
Look at the given image and THINK!
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Put your mind to question on these lines:
• Why the revolution took place?

• Out of three different categories of people (The THREE STATES) involved, where do you
place yourself?
• How would you see the revolution and its impact if you were a THIRD STATE or SECOND
STATE OR FIRST STATE?
Try to question the associated events that you study under French Revolution?
• Economic and social inequalities in the Previous Regime of France helped cause the
French Revolution (So, basically a fight for equality, rights, freedom etc. ☺)
• What was the economic and social condition at that time? (Rich becoming richer and
poor becoming poorer, isn’t it the case even now?)
• Stakeholders involved and how they brought the revolution?
• Impact of the revolution- what have we learned from French Revolution etc.
What inference can you make from it for contemporary times?
• Throughout history, economic and social inequalities have at times led peoples to revolt
against their governments. Now relate with present World Order- can you think of
countries where same fight is going? Is India also the one? (Think- There is no
boundary for giving exercise to your mind)
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Likewise, while you unfurl the French Revolution (living with it as a Time-Traveller), will surely
connect and relate more to present context and its significance in today’s world order be it for
having ideas like Liberty, Fraternity, Enlightenment, Fighting against the tyranny of
Government, Scientific advancement, Societal changes over time, change in value system etc.
Try to make a chart or Mind Maps of the events or flow chart of key words to have a better
understanding of the topic. Revision will become easier. (In World History- remembering the
set of events will help you answer the question provided you have a clear understanding of
the story line)
Such approach will also help you write a very good ESSAY!
Read this Module with approach mentioned above and you will enjoy World History.
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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
THINK on these lines
• From the spinning jenny to the locomotive train, there was an explosion of inventions
and technological advance- These improvements paved the way for the Industrial
Revolution.
• The global power balance shifted after the Industrial Revolution- This shift occurred
because industrialized nations dominated the rest of the world.
• The Industrial Revolution transformed economic system, social and political system.
How?
The Industrial Revolution (IR) was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period
from about 1700 to sometime between 1820 and 1840 (19th Century). This transition included
going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron
production processes, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools
and the rise of the factory system.
Before we go into understanding the IR, first we must understand the why? When? Where?
And how this IR happened?
First, we will go through the socio-economic and political system prevailing before IR. These
very features of the society led to the rise of IR.
In the United States, France, and Latin America, political revolutions brought in new
governments. A different type of revolution now transformed the way people worked. The
Industrial Revolution refers to the greatly increased output of machine-made goods that began
in England in the middle 1700s. Before the Industrial Revolution, people wove textiles by hand.
Then, machines began to do this and other jobs. Soon the Industrial Revolution spread from
England to Continental Europe and North America.
Decline of Feudalism
What is feudalism?
Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished
between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around
relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Although
derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief), the term feudalism and the system it
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describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Middle
Ages.
Feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility
revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs.
The feudal system was introduced to England following the invasion and conquest of the
country by William I, The Conqueror. The feudal system had been used in France by the
Normans from the time they first settled there in about 900AD. It was a simple, but effective
system, where all land was owned by the King. One quarter was kept by the King as his personal
property, some was given to the church and the rest was leased out under strict controls.
A simple plan showing how the Feudal System works
Feudalism was based on certain principles. In medieval Europe, the weak and innocent people
needed the help of a powerful man. The king was very weak. He could not save his subjects
from the plunders of the foreign invaders. So, the common people turned to strong and
powerful leaders who were mostly the descendants of the Dukes, Counts and Margraves to
make their life and property safe.
The King: Leader of the Feudal System
The King was in complete control under the feudal system (at least nominally). He owned all the
land in the country and decided to whom he would lease land. He therefore typically allowed
tenants he could trust to lease land from him. However, before they were given any land they
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had to swear an oath of fealty to the King at all times. The men who leased land from the King
were known as Barons, they were wealthy, powerful and had complete control of the land they
leased from the King.
Barons: Executors of the Feudal System
Barons leased land from the King that was known as a manor. They were known as the Lord of
the Manor and were in complete control of this land. They established their own system of
justice, minted their own money and set their own taxes. In return for the land they had been
given by the King, the Barons had to serve on the royal council, pay rent and provide the King
with Knights for military service when he demanded it. They also had to provide lodging and
food for the King and his court when they travelled around his realm. The Barons kept as much
of their land as they wished for their own use, then divided the rest among their Knights.
Barons were very rich.
Knights
Knights were given land by a Baron in return for military service when demanded by the King.
They also had to protect the Baron and his family, as well as the Manor, from attack. The
Knights kept as much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed the
rest to vassals (Peasants) (serfs). Although not as rich as the Barons, Knights were quite
wealthy.
Peasants
Peasants, sometimes known as serfs, were given land by Knights. They had to provide the
Knight with free labour, food and service whenever it was demanded. Peasants had no rights.
They were not allowed to leave the Manor and had to ask their Lord’s permission before they
could marry. Peasants were poor.
The feudalism which flourished between eleventh and thirteenth centuries began to decline
towards the close of the thirteenth century in France and Italy. However, in other parts of
Europe it continued to thrive for some time and ultimately disappeared only by 1500 A.D.
The main factors which contributed to the decline of feudalism were as follows:
Firstly, As Henry Martin has observed, "Feudalism concealed in its bosom the weapons with
which it would be itself one day smitten". In course of time when the feudal lords began to
assert themselves too much, the kings who headed the feudal hierarchy, thought of bringing
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them under control. In this task they received full support from the newly emerged middle
classes and freemen who were not under the control of the lords.
The middle classes consisting of traders and businessmen provided the king with money with
which they began to maintain independent armies. With the help of these armies they were
able to bring the turbulent nobles under control. The discovery of gun-powder and weapons
like cannons also greatly helped the kings to reduce the lords to subjection and reduced their
dependence on them.
Secondly, the liberation of the serfs due to enormous growth in trade and commence also
greatly contributed to the decline of feudalism. With the growth of trade and commerce a
number of new cities and towns grew which provided new opportunities for work. The serfs got
an opportunity to free themselves of the feudal lords by taking up work in the new towns. It
may be observed that according to the existing feudal laws, a serf could become a freeman if he
stayed away from the manor for more than one year.
Thirdly, the Crusades or the Holy wars also greatly contributed to the decline of the feudal
system. As a result of these wars the Europeans learnt the use of gun-powder from the
Muslims. The discovery of gun-powder greatly undermined the importance of the feudal
castles. As a result, it was no more possible for the feudal lords to take shelter in these castles
and defy the authority of the king.
The Crusades also contributed to the decline of feudalism in another way. During the Crusade a
large number of feudal lords lost their lives which gave a series set back to the feudal system.
The Crusades contributed to the decline of feudalism in another way too. They opened up trade
between Europe and cities of Constantinople and Alexandria. As a result, commerce and
industry in Europe received a fillip and a number of important cities developed. The merchants
and artisans residing in these cities wished to free themselves from the control of feudal over-
lords.
Fourthly, the scarcity of labour force in Europe as a result of Black Death (which took a heavy
toll of life in Europe) enhanced the bargaining powers of the serfs and rendered feudal system
weak.
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BEGINNING OF RENAISSANCE
From Darkness to Light: The Renaissance Begins
During the middle Ages, a period that took place between the fall of ancient Rome in 476 A.D.
and the beginning of the 14th century, Europeans made few advances in science and art.
Also known as the “Dark Ages,” the era is often branded as a time of war, ignorance, famine
and pandemics such as the Black Death.
The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic
“rebirth” following the middle Ages. Generally described as taking place from the 14th century
to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy,
literature and art. Some of the greatest thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in
human history thrived during this era, while global exploration opened up new lands and
cultures to European commerce. The Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap between the
middle Ages and modern-day civilization.
Causes of Renaissance:
The following are the main factors that led to the rise of Renaissance:
Rise of Intellectualism:
A large number of clergies, bureaucrats, lawyers and merchants encouraged the literacy as they
needed some sort of education to carry government activities. People learnt to read and write
Latin and also vernacular languages. Therefore the 14th Century saw the rise of schools.
The common people sent their children to schools and also colleges to learn classics. The period
saw the emergence of universities at Paris, Naples, Oxford, Cambridge etc. This spread of
knowledge created an innovative approach to thinking and learning.
Reintroduction of Classical Works
The dark ages saw the destruction of the many classical works of the Europe. Many of these
texts were slowly reintroduced into Europe by merchants and scholars, which were hidden in
the churches and monasteries of the Byzantine Empire or in the capitals of the Middle East. For
instance, in 1396 an official academic post for teaching Greek was created in Florence. The man
hired, Chrysoloras, brought with him a copy of Ptolemy’s "Geography" from the East. In
addition, a huge number of Greek texts and scholars arrived in Europe with the fall of
Constantinople in 1453.
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The invention of the Printing Press:
The invention of the printing press in 1440 was the game-changer. Finally, books could be mass
produced for far less money and time than the old handwritten methods. Ideas could be spread
through libraries, booksellers, and schools in a way that weren’t possible before. The spread of
books also encouraged the study of literature itself, allowing new ideas to spread and grow as
many cities and nations began to establish universities and other schools.
Patronage of Rulers, Popes and Nobles:
As the arts grew, artists needed wealthy patrons to support them, and Renaissance Italy was
especially fertile ground. Political changes in the ruling class of Italy shortly before this period
had led to the rulers of most of the major city-states being “new men” without much of a
political history. They attempted to legitimize themselves with conspicuous investment in and
public flaunting of art and architecture.
In addition, the developing bureaucracies of Italy and the rest of Europe generated new
demand for highly educated humanists to fill the ranks of governments and bureaucracies. A
new political and economic class began to emerge.
The Crusades:
The Crusades were expeditions of Christians, to reconquer the lost areas from infidels. The first
crusade was launched in 1088 by Pope Urban. There were 7 more major and some minor
crusades. The purpose was to take back Palestine from the Muslims. It was the land where
Christ lived and died.
The Crusades failed in their religious purpose but brought in great effects in culture and
economic life of Europe. They encouraged trade and commerce, which made Italian state
prosperous. There was contact with the Arab world. Scholars could bring back many texts which
were lost, since the Roman Kingdom ended. They translated Greek and Arab writings. People
discovered Aristotle’s classics and discussed his views. This encouraged a new era in learning.
This contact with the new world brought in new ideas and gave an impetus to Renaissance.
Similarly, geographical discoveries brought in a change in the outlook of Europeans. They

developed a spirit of adventure spirit which encouraged the rise of Renaissance.
Trade and Prosperity:
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Since the 11th Century, there developed trade and commercial relations with other areas. Thus
there was a changed of economy from agriculture to commerce. Secondly, due to commerce
man shifted to towns from rural areas.
As is said, for any change the basic feature is economic. As long as economic life remained
static, there was no Renaissance. As economic life became better there was an upsurge of art
and literature. Prosperity was the cause. Trade and prosperity brought leisure.
In agricultural economy man is throughout busy. He has no time and energy to appreciate art.
But with the change of economy people got more money, which they could spend on
patronising renaissance art and literature.
New Wealth and the Black Death
In the middle of the 14th century, the Black Death swept across Europe, killing perhaps a third
of the population. While devastating, the survivors found themselves better off financially and
socially, with the same wealth spread among fewer people. This was especially true in Italy,
where social mobility was much greater.
This new wealth was often was spent lavishly on arts, culture, and artisanal goods, much like
the rulers above them had done before them. In addition, the merchant classes of regional
powers like Italy saw a great increase in their wealth from their role in trade. This new
mercantile class spawned an entirely new financial industry to manage their wealth, generating
additional economic and social growth.
War and Peace
Periods of both peace and war have been credited with allowing the Renaissance to spread and
become a European phenomenon. The end of the Hundred Years War between England and
France in 1453 allowed Renaissance ideas to penetrate these nations as resources once
consumed by war instead were funnelled into the arts and sciences. By contrast, the Great
Italian Wars of the early 16th century allowed Renaissance ideas to spread to France as its
armies invaded Italy repeatedly over a 50-year period.
Humanism Emerges
Renaissance humanism was a new manner of thinking and approaching the world, based on a
new form of curriculum for those learning. It has been called the earliest expression of the
Renaissance and is described as both a product and a cause of the movement. Humanist
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thinkers challenged the mindset of the previously dominant school of scholarly thought,
Scholasticism, as well as the Catholic Church, allowing the new thinking to develop.
THE IMPACT OF RENAISSANCE

The results of the Renaissance were far reaching. This gave birth to new literature, art and
science.
Social Effects:
Improvement in the condition of Women: The condition of women, especially from the upper
class improved due to Renaissance. They started taking education and showed interest in social,
economic and political life. The period saw the rise of women scholars like Cassandra, Varano,
Vittoria etc. The women also changed the way of clothing and fashion. They started using wigs
and showed special attention to jewellery of diamond.
Manners and Etiquette: Under the influence of Renaissance, people developed new table
manners. They also made spices indispensable part of their food. They also developed Etiquette
of Conversation. The people interacted with the scholars, poets and musician with more
intimacy. The women were accorded special treatment in social gatherings.
Decline in Morality: One of the negative impacts of Renaissance was that the society
experience in the decline in the moral standard of the people. The people had started
questioning the ways of church and became more materialists. They adopted foul means to
become rich. Even the artists tried to dupe the innocent people. The period saw the writings
like the Prince by Machiavelli which encouraged the kings to adopt the corrupt means to
maintain their rule. Cheating, robbery, murder, and theft increased during the Renaissance
period.
Cultural Effects:
Development of Literature: The Renaissance encouraged the vernacular and national

languages. High class literature was produced in the languages of masses like in Italian, French,
English, Spanish, German, Dutch etc. Similarly, deep study was undertaken in the literature of
Latin and Greek. The world-famous writers like Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Machiavelli, Chaucer,
More, Shakespeare, Erasmus, Luther etc. emerged.
Development of Fine Arts: The effect of Renaissance was most revealed in the field of Fine
Arts. The Paining got new life. It was more near to the real-life situation. Experiments were
made with different hues of colour. Similarly, the science of architecture and sculpturing made
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tremendous progress. The music was also enriched under the Influence of Renaissance.
Renaissance gave the artists of repute like Leonardo, Michaelanglo, Raphel, Titani, Gilbarti,
Beck etc.
Scientific inventions and Discoveries: Renaissance inculcated the spirit of rationality and
experimentation. It led to many scientific discoveries and inventions. Kapler, Galilieo and
Copernicus made many geographical and space discoveries. Newton wrote new physical laws.
Similarly, achievements were made in the field of chemistry, medical science, and physics.
Geographical Discoveries: Columbus, Vascodi Gama, Magellan made geographical discoveries

under the spirit of Renaissance. New tread routes were discovered to the Asian and African
countries and new continents of South America, North America and Australia were discovered.
Economic Effects:
Development of Trade and Commerce: The people became materialist and this wordily under
the influence of Renaissance. It encouraged trade and commerce. It led to rise of mercantilism
in Europe.
Rise of Industry and Capitalist System: With the rise of trade and commerce, the industry and
capitalism also flourished. The rich class started earning huge profits. They exploited the
workers and the condition of workers became miserable.
Colonialism: With the rise of trade, commerce and industry, the Europeans countries needed
areas for procuring raw material and markets to sell their finished goods. It led to rise of
colonialism.
Political Effect:
Rise of Strong Monarchies: Renaissance brought forth the ideal of strong Roman Monarchs. It
led to the rise of strong monarchies in Europe. On one hand it reduced the importance of
Church and on the other hand national states like England, France, Austria and Prussia
emerged.
Change in Warfare: With the discovery of gun powders and invention of guns and mortars the
scene of battle field changed. The forts lost its importance as the secured places as they could
not stand the barge of gun fires.
Encouragement to Virtue Less Politics: It brought to the forth the ideal of opportunism in the
field of politics. The Prince of Machiavelli became the bible of the kings who adopted all the
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wrong and right means to maintain their rule. It led to anarchy when the monarchies became
oppressive.
PRE-INDUSTRIAL EUROPE
Pre-industrial society refers to social attributes and forms of political and cultural organization
that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, which occurred from 1750
to 1850. Pre-industrial is a time before there were machines and tools to help perform tasks en
masse. Pre-industrial civilization dates back to centuries ago, but the main era known as the
Pre-Industrial Society occurred right before the industrial society. Pre-Industrial societies vary
from region to region depending on the culture of a given area or history of social and political
life. Europe is known for its feudal system and medieval era.
The main attributes of Pre-industrial Europe.
• Limited production
• Extreme agricultural economy
• Limited division of labour. In pre-industrial societies, production was relatively simple,
and the number of specialized crafts was limited.
• Limited variation of social classes
• Parochialism—Communications were limited between communities in pre-industrial
societies. Few had the opportunity to see or hear beyond their own village. In contrast,
industrial societies grew with the help of faster means of communication, having more
information at hand about the world, allowing knowledge transfer and cultural diffusion
between them.
• Populations grew at substantial rates.
• Social classes: peasants and lords.
• Subsistence level of living.
• Population dependent on peasants for food.
• People were in villages rather than in cities.
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
Historians have often labelled the first Agricultural Revolution (which took place around 10,000
B.C.) as the period of transition from a hunting-and-gathering society to one based on
stationary farming. During the 18th century, another Agricultural Revolution took place when
European agriculture shifted from the techniques of the past.
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• The British Agricultural Revolution was the result of the complex interaction of social,
economic and farming technology changes. Major developments and innovations
include:
• Norfolk four-course crop rotation: Fodder crops, particularly turnips and clover,
replaced leaving the land fallow.
• The Dutch improved the Chinese plough so that it could be pulled with fewer oxen or
horses.
• Enclosure: the removal of common rights to establish exclusive ownership of land
• Development of a national market free of tariffs, tolls and customs barriers
• Transportation infrastructures, such as improved roads, canals, and later, railways
• Land conversion, land drains and reclamation
• Increase in farm size
• Selective breeding
Its impact on Industrial Revolution
Agricultural revolution in the century after 1750, each agricultural worker produced more food,
so the proportion of the workforce in agriculture fell. This falling proportion of workers in
agriculture enabled the proportion working in industry and services to rise: in other words,
improved agricultural production made the industrial revolution possible, and many would
regard the industrial revolution as the beginning of the modern world. By 1850 only 22 per cent
of the British workforce was in agriculture; the smallest proportion for any country in the world.
Exactly how those working on the land were able to produce more food remains something of a
mystery. More animal power was available to English farmers than to their counterparts
elsewhere and from the 1820s and 30s a wide variety of machinery was developed, which was
particularly important for improving the efficiency of the cutting and threshing of grain. The
improvement in labour productivity, however, had begun long before this.
The key probably lies in the way the English workforce was organised and employed. The
development of agrarian capitalism in England, with those involved in agriculture divided into
landowners, capitalist tenant farmers and labourers saw the development of better farm
management and more efficiency in using the workforce.
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FACTORS THAT LED TO INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Expanding Commerce Affects Industry
Commerce and industry have always been closely related. Sometimes one is ahead and
sometimes the other, but the one behind is always trying to catch up. Beginning in about 1400,
world commerce grew and changed so greatly that the term “commercial revolution” is used to
describe the economic progress of the next three and a half centuries.
Many factors helped bring about this revolution in trade. The Crusades opened up the riches of
the East to Western Europe. America was discovered, and European nations began to acquire
rich colonies there and elsewhere. New trade routes were opened. The strong central
governments which replaced the feudal system began to protect and help their merchants.
Trading firms, such as the British East India Company, were chartered by governments. Larger
ships were built, and flourishing cities grew up.
With the expansion of trade, more money was needed. Large-scale commerce could not be
carried on by barter, as much of the earlier trade had been. Gold and silver from the New
World helped meet this need. Banks and credit systems developed. By the end of the 17th
century Europe had a large accumulation of capital. Money had to be available before
machinery and steam engines could come into wide use for they were costly to manufacture
and install.
By 1750 large quantities of goods were being exchanged among the European nations, and
there was a demand for more goods than were being produced. England was the leading
commercial nation, and the manufacture of cloth was its leading industry.
Organizing Production: From Cottage Industry to Factory System
In cottage industry, for most of the workers belonged to the class of farm laborers known as
cotters and carried on the work in their cottages. This system of industry had several
advantages over older systems. It gave the merchant a large supply of manufactured articles at
a low price. It also enabled him to order the kinds of items that he needed for his markets. It
provided employment for every member of a craft worker’s family and gave jobs to skilled
workers who had no capital to start businesses for themselves.
A few merchants who had enough capital had gone a step further. They brought workers
together under one roof and supplied them with spinning wheels and looms or with the
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implements of other trades (Factory System). These establishments were factories which was
precursor to Industrial Revolution.
WHY DID THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION START IN ENGLAND?

By the end of the 19th century, the island of Great Britain controlled the largest empire in the
history of the world (one quarter of the world’s land mass). How did this little island come to
rule an empire? How did Great Britain acquire so much military and economic power in the
world? The answer, of course, is that it had an enormous commercial and technological head
start over the rest of the world because the Industrial Revolution started in England.
But why did the Industrial Revolution occur first in England and not somewhere else in the
world? What qualities – political, economic, cultural, geographical, or ecological – did Britain
possess that predisposed it towards early industrialisation? Or to put the question another way:
what was missing in other countries so that their industrialisation was either delayed until the
second half of the nineteenth century, or indeed had failed to occur by the century’s end at all?
Following are the major factors responsible:
World Trade gradually increased in the centuries before the Industrial Revolution and provided
European countries access to raw materials and a market for goods. It also increased wealth
that could then be loaned by banks to finance more industrial expansion in an upward spiral of
economic growth. By 1500, Europe had a technological supremacy over the rest of the world in
shipbuilding, navigation, and metallurgy (metal working). In successive years, European
countries would use these advantages to dominate world trade with Asia, Africa, and the
Americas.
Availability of Capital
The vast amount of capital which England had accumulated out of profits of her growing trade
enabled her to make large outlays on machinery and buildings, which in turn contributed to
new technological developments.
In addition, England also possessed a large amount of loanable capital obtained by the Bank of
England from the rich trade of other countries. This capital also helped England to steal a march
over other European countries.
Practical bent of mind of the English Researchers
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Another factor which contributed to England's lead in the technological revolution was that the
English scientists and engineers had a very practical bent of mind. They made inventions
keeping in view the needs of the time.
They concentrated mainly on those inventions of science which had practical utility. This was in
complete contrast to the continental scientists who concen-trated on research in electricity;
chemicals etc. which were not of immedi-ate applied relevance.
Small population
The small size of England's population, which could not cope with England's growing trade, also
necessitated that new devices should be found out to keep production in line with the growing
demand.
This is best exemplified by the changes in the textile industry as well as the coal industry. The
shortage of the labour force compelled; the owners to encourage and apply new mechanical
devices.
Social and political stability
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Britain not only enjoyed complete freedom of trade but also an insular position which saved her
from the disastrous consequences of war, which ravaged the countries of Europe.
This social stability prevailing in England encouraged the people to invest in sectors where they
could hope to receive high dividend in future. This led to adoption of new techniques and
promotion of new industries.
The availability of coal and iron mines close to each other
The location of the coal and iron mines close to each other encouraged the English to evolve
new techniques for the manufacture of iron and utilization of the coals. It is well known that
the availability of coal and iron ores in large quantities greatly helped the growth of numerous
industries in England.
The need for large quantities of coal for smelting of iron ores, transportation etc. necessitated
improvement in the techniques of coal mining. Metal cages and tubs were used to lift coal.
Even the use of wire ropes for lifting of coal was started a little later. Engines were invented to
pump out the water from the mines.
The agricultural revolution
In Britain the agricultural revolution had already taken place which greatly transformed the
English society. It not only made available necessary raw materials to run the new industries
but also provided a large number of agricultural labourers for employment in the new factories.
Presence of enterprising people
Finally, the technological changes in England were made possible because of the presence of a
sizable sec-tion of people who possessed enterprising spirit and requisite technical qualities.
Further this class of people also possessed organizing abilities and was accustomed to the
handling of large enterprises and labour force. These people were willing to invest money for
the discovery of new tech-niques and give a fair trial to these techniques.
Risk-taking Private Sector
The presence of a sizable private sector in the country with great capacity of the individual
businessmen to take risks also greatly contributed to the industrial revolution. These
business-men were willing to take a chance on new things. In this way they were also
supported by the government.
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Better means of transport
England possessed a far better network of means of transportation than any other country of
Europe which greatly helped the industrial revolution. In this task the government played an
important role which spent considerable amount on the improvement of roads and
construction of canals.
Geographical location
The geographical location of England also greatly helped in industrial revolution. Being cut-off
from the mainland of Europe, England remained immune from wars and upheavals of
Napoleonic conflicts and conditions remained quite stable in the country. These stable
conditions enabled England to develop their industrial capac-ity without fear of battle, damage
or loss of life.
Flexibility of English social and political system
Above all the flexibility of the English social and political system also greatly con-tributed to
industrial revolution in England.
The members of the upper classes in Britain, unlike their counterparts in the continent, pursued
their wealth in the new industrial framework with great enthusiasm. They worked in close co-
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operation with the middle classes and artisans which greatly facilitated the industrial
revolution.
In short, we can say that in comparison to other European countries England was more
favourably placed in many respects and no wonder stole lead over them in the field of
technological revolution and industrialization.
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial revolution had far reaching impacts on the socio-economic and political aspects of
the Europe. Which later spread to the Americas and Asia (Japan).
Social Impacts
In the social sphere also, the industrial revolution produced far-reaching consequences. In the
first place, the growth of factory system resulted in the growth of new cities. Workers shifted
to places near the factories where they were employed.
New cities like Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham and Sheffield in Britain, which became the
centres of industry, trade and commerce. With the industrialisation the pace of urbanisation
also accelerated.
Secondly, the rise of cities was accompanied by the growth of squatters and slums. As a large
number of workers had to be provided accommodation, long rows of small one-room houses
without better civic amenities.
With the emergence of new factories and growth in population the problem assumed more
serious dimensions. The factory owners were mainly concentrated in amassing great fortunes
and hardly paid any attention to the welfare and well-being of their workers. This resulted in
workers fell easy prey to various types of diseases and often died premature deaths.
Thirdly, the extremely low wages paid by the factory owners made it difficult for workers to
meet their basic needs. As a consequence, they were often obliged to send their women and
children to factories, where they also worked on extremely low wages. Thus the child labour
emerged as a social evil.
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The industrialists preferred women and children also because they were easy to manage and
worked at lower wages than men. This initiated inequality in wages which is still prevalent in
other parts of world.
Fourthly, as the women were required to work in factories and mines for long hours and were
unable to look after their family and children. As they lived in extremely congested quarters,
they also lost their qualities of modesty and virtues.
Fifthly, industrial revolution led to sharp divisions in society. The society got divided into two
classes-the bourgeois and the proletariat. The former consisted of factory owners, great
bankers, small industrialists, merchants and professional men. They amassed great wealth and
paid very low wages to the workers.
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The other class consisted of labourers who merely worked as tools in the factories. With the
passage of time the lot of the capitalist classes went on improving and that of the working
classes went on deteriorating. This caused great social disharmony and gave rise to sharp
conflict between the capitalists and the workers. Which later gave spark to the rise of
communism and socialism.
Political Impact
In the political sphere also, the industrial revolution had far-reaching impact.
In the first place it led to imperialism and colonization of Asia and Africa. Great Britain and
other industrial countries of Europe started colonising the countries of Asia and Africa for raw
materials to feed their factories and ready markets for their factory products.
Secondly, industrial revolution sharply divided the countries viz. developed (industrialized
countries) and developing (colonies of industrial countries which gained independence after
prolonged struggle).
Thirdly, the Industrial Revolution provided a precursor to the reform movement in England.
With this movement the concept of welfare state emerged all over the Europe.
The Chartist Movement was launched to demand reforms for improving the lot of workers and
for introduction of universal suffrage, secret voting, equal electoral districts, no property
qualifications for membership, payment of members, and annual elections.
Though these demands did not receive favourable response from the government but in course
of time these demands were conceded one by one. In this way we can say that the Industrial
Revolution strengthened forces of democracy in England.
Fourthly, the industrial revolution led to the development trade union movement.
Initially the English law forbade these unions but later they were accorded recognition by law in
1824. However, the trade unions could not prove effective as they were divided and lacked
national unity. The General Federation of British Trade Union was established to have friendly
relations with the unions of other European countries.
Thus, by the close of the nineteenth century the trade unions came to occupy important
position in the political and economic structure of the society.
Finally, industrial revolution paved the way for the development of new social and economic
doctrines.
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On the one hand philosophers like Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo and James Mill defended
capitalist system and wanted the state to abstain from interfering in the economic and social
sphere.
On the other hand, Robert Owen, Karl Marx, William Godwin, Proudhon etc. advocated creed
of socialism and insisted that the whole society ought to strive for the improvement of the
moral and physical standards of the people.
Industrialization is the process of developing industries that use machines to produce goods.
This process not only revolutionizes a country’s economy, it also transforms social conditions
and class structures.
THE GLOBAL IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

The Industrial Revolution shifted the world balance of power. It increased competition between
industrialized nations and poverty in less-developed nations.
Rise of Global Inequality: Industrialization widened the wealth gap between industrialized and
non-industrialized countries, even while it strengthened their economic ties. To keep factories
running and workers fed, industrialized countries required a steady supply of raw materials
from less-developed lands. In turn, industrialized countries viewed poor countries as markets
for their manufactured products.
Britain led in exploiting its overseas colonies for resources and markets. Soon other European
countries, the United States, Russia, and Japan followed Britain’s lead, seizing colonies for their
economic resources. Imperialism, the policy of extending one country’s rule over many other
lands, gave even more power and wealth to these already wealthy nations. Imperialism was
born out of the cycle of industrialization, the need for resources to supply the factories of
Europe, and the development of new markets around the world.
Transformation of Society Between 1700 and 1900, revolutions in agriculture, production,

transportation, and communication changed the lives of people in Western Europe and the
United States. Industrialization gave Europe tremendous economic power. In contrast, the
economies of Asia and Africa were still based on agriculture and small workshops.
Industrialization revolutionized every aspect of society, from daily life to life expectancy.
Despite the hardships early urban workers suffered, population, health, and wealth eventually
rose dramatically in all industrialized countries. The development of a middle class created
great opportunities for education and democratic participation. Greater democratic
participation, in turn, fuelled a powerful movement for social reform.
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POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION LED TO ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND

POLITICAL REFORMS
In industrialized countries in the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution opened a wide gap
between the rich and the poor. Business leaders believed that governments should stay out of
business and economic affairs. Reformers, however, felt that governments needed to play an
active role to improve conditions for the poor. Workers also demanded more rights and
protection. They formed labor unions to increase their influence.
The term laissez faire refers to the economic policy of letting owners of industry and business
set working conditions without interference. This policy favors a free market unregulated by
the government. The term is French for “let do,” and by extension, “let people do as they
please.”
Adam Smith, a professor at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, defended the idea of a free
economy, or free markets, in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations. According to Smith,
economic liberty guaranteed economic progress.
As a result, government should not interfere. Smith’s arguments rested on what he called the
three natural laws of economics:
• the law of self-interest—People work for their own good.

• the law of competition—Competition forces people to make a better product.
• the law of supply and demand—Enough goods would be produced at the lowest
possible price to meet demand in a market economy.
The Economists of Capitalism
Smith’s basic ideas were supported by British economists Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo.
Like Smith, they believed that natural laws governed economic life. Their important ideas were
the foundation of laissez- faire capitalism.
Capitalism is an economic system in which the factors of production are privately owned and
money is invested in business ventures to make a profit. These ideas also helped bring about
the Industrial Revolution
The Rise of Socialism
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In contrast to laissez-faire philosophy, which advised governments to leave business alone,

other theorists believed that governments should intervene. These thinkers believed that
wealthy people or the government must take action to improve people’s lives.
Carl Marx: Radical Socialism/Communism
Also known as Marxism. The Communist Manifesto In their manifesto, Marx and Engels argued
that human societies have always been divided into warring classes. In their own time, these
were the middle class “haves” or employers, called the bourgeoisie, and the “have-nots” or
workers, called the proletariat. While the wealthy controlled the means of producing goods, the
poor performed backbreaking labor under terrible conditions.
According to Marx and Engels, the Industrial Revolution had enriched the wealthy and
impoverished the poor.
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SUMMARY
Note- Almost from the beginning, reform movements rose in response to the negative impact
of industrialization. These reforms included improving the workplace and extending the right
to vote to working-class men. The same impulse toward reform, along with the ideals of the
French Revolution, also helped to end slavery and promote new rights for women and
children.
Economic Effects of IR
• New inventions and development of factories

• Rapidly growing industry in the 1800s
• Increased production and higher demand for raw materials
• Growth of worldwide trade
• Population explosion and expanding labor force
• Exploitation of mineral resources
• Highly developed banking and investment system
• Advances in transportation, agriculture, and communication
Social Effects or IR
• Increase in population of cities

• Lack of city planning
• Loss of family stability
• Expansion of middle class
• Harsh conditions for laborers, including children
• Workers’ progress versus laissez-faire economic attitudes
• Improved standard of living
• Creation of new jobs
• Encouragement of technological progress
Political Effects of IR
• Child labor laws to end abuses

• Reformers urging equal distribution of wealth
• Trade unions formed
• Social reform movements, such as utilitarianism, utopianism, socialism, and Marxism
• Reform bills in Parliament and Congress
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THINK
• How significant were the changes that the Industrial Revolution brought to the world?
• What were two important inventions created during the Industrial Revolution that
changed the World? Describe their impact.
• How did the new middle class transform the social structure of Great Britain during
industrialization? Draw a comparison between middle class of IR period and
contemporary times.
• How did industrialization affect natural environment? Is there any relation between IR
and global environmental problems the World is facing today?
• Why were other European countries slower to industrialize than Britain?
• What might explain the rise of global inequality during the Industrial Revolution?
• How did women fight for change during the Industrial Revolution?
• Impact of IR on USA and Japan etc.?
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FRENCH REVOLUTION
Introduction
In 1789 France was the most populated nation in Europe and had been growing in wealth and
prestige since the time of Louis XIV. Despite this economic growth, it was still a very backward
nation socially and politically: socially, because it was still divided into feudal classes of people
(clergy--those who pray, nobles--those who fight, and the peasants--those who work);
politically, because they were still ruled by an absolute monarch who believed in the divine
right of kings.
Trace the Events
• The gap between rich and poor in France was vast. The inequalities of the economy of
France were a major cause of the French Revolution.
• Driven by the example of the American Revolution and such Enlightenment ideas as
liberty, equality, and democracy, the French ousted the government of Louis XVI and
established a new political order.
• After seizing power in 1799, Napoleon conquered a huge empire that included much of
Western Europe. His attempt to conquer Russia, however, led to his downfall.
You are living in France in the late 1700s. Your parents are merchants who earn a good living.
However, after taxes they have hardly any money left. You know that other people, especially
the peasants in the countryside, are even worse off than you. At the same time, the nobility
lives in luxury and pays practically no taxes.
Many people in France are desperate for change. But they are uncertain how to bring about
that change. Some think that representatives of the people should demand fair taxes and just
laws. Others support violent revolution. In Paris, that revolution seems to have begun. An angry
mob has attacked and taken over the Bastille, a royal prison. You wonder what will happen
next? ☺
Think!
• Economic and social inequalities in the Old Regime helped cause the French Revolution.
• Throughout history, economic and social inequalities have at times led peoples to revolt
against their governments. Can you think of some examples?
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THE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION

The Revolution was the result of three related crises that fell upon France simultaneously; one
social, one political, and one economic.
The Social Crisis
Feudal France was neatly divided into three social classes, or Estates, with different jobs and
privileges: the clergy was the First Estate, the Nobles were the Second Estate, and the peasants
were the Third Estate. Needless to say, the Third Estate was the largest and had practically no
rights at all.
One of the major problems that upset this order was the incredible growth of the bourgeoisie
in wealth and in number. This class of people--dedicated to self-improvement, hard work,
education and entrepreneurial adventures-- had no place in the tidy system of feudal society:
they were independent; however, they were becoming extremely wealthy and influential in
French society. Soon they began to clash with the nobles (The nobles, you remember, were
the aristocratic people who came from high-born families, inherited their wealth and were
given to lives of extravagant spending).
Social inequality
The population of France in the 1780s was about 26 million, of whom 21 million lived in
agriculture. French peasants were generally better off than those in countries like Russia or
Poland. Even so, hunger was a daily problem which became critical in years of poor harvest and
the condition of most French peasants was poor.
The fundamental issue of poverty was aggravated by social inequality as all peasants were liable
to pay taxes, from which the nobility could claim immunity, and feudal dues payable to a local
lord.
Similarly, the destination of tithes which the peasants were obliged to pay to their local
churches was a cause of grievance as it was known that the majority of parish priests were poor
and the contribution was being paid to an aristocratic, and usually absentee, abbot.
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The Third Estate (commoners) carrying the First (clergy) and Second Estate (nobility) on his
back.
The clergy numbered about 100,000 and yet they owned 10% of the land. The Catholic Church
maintained a rigid hierarchy as abbots and bishops were all members of the nobility and canons
were all members of wealthy bourgeois families. As an institution, it was both rich and
powerful. As with the nobility, it paid no taxes and merely contributed a grant to the state
every five years, the amount of which was self-determined. The upper echelons of the clergy
had considerable influence over government policy.
Enlightenment ideas
A growing number of the French citizenry had absorbed the ideas of "equality" and "freedom of
the individual" as presented by Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot and other
philosophers and social theorists of the Age of Enlightenment.
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The American Revolution demonstrated that it was plausible for Enlightenment ideas about
how a government should be organized to actually be put into practice. Some American
diplomats, like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, had lived in Paris, where they
consorted freely with members of the French intellectual class.
Furthermore, contact between American revolutionaries and the French troops who served in
North America helped spread revolutionary ideas to the French people.
Material strengths
France in 1787, although it faced some difficulties, was one of the most economically capable
nations of Europe. The French population exceeded 28 million; of Europe's 178 to 188 million.
France was also among the most urbanized countries of Europe, the population of Paris was
second only to that of London (approximately 500,000 vs. 800,000), and six of Europe's 35
larger cities were French.
Debt
Historian John Shovlin states, "It is a truism that the French Revolution was touched off by the
near bankruptcy of the state." It was the burden of the national debt that led this to the long-
running financial crisis of the French government. Before the revolution, the French debt had
risen from 8 billion to 12 billion livres.
Extravagant expenditures on luxuries by Louis XVI, whose rule began in 1774, were
compounded by debts that were run up during the reign of his even-more-profligate
predecessor, Louis XV (who reigned from 1715 to 1774). Heavy expenditures to conduct losing
the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), and France's backing of the Americans in their War of
Independence, ran the tab up an even further 1.3 billion livres.
Taxation
Louis XVI, his ministers, and the widespread French nobility had become immensely unpopular.
This was a consequence of the fact that peasants and, to a lesser extent, the poor and those
aspiring to be bourgeoisie, were burdened with ruinously high taxes levied to support a wealthy
monarchy, along with aristocrats and their sumptuous, often gluttonous lifestyles.
Peasants and nobles alike were required to pay one-tenth of their income or produce to the
church (the tithe). Peasants paid a land tax to the state, a 5% property tax (the vingtième). All
paid a tax on the number of people in the family (capitation), depending on the status of the
taxpayer (from poor to prince).
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Further royal and seigneurial obligations might be paid in several ways: in labor (the corvée), in
kind, or, rarely, in coin. Peasants were also obligated to their landlords for: rent in cash (the
cens), a payment related to their amount of annual production (the champart), and taxes on
the use of the nobles' mills, wine-presses, and bakeries (the banalités). In good times, the taxes
were burdensome; in harsh times, they were devastating. After a less-than-fulsome harvest,
people would starve to death during the winter.
Failure of Reforms
During the reigns of Louis XV (1715–1774) and Louis XVI (1774–1792), several ministers, most
notably Turgot and Necker, proposed revisions to the French tax system so as to include the
nobles as taxpayers, but these proposals were not adopted because of resistance from the
parliaments (provincial courts of appeal). Members of these courts bought their positions from
the king, as well as the right to transfer their positions hereditarily through payment of an
annual fee, the Paulette.
Membership in such courts, or appointment to other public positions, often led to elevation to
the nobility (the so-called Nobles of the Robe, as distinguished from the nobility of ancestral
military origin, the Nobles of the Sword.) While these two categories of nobles were often at
odds, they both sought to retain their privileges.
DO YOU KNOW?
Left, Right, and Center
• The terms we use today to describe where people stand politically derive from the
factions that developed in the Legislative Assembly in 1791.
• People who want to radically change government are called left wing or are said to be
on the left.
• People with moderate views often are called centrist or are said to be in the center.
• People who want few or no changes in government often are called right wing or are
said to be on the right.
THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE

There are four Stages in the French Revolution
Stage 1: Revolution of 1789 (1789-1792)
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The first stage of the revolution began because of the long festering conflict between the
monarchy and the aristocracy. King Louis XVI needed to raise taxes in order to pay the
government’s large debt. Of course, the nobles refused and demanded that the Estates General
be called to determine whether the tax should be collected. The aristocracy believed, because
the Estates General voted by order, that the tax would be defeated. When the Estates General
met in Versailles during the summer of 1789, the Third Estate broke away. Its members, who
were primarily from the upper middle class (bourgeoisie) felt that they were not adequately
represented. They demanded voting by head and greater representation. The nobility certainly
did not expect this to happen!
Upon breaking away, they formed the National Assembly (which later became the National
Constituent Assembly). The National Assembly demanded a written constitution. Louis initially
refused to acknowledge the new governmental body. However, because of pressure from the
populace in both the cities and the countryside (e.g., the storming of the Bastille and the “Great
Fear”), he eventually accepted the National Constituent Assembly.
After being recognized by the king, the National Constituent Assembly went about
restructuring France. The Constitution of 1791 created a Constitutional Monarchy. The new
legislative body would be the Legislative Assembly. The executive branch would be the king.
Louis XVI, however, had little power. The first stage of the revolution was conservative when
compared to other stages of the Revolution. It did, however, represent the death of the Old
Regime and effectively transferred power from aristocratic wealth to all forms of commercial
wealth.
Governmental Estates General a. Ceased to exist after the Third Estate

Bodies broke away
National Constituent a. Initially was called the National Assembly.
Assembly b. Was made up of the Third Estate, most of
the First Estate (clergy) and liberal
members of the Second Estate (the
nobility).
c. Ceased to exist after restructuring France
Legislative Assembly a. Legislative body of the new constitutional
monarchy.
b. Members had to own a certain amount of
property.
c. Had a brief existence (1791-1792)
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Players and Aristocracy a. Conservatives refused to join the National

Political Constituent Assembly and supported an
Factions absolute monarchy.
b. Liberals sided with the National
Constituent Assembly
Clergy a. Under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy,
all bishops and priests became employees
of the state
The Middle Class a. only those who owned property had
(bourgeoisie) political power in the new government
The Populace a. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the
populace that rebelled to overthrow the
king.
b. Rather, the populace became a tool of the
various political groups vying for power
during the revolution.
c. It was the people who forced Louis XVI to
accept the National Constituent Assembly
Important Tennis Court Oath a. The National Assembly met on a tennis

Events court at Versailles and refused to leave
until the king agreed to accept a written
constitution
Declaration of the Rights a. Declared that all French citizens were
of Man and Citizen subject to same and equal laws
Constitution of 1791 a. Set up a Constitutional Monarchy
b. Did not recognize social or political
equality.
1) members of the National Constituent
Assembly did not desire social equality or
extensive democracy
2) wanted to lessen the influence of the
unpropertied class on the new
government
Stage 2: Second Revolution (1792)
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Many felt that the revolution had not gone far enough. In particular, the radical Jacobins (the
Mountain) wanted a republic instead of a constitutional monarchy. The more moderate
Jacobins (the Girondists) desired to preserve the new government.
Because
1) Louis XVI did many things to raise suspicion that he was a counterrevolutionary,
2) The poor economy,
3) The fact that most of France had no political power, and
4) A war with Austria and Prussia, the Mountain was able to gain control of the Legislative
Assembly. Again, the populace played a part. With the help of the sans-culottes (the common
people of Paris), the Mountain ousted the Girondists and transformed France into a Republic.
The new legislative body was called the Convention. The Legislative Assembly ceased to exist.
It was during this stage that Louis XVI was tried and executed as a counterrevolutionary.
Political Convention a. Replaced the Legislative Assembly.

Bodies b. Members were picked by universal male
suffrage.
c. Would last until 1795
Players and Jacobins a. Members of the Third Estate and National
Political Constituent Assembly who had favoured
Factions republic rather than a constitutional
monarchy.
Girondists a. Moderate Jacobins
b. Initially controlled the Legislative Assembly
c. desired to preserve the government
established after the Revolution of 1789
Mountain a. Radical Jacobins
b. With the help of the sans-culottes gained
control of the Legislative Assembly
c. Driving force behind the Second Revolution
Sans-culottes a. Parisians (shopkeepers, artisans, factory
workers, and wage earners) who felt the
revolution was moving too slowly
Important The monarchy ends when France becomes a Republic
Events
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France goes to war with Austria and Prussia (1792),

and, eventually, declares war on most of Europe
(1793)
Stage 3: The Reign of Terror (1793-1795)
This was, by far, the most radical phase of the French Revolution. The war with Europe created
a situation that allowed the Convention to crush opposition in France without due process of
the law. No one, from royalists to republicans was safe.
The new government attempted to create a “Republic of Virtue.” This new republic was
essentially a military state whose main objective was preserving the new government and
destroying all aristocratic elements and traditions.
Political Convention a. This was the legislative branch of the new

Bodies government
The Committee of a. This was the executive branch of the new
Public Safety government.
b. The Committee was responsible for finding
enemies of the new government.
c. Because of the war, had almost dictatorial
power
Players and Mountain a. Controlled the Convention (with the help of
Political the sans-culottes).
Factions
Robespierre a. As leader of the Committee of Public Safety,
essentially controlled France from 1793 to
1794
b. Executed all those (both radical and
conservative) who opposed him or opposed
the Republic of Virtue
Enrages a. Radical sans-culottes who opposed the
Republic of Virtue
Important levee en masse (1793) a. Conscripted French males and directed

Events economic production to military purposes.
b. Example of nationalism
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“Republic of Virtue”
Revolutionaries
eventually turned
against each other
Stage 4: The Thermidorian Reaction and the Establishment of the Directory (1795-1799)
This was a backlash against the radical elements of the revolution. The political pendulum
swung back to the right and a government that was neither a constitutional monarchy nor a
democracy was established. Social change was avoided. When all was said and done, the real
“winners” of the French Revolution were the owners of property.
Political Legislative Branch a. Council of Elders

Bodies (bicameral) b. Council of Five Hundred
Executive Branch a. The Directory
Players and Property owners a. The bourgeoisie and the aristocracy re-
Political established power
Factions b. Along with soldiers, were the only citizens
allowed to vote or hold office
Jacobins a. Many were executed
sans-culottes a. Completely ousted from the political scene
Royalists a. Along with radical democrats (who wanted
universal male suffrage), caused problems for
the new government
Important Constitution of the a. Set up the new government and a limited

Events Year III democracy
The new government
relied on the military
to keep order and
stability
DO YOU KNOW?
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The Guillotine
• If you think the guillotine was a cruel form of capital punishment, think again. Dr. Joseph
Ignace Guillotin proposed a machine that satisfied many needs––it was efficient,
humane, and democratic.
• A physician and member of the National Assembly, Guillotin claimed that those
executed with the device “wouldn’t even feel the slightest pain.”
• Prior to the guillotine’s introduction in 1792, many French criminals had suffered
through horrible punishments in public places. Although public punishments continued
to attract large crowds, not all spectators were pleased with the new machine. Some
witnesses felt that death by the guillotine occurred much too quickly to be enjoyed by
an audience.
• More than 2,100 people were executed during the last 132 days of the Reign of Terror.
ROLE OF WOMEN IN FRENCH REVOLUTION

Role in Society before Revolution
• Women in the Third Estate worked for a living.

• Didn’t have access to education or training
• Only daughters of the noblewomen and richer sections of societies had access to any
education
• Wages were lower than those of men. Clear wage gap.
• Women were also homemakers, they had to do all the housework, care for children.
During Revolution
• Played an active role in the revolutionary movements
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• Started their own clubs and newspapers.

• One of the most famous political clubs was the Society of Revolutionary and
Republican Women. They were disappointed by the Constitution of 1971 which
designated them passive citizens.
• The Society demanded equal political rights as men. They wanted to vote and stand in
elections for political office.
Outcomes of Revolution
• The early revolutionary governments introduced many laws that improved the lives and
status of women in society.
• Schools were created, and education was made compulsory for all girls.
• Marriage without consent was made illegal.
• Divorce was made legal.
• Women were allowed to be artisans and run small businesses.
IMPACT OF REVOLUTION ON FRANCE

The France revolution that started in 1789 brought fundamental social, political and economic
changes in the history of France. The changes caused by the revolution were both positive and
negative in the history of France:
Positive Impact
Destruction of social classes:
The French revolution destroyed the social discriminative class system in France and declared
equality for all. The revolution came up with the equality and career open to talents, i.e.,
appointment and promotion was to be based on talents and ability. This led to rise of middle
class who had acquired education to positions of responsibilities.
The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte:
The French revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power without which
he would have died a common man. It destroyed the congregative class system and opened
opportunity to talent peasants like Napoleon. All the army generals were swept away during
the reign of terror giving chance to Napoleon to rise to power in France.
Declaration of rights of man:
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The French revolution led to the declaration of rights of man and citizens. The constitutional
assembly / parliament came out with the document of human rights. It granted political liberty,
like freedom of speech, press, association, worship and ownership of property. Although they
were abused during the reign of terror, they became foundation of freedom.
Revolutionary ideas:
The revolution gave birth to the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. These
ideas started in France and got spread to other areas like Italy, German, etc. such ideas
promoted equality, freedom and democracy and good governance. This made France to be a
nursery bed of democracy in Europe.
Ended the rule of Bourbon Monarch:
The Bourbon monarch that had ruled France for over 400 years came to end by the French
revolution. The monarchy rule was abolished in 1792 and replaced it with the Republican form
of Government. Although the Bourbon monarch was restored by the great powers after the
downfall of Napoleon, it could not survive beyond 1830 because the monarchs were already
weakened by the changes caused by the French revolution.
Rise of Political Parties:
France became a multiparty state as a result of the 1789 French revolution. The freedom of
association led to the rise of political clubs such as the Jacobins, cordilliers, Giirondin Fauvillants
that competed for power. These parties kept the government under check and balance by
criticizing bad policies.
However, these political parties caused reign of terror in France.
Parliamentary Democracy:
The French revolution led to the revival of the parliament which was abandoned for a period of
over 175 years. The revolution gave France a functional parliament with representatives who
are democratically elected. The French men were able to participate in the governing of their
country.
Constitution and Rule of Law:
The French revolution introduced the rule of law in the history of France. Before 1789, France
had no constitution to safeguard people’s rights and freedom. However, in 1791, the
government enacted the constitution that was amended in 1793 and 1795. The constitution
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clearly separated the executive, the judiciary and legislature. The constitution reduced the
king’s excessive powers.
Land ownership
The revolution brought new reforms and change on land ownership in France. Before the
revolution, land was dominated by the clergy and the nobles who exploited the peasants. The
revolution brought change in the land tenure system in France. The idea of private ownership
of land by everybody was encouraged this provided chance to peasants to own land. I.e., the
church land was nationalized and sold to peasants.
National Guard:
There was formation of National Guard that replaced the royal guard of the Bourbon monarchy.
National Guard was the revolutionary army whose role was to protect the achievements of the
French revolution. By the end of 1793, there were about 700, 000 well trained and disciplined
soldiers of the National Guard that protected people and their property. This was one of the
great achievements of the revolution in France.
Negative Impact
Loss of lives and property:
There was massive loss of lives and destruction of property most especially during the reign of
terror. There were heavy massacres of nobles, clergy and other important people like King
Louis, Marie Antoinette, Murato, Danton, Robespierre, and Hotels like De- Ville were destroyed
beyond repair during the course of the revolution.
Led to Reign of Terror:
The peaceful revolution that began on the 5th May 1789 changed into violence and causing
reign of terror in France by 1792-1794. During this period there was total breakdown of law and
order, heavy massacres as people were competing to kill in order not to be killed especially by
the leaders of political clubs.
Economic decline in France:
The revolution led to the general decline in the level of economic activities. It hindered progress
in agriculture, trade, industrial sector, transport and communication especially during the reign
of terror. This led to unemployment, inflation, poverty, starvation and famine.
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The church and the state:
The revolution led to serous conflict between the Catholic Church and the state. Before the
revolution, the Catholic Church and the state were inseparable. However, the declaration of the
civil constitution, nationalization of the church property and removing privileges of the church
led to poor relationship between the church and the state.
Relationship with other states:
The revolution led to poor relationship between France and other states. Revolutionary ideas of
the French revolution were great threats to other powers and monarchs in Europe. That is why
Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and other countries allied against France in order to prevent the
spread of revolutionary ideas to their countries.
IMPACT OF FRENCH REVOLUTION ON THE WORLD

The French Revolution had been one of the most dynamic events of the modern world history.
For the years to come its direct influence was felt in many parts of the world. It inspired many
revolutionary movements in almost every country of Europe and in South and Central America.
For a long time, the French Revolution became the classic example of a revolution and people
of many nations took it as inspiration.
The impact of the French Revolution can be summed up, in the words of T. Kolokotrones, one
of the revolutionary fighters in the Greek war of independence: “According to my judgment,
the French Revolution and the doings of Napoleon opened the eyes of the world. The nations
knew nothing before, and the people thought that kings were gods upon the earth and that
they were bound to say that whatever they did was well done. Through this present change it is
more difficult to rule the people.”
Even though the old ruling dynasty of France had been restored to power in 1815, the
autocratic rulers of the Europe found it difficult to rule their nations.
The wars during revolution with other countries of the Europe resulted in the French
occupation of vast areas of Europe for some time.
The French soldiers, wherever they went, carried with them ideals of revolution viz. liberty and
equality. They destroyed serfdom in areas which came under their occupation and modernized
the systems of administration.
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The political and social systems of the 18th century had received a nail in their coffin. They
were soon to die in most of Europe under the impact of the revolutionary movements that
sprang up everywhere in Europe.
FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEONIC ERA (1799-1815)

• Napoleon Bonaparte, a military genius, seized power in France and made himself
emperor.
• In times of political turmoil, military dictators often seize control of nations.
• Can you think of few similar examples in contemporary times of the same?
Napoleon Bonaparte was quite a short man—just five feet three inches tall. However, he cast a
long shadow over the history of modern times. He would come to be recognized as one of the
world’s greatest military geniuses, along with Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hannibal of
Carthage, and Julius Caesar of Rome. In only four years, from 1795 to 1799, Napoleon rose from
a relatively obscure position as an officer in the French army to become master of France.
The Napoleonic era is a period in the history of France and Europe. It is generally classified as
including the fourth and final stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National
Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly, and the third being the Directory.
The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état, overthrowing the
Directory, establishing the French Consulate, and ends during the Hundred Days and his defeat
at the Battle of Waterloo (9 November 1799 – 28 June 1815).
The Consulate (1799-1804)
• The success of the French forces made a hero out of their best commander, Napoleon
Bonaparte. In 1799, Napoleon staged a successful coup d'état and became First Consul
of the new French Consulate.
• Napoleon, as First Consul presided over the most important body, viz. the Council of
State and all the local government officials were appointed directly by him, a fact which
shows the amount of centralization achieved by him.
Napoleonic Empire (1804-1814)
• Soon after he made himself the Emperor of France and tried to revive the dignity of the
old empire. He began the task of subduing the Europe, Except England which remained
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invincible; all the continental European powers (Spain, Prussia, Austria, etc.) fell before
his well-directed military campaigns.
• To cripple England Napoleon initiated the Continental System or Continental Blockade
(blocking the continental ports in order to cripple English commerce which was the main
source of her strength), the foreign policy against the United Kingdom during the
Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by
the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21
November 1806, which brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade.
• In terms of economic damage to the UK, the blockade was largely ineffective; however,
British exportations to the continent saw a loss from 25% to 55% of their total value in
between the years 1802 and 1806.
• As Napoleon realized that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia, he
invaded those two countries. His forces were tied down in Spain — in which the Spanish
War of Independence was occurring simultaneously — and suffered severely in, and
ultimately retreated from, Russia in 1812.
• In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in the War of the Sixth Coalition
against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating
Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, but his tactical victory at the minor
Battle of Hanau allowed retreat onto French soil.
• The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing
Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of
Tuscany, and the Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
• However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France
once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition which defeated him at
the Battle of Waterloo in June. The British exiled him to the remote island of Saint
Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51.
Napoleonic Code
• The Napoleonic Code is the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. The
Code, with its stress on clearly written and accessible law, was a major step in replacing
the previous patchwork of feudal laws. Historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of
the few documents that have influenced the whole world.
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Under the code all male citizens are equal: primogeniture, hereditary nobility, and class
privileges are extinguished; civilian institutions are emancipated from ecclesiastical control;
freedom of person, freedom of contract, and inviolability of private property are fundamental
principles.
The first book of the code deals with the law of persons: the enjoyment of civil rights, the
protection of personality, domicile, guardianship, tutorship, relations of parents and children,
marriage, personal relations of spouses, and the dissolution of marriage by annulment or
divorce.
The code subordinated women to their fathers and husbands, who controlled all family
property, determined the fate of children, and were favoured in divorce proceedings. Many of
those provisions were reformed only in the second half of the 20th century.
The second book deals with the law of things: the regulation of property rights—ownership,
usufruct, and servitudes.
The third book deals with the methods of acquiring rights: by succession, donation, marriage
settlement, and obligations. In the last chapters, the code regulates a number of nominate
contracts, legal and conventional mortgages, limitations of actions, and prescriptions of rights.
The Battle of Trafalgar
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In his drive for a European empire, Napoleon lost only one major battle, the Battle of Trafalgar.
This naval defeat, however, was more important than all of his victories on land. The battle
took place in 1805 off the southwest coast of Spain. The British commander, Horatio Nelson,
was as brilliant in warfare at sea as Napoleon was in warfare on land. In a bold manoeuvre, he
split the larger French fleet, capturing many ships. (See the map inset on the opposite page.)
The destruction of the French fleet had two major results. First, it ensured the supremacy of the
British navy for the next 100 years. Second, it forced Napoleon to give up his plans of invading
Britain. He had to look for another way to control his powerful enemy across the English
Channel. Eventually, Napoleon’s extravagant efforts to crush Britain would lead to his own
undoing.
The French Empire was huge but unstable. Napoleon was able to maintain it at its greatest
extent for only five years—from 1807 to 1812. Then it quickly fell to pieces. Its sudden collapse
was caused in part by Napoleon’s actions.
Causes of his Downfall

Napoleon’s conquests aroused nationalistic feelings across Europe and contributed to his
downfall. Napoleon worried about what would happen to his vast empire after his death. He
feared it would fall apart unless he had an heir whose right to succeed him was undisputed. His
wife, Josephine, had failed to bear him a child. He, therefore, divorced her and formed an
alliance with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie Louise, the grandniece of Marie
Antoinette. In 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king
of Rome.
• Weaknesses of the Napoleonic System: defects of too much dictatorship; too much
dependence on one person; its militaristic nature (War face cannot be continued for
ever); Adoption of his tactics of warfare by the opponents from 1819; etc.
• Spirit of Nationalism: Spread of Nationalism in the conquered territories and the
growing hatred among the subject people for the foreigners led to the rise of forces
against napoleon in conquest lands.
• Superiority in Naval and strong finances of England made it check the Napoleonic
conquests.
• Failure of the Continental system
• Peninsular War with Spain and Russian Campaign: while the former exhausted the
resources of France, the latter ended in disaster for Napoleon and for France.
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CONGRESS OF VIENNA
• After exiling Napoleon, European leaders at the Congress of Vienna tried to restore
order and re-establish peace.
• International bodies such as the United Nations play an active role in trying to maintain
world peace and stability today (Contemporary Angle)
European heads of government were looking to establish long-lasting peace and stability on the
continent after the defeat of Napoleon. They had a goal of the new European order—one of
collective security and stability for the entire continent. A series of meetings in Vienna, known
as the Congress of Vienna, were called to set up policies to achieve this goal.
Originally, the Congress of Vienna was scheduled to last for four weeks. Instead, it went on for
eight months.
Metternich’s Plan for Europe
Most of the decisions made in Vienna during the winter of 1814–1815 were made in secret
among representatives of the five “great powers”—Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, and
France. By far the most influential of these representatives was the foreign minister of Austria,
Prince Klemens von Metternich.
The first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability of
laws—never their change. Metternich had three goals at the Congress of Vienna. First, he
wanted to prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with strong countries.
Second, he wanted to restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to
others. Third, he wanted to restore Europe’s royal families to the thrones they had held before
Napoleon’s conquests.
The Congress took the following steps to make the weak countries around France stronger:
• The former Austrian Netherlands and Dutch Republic were united to form the Kingdom
of the Netherlands.
• A group of 39 German states were loosely joined as the newly created German
Confederation, dominated by Austria.
• Switzerland was recognized as an independent nation.
• The Kingdom of Sardinia in Italy was strengthened by the addition of Genoa.
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The Congress of Vienna was a political triumph in many ways. For the first time, the nations of
an entire continent had cooperated to control political affairs. The settlements they agreed
upon were fair enough that no country was left bearing a grudge. Therefore, the Congress did
not sow the seeds of future wars. In that sense, it was more successful than many other peace
meetings in history.
By agreeing to come to one another’s aid in case of threats to peace, the European nations had
temporarily ensured that there would be a balance of power on the continent. The Congress of
Vienna, then, created a time of peace in Europe. It was a lasting peace. None of the five great
powers waged war on one another for nearly 40 years, when Britain and France fought Russia
in the Crimean War.
Despite their efforts to undo the French Revolution, the leaders at the Congress of Vienna
could not turn back the clock. The Revolution had given Europe its first experiment in
democratic government. Although the experiment had failed, it had set new political ideas in
motion. The major political upheavals of the early 1800s had their roots in the French
Revolution.
The Congress of Vienna left a legacy that would influence world politics for the next 100
years. The continent-wide efforts to establish and maintain a balance of power diminished the
size and the power of France. At the same time, the power of Britain and Prussia increased.
Nationalism began to spread in Italy, Germany, Greece, and to other areas that the Congress
had put under foreign control. Eventually, the nationalistic feelings would explode into
revolutions, and new nations would be formed.
European colonies also responded to the power shift. Spanish colonies took advantage of the
events in Europe to declare their independence and break away from Spain.
At the same time, ideas about the basis of power and authority had changed permanently as a
result of the French Revolution. More and more, people saw democracy as the best way to
ensure equality and justice for all. The French Revolution, then, changed the social attitudes
and assumptions that had dominated Europe for centuries. A new era had begun.
SUMMARY
Long Terms Causes
• Social and economic injustices of the Old Regime

• Enlightenment ideas—liberty and equality
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• Example furnished by the American Revolution
Immediate Causes
• Economic crisis—famine and government debt

• Weak leadership
• Discontent of the Third Estate
Revolution
• Fall of the Bastille

• National Assembly
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and a new constitution
Immediate Effect
• End of the Old Regime

• Execution of monarch
• War with other European nations
• Reign of Terror
• Rise of Napoleon
Long-Term Effects
• Conservative reaction
• Decline in French power
• Spread of Enlightenment ideas
• Growth of nationalism
• Revolutions in Latin America
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NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
Introduction
The early modern state was coercive machinery designed to make war and to extract resources
from society. Yet at the end of the eighteenth century, this machinery came to be radically
transformed. Or rather, the ‘state’ was combined with a ‘nation’ forming a compound noun –
the ‘nation-state’ – which was organised differently and pursued different goals. A nation, in
contrast to a state, constitutes a community of people joined by a shared identity and by
common social practices. Communities of various kinds have always existed, but they now
became, for the first time, a political concern. As a new breed of nationalist leaders came to
argue, the nation should take over the state and make use of its institutional structures to
further the nation’s ends. In one country after another the nationalists were successful in these
aims. The nation added an interior life to the state, we might perhaps say; the nation was a soul
added to the body of the early modern state machinery.
The Thirty Years’ War, fought throughout central Europe from 1618–1648 between
Protestants and Catholics, laid the legal foundation for the nation-state. The war involved
many nations of Europe, including many small German states, the Austrian Empire, Sweden,
France, and Spain. Despite a brutal war, the Catholics were unable to overturn Protestantism.
The treaty that ended the war, called the Peace of Westphalia, decreed that the sovereign ruler
of a state had power over all elements of both the nation and the state, including religion. Thus,
the modern idea of a sovereign state was born.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the rise of nationalism as the basic principle of nation-
state got a worldwide acceptance. The rise of the modern nation-state in England in which
nationalism became coequal with the idea of individual liberties and popular participation in
public affairs, the American Revolution 1776 and the French Revolution 1789, gave strength to
the concept of nation-state fortified with the spirit and philosophy of nationalism.
Napoleon Bonaparte, however, transformed nationalist sentiments into an expansionist

ideology and used his citizens army to score victory after victory in Europe and Middle East.
Ultimately, however, he was defeated in 1815 by the forces of nationalism he had helped to
awaken.’
The unification of Germany (1864-71) gave further strength to the concept of nationalism as
the hall mark of the state. The philosophical foundations of the nation-state received
tremendous strength from the ideas of Hegel (1770-1831), the German philosopher.
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FEATURES OF THE SOVEREIGN NATION-STATE SYSTEM

Sovereignty of Nation State:
Sovereignty came to be regarded as the hall mark of the nation-state. The concept of
sovereignty implied internal and external sovereignty. Internally, the state had the right to
order the behaviour of all its citizens and their associations in all respects. Externally,
sovereignty implied the right of the state to act out its desired role in international relations on
the basis of its desired policies.
Nationalism as the Philosophy of Nation State:
The nation-state was considered fortified with the philosophy of nationalism. It fact the rise of
nation-state was accompanied by the rise of nationalism, which in turn strengthened the
nation-state. Nationalism grew steadily to advocate an identification of the individual with the
state. The political socialization process of the individual inculcated the value that every person
was a citizen of the state by birth.
Territorial Integrity or Territorial Impermeability of the Nation State:
The nation-state came to be conceptualized as a territorial entity. Protection of the people

living within its boundaries became its chief responsibility.
Legal Equality/Sovereign Equality of all Nation-States:
Finally, the nation-states of the world came to be recognized as equal sovereign states
irrespective of their sizes, populations, military capabilities, economic resources etc.
International law recognized all states as equal sovereign entities with an equal legal status and
rights.
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UNIFICATION OF ITALY
Introduction
Italian unification or the Risorgimento, meaning "the Resurgence" or "revival", was the political
and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single
state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. The process began in 1815 with the Congress
of Vienna and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
For many centuries, Italy was nothing more than a geographical expression. It was a patchwork
of small states jealous of one another. Never, since the days of the Roman Empire, was the
Italian Peninsula been effectively united under one rule. Various attempts to bring the Italian
Peninsula under one government had ended in failure. The division of Italy among the foreign
dynasties was one of the chief hurdles in the path of the Italian unification.
Austria had occupied the northern part of Italy. The Princes of the Hapsburg family of Austria
ruled over the duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany. In the south, the Kingdom of Sicily and
Naples was under the Bourbon dynasty. It was on account of the division of Italy into many
independent parts that Metternich referred to Italy as a geographical expression.
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Central Italy was under the temporal authority of the Pope. Apart from the political division of
the peninsula, the Italians themselves had not yet developed a full sense of national
consciousness. Different regions and towns of Italy had developed their own distinct traditions
which led to local jealousies which in turn checked national growth.
Historian and politician Metternich wrote that, 'In Italy, the provinces were against provinces,
towns against towns, families against families and men against men’.
During the 1820s the Carbonari secret society tried to organize revolts in Palermo and Naples
but with very little success, mainly because the Carbonari did not have the support of the
peasants. Then came Giuseppe Mazzini, a patriotic writer who set up a national revolutionary
movement known as Young Italy (1831). Mazzini was in favour of a united republic. His ideas
spread quickly among large segments of the Italian population. Young Italy revolutionary cells
formed throughout the Italian peninsula.
A new Pope, Pius IX, was elected in 1846 who promised reforms in the Papal States. Other
Italian princes made some liberal reforms which were intended to weaken the revolutionary
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movements. But instead these reforms were to bring about revolutions in 1848 in Sicily, Naples,
Rome, Florence, Milan, Venice and Turin.
The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy
The first revolt took place in the Kingdom of Sicily, which resulted in a constitution for the
whole kingdom. A revolt in Rome forced Pope Pius IX to flee Rome and a republic was
proclaimed. King Charles Albert of Sardinia mobilized his army and attacked Lombardy to drive
the Austrians from Northern Italy.
It looked as if the independence and unity of Italy had become a possibility. But then the
Austrians defeated the Piedmontese and Charles Albert had to abdicate. His son, Victor
Emmanuel II succeeded him in 1849. A new revolutionary leader, Giuseppe Garibaldi, could not
hold Rome against a French army, sent to restore the Pope in Rome. An Austrian army invaded
Italy and suppressed the revolts in Venice and Milan. Only in Sardinia did Victor Emanual II held
firm and kept a liberal constitutional government.
Cavour and the Final Stages in the Unification of Italy, 1852-1870
Count Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1852. Cavour started
by transforming Sardinia-Piedmont into a modern state by developing the economy on the
British model of free trade. The country became a constitutional monarchy and many liberal
reforms were introduced. Through his diplomatic skills, he achieved the political unification of
Italy in less than a decade. At the secret Pact of Plombieres, Cavour was able to persuade
Emperor Napoleon III to a secretly planned war against Austria. By early 1859, Cavour had
caused a crisis that provoked the Austrians to send an ultimatum demanding Piedmontese
disarmament. Cavour rejected the ultimatum and the Austrians declared war. The French came
to the aid of the Piedmontese and the Austrians were defeated in the two major battles. The
Austrians then surrendered Lombardy to Napoleon III, who handed it over to Victor Emanuel II.
In elections held in 1859-1860, all the northern states voted in referenda to join the Kingdom of
Sardinia. At this point, Napoleon III concluded a separate peace with Austria (Treaty of
Villafranca) and left Cavour to continue to fight the war against Austria alone. Napoleon
became concerned about the large size of the new Italian state close to the French border.
Napoleon also insisted that Cavour had over the provinces of Savoy and Nice to France, as was
agreed by the Pact of Plombieres. Napoleon left a French garrison to help the Pope stay in
control of Rome.
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Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) was the other great Italian national hero. Garibaldi’s dream of a
united Italian republic made him come out from his retirement in the island of Caprera. In 1860
he sailed from Genoa with the Thousand Red Shirts (an army of patriotic volunteers) and freed
Sicily and Naples from the Bourbon King Francis II. Garibaldi met Victor Emmanuel at a secret
meeting and gave these two kingdoms the King to avoid a possible civil war between royalist
and republican patriots. The first Italian Parliament met in 1861 and declared Victor Emmanuel
as the first king of a united Italy. But the new Italian Kingdom was still without Rome, (still ruled
by the Pope) and Venetia (still controlled by the Austrians).
Venetia was added to Italy in 1866 when Prussia defeated Austria in the Seven Weeks’ war. In
that war Italy sided with Prussia and Venetia was its reward. When the Franco-Prussian War
broke out in 1870, Napoleon III had to withdraw his troops from Rome. The Italian government
sent troops at once to take over Rome from the Pope. The citizens of Rome voted for union
with Italy which was declared the new capital city of Italy in 1871.
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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
Introduction
Nationalism is a feeling of unity of a group of people. There are many factors that can
contribute to the shared unity. For example, a common language, culture, ethnicity, history,
religion, or belief system, as well as other factors, can form this bond. In the early 1800s, about
300 German states existed in central Europe. They had formed a loose union together. The
leaders of the different regions held most of the power. Many people in these German states,
though, felt a shared identity with each other. By 1871, under the leadership of Otto von
Bismarck, the smaller states formed a single nation called Germany.
Germany before 1815
The Vienna Settlement with regard to Germany was hopelessly disappointing from the point of
view of German Liberals and patriots.
They had been hoping for a unified Germany but instead they got a German Confederation of
39 States. Provision was made for a Federal Diet which was to be presided over by Austria.
The ruler of every state was sovereign within his territory and no wonder the sense of self-
preservation forced him to oppose the unification of the country and all those liberal
movements which were liable to help the cause of German unification.
In addition to Austria, there were other non-German elements in the Federal Diet. Hanover,
which was under England, was included in the German Confederation and given representation.
The Duchy of Holstein which was under the King of Denmark was also included in the German
Confederation and likewise given representation. These foreign elements could not be
expected to throw in their weight in the cause of German unity. The Federal Diet was practically
given no power over the various States constituting the German Confederation. Austria was the
arbiter of the fate of Germany.
During the early nineteenth century, Prussia and Austria were rivals, this is because, Prussia was
the only German state that could match the power and influence of the Austrian Empire. They
were comparable in terms of size, population and wealth. Austria opposed the idea of German
unification as it saw this as a threat to its own empire. Although they were a minority, there
were a significant percentage of German-speakers in the empire. If they broke away to join a
unified Germany, Austria would be smaller and weaker.
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Austria Weakened
In such a scenario Austria weakened due to two main reasons. Austria had lost key allies and
was losing influence in Europe.
• Austria had refused to help Russia in its war against France and Britain (the Crimean
War, 1854-56) and lost a major ally as a result.
• Austria was defeated in a war against the French and northern Italian states. As a result,
it had been forced to surrender some territories.
Prussia started to reckon within Europe
Prussia had become the most industrialised state in Germany. She was now a force to be
reckoned with in Europe.
• Prussia was producing more key resources such as coal and iron than Austria and it had
surged ahead of its rival in building road and rail networks to help promote trade.
• Prussia had successfully set up an economic alliance (Zollverein) with other German
states that made trade between states easier and more profitable.
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Zollverein- an invincible force of Unification!!!
When such was the state of affairs in Germany, certain forces helped indirectly the unification
of the country. A reference may be made in this connection to the Zollverein or the Customs’
Union. Before 1818, each district in Prussia had its own customs and there were as many as 67
tariff areas in Prussia alone.
These areas stood in the way of trade and unity and consequently Prussia could not compete
with Great Britain. On account of the long line of customs houses, there was a lot of smuggling.
In 1818, the Tariff Reforms Law was passed.
• All raw materials were to be imported free.

• A duty of 10 per cent was to be levied on manufactured goods and 20 per cent on
“colonial” goods.
• All internal custom duties were abolished.
The result of the reform of 1818 was that Prussia became a free trade area. Internal trade
increased and the revenue of the State also showed a rise.
The law of 1818 applied to Prussia alone, but in course of time many other German States
joined Prussia. In 1819, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen joined the Union. In 1822, Weimar Gotha,
Merchlenburg-Schwerin, Schaumburg-Lippe, Rudolstadt and Hamburg also joined.
By 1837, most of the States had joined the Zollverein. Whenever the treaties expired they were
renewed. Only Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg and the Hanse towns remained outside the
Zollverein. The main terms of entry into the Zollverein were complete free trade between State
and State, uniform tariff on all frontiers and net proceeds to be divided in proportion to
population of the States concerned.
To begin with, Austria was completely indifferent to the Zollverein. Metternich did not attach
any importance to commerce and consequently ignored the activities of the Zollverein.
However, after the overthrow of Metternich in 1848, Austria made a determined effort to join
the Zollverein. Prussia resisted the same and was successful. In 1853, a treaty was entered into
between the Zollverein and Austria by which certain concessions were given mutually.
The Berlin Revolution of 1848
From 1830 to 1848, there was going on persistent agitation in the smallest States of Germany.
The object of the agitation was two-fold, viz., the unification of Germany and the establishment
of constitutional and liberal governments in the States. In 1847, a meeting was held and a
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liberal programme was adopted. Agitation was to be carried on for the cancellation of the
Carlsbad Decrees. Religious toleration, freedom of the press and trial by jury were to be
guaranteed. Representative Assemblies were to be set up in every State.
As far as Prussia was concerned, there was some trouble in Berlin in March and the King gave a
liberal constitution. There was a dash between the people and the troops and ultimately the
King of Prussia had to remove the troops from the capital. He also promised to become the
leader “of a free and new-born German nation.” It was also decided to call a national
parliament to frame a constitution.
It was decided at that meeting to set up a legislature of two houses and one executive head of
the Federal Government of Germany.
The details were to be filled up by a Constituent Assembly of Germany to which representatives

were to come from all over the country on the basis of one member for 50,000 of the
population. This was done and the popular assembly met at Frankfurt.
The Frankfurt Parliament:
The Frankfurt Parliament consisted of about 300 members at the beginning but later on, its
membership rose to about 550. The only work done by the Frankfurt Parliament within the first
six months was the appointment of a central executive.
Archduke John was selected the Imperial Vicar of the provisional government. By the Christmas
of 1848, the fundamental rights of the people of Germany were agreed upon. Some of those
rights were civil and religious equality, freedom of the press, trial by jury, abolition of special
privileges, etc.
There were two schools of thought with regard to the inclusion or exclusion of Austria from
Germany.
• Little Germans- insisted on excluding Austria.

• Great Germans- in favour of the inclusion of Austria.
Ultimately, the former won and Austria was excluded. Provision was made for a hereditary king
and a German Confederation. The throne of Germany was offered by the Frankfurt Parliament
to Frederick William IV of Prussia on 28 March 1849 but the same was rejected on 3 April 1849
Many factors were responsible for his decision.
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• He believed in the Divine Right of Kings and was not prepared to accept the constitution
framed by the Frankfurt Parliament.
• He was temperamentally conservative and was not in sympathy with the aspirations of
the Frankfurt Parliament.
• He was not prepared to be “a serf of the revolution”.
• He was not prepared to accept “the crown of shame” out of the “gutter”. He might have
accepted the throne if the same had been offered to him by the princes, but he refused
to accept the same from the people.
Probably, the real reason was that the King of Prussia was not prepared to fight against Austria.
By this time, Austria had recovered herself and if the King of Prussia had accepted the throne
offered to him by the Frankfurt Parliament, he would certainly have come into conflict with
Austria. That would have meant war and the King of Prussia felt that he was not equal to the
task.
The failure of the Frankfurt Parliament convinced the Germans that some other method had to
be followed to bring about unification of the country.
Although the King of Prussia refused the throne offered by the Frankfurt Parliament, he tried to
unite the German States under his leadership in another way. His minister, Radowitz prepared
the draft of a constitution which was to be the basis of the union. Prussia was to be the
president of a college of princes and Austria was to be excluded from it.
In March 1850, a German Parliament met at Erfurt However, Schwarzenberg, and the new
Chancellor of Austria, was determined to establish the Austrian hold over Germany and
consequently was not prepared to allow the activities of the King of Prussia to continue. The
King of Prussia was forced to surrender by the convention of Olmutz. He agreed to dissolve the
“union” and the German Confederation of 1815 was restored.
Policy of Blood & Iron: William I & Bismarck Combination
Frederick William IV became insane in 1857 and his brother, William I, became the Regent. On
the death of Frederick William IV in 1861, he became the King of Prussia.
The humiliation of Prussia at the hands of Austria had convinced William I that if Germany was
to be liberated, that could be done only if Prussia came to have a very big army. In 1849, he had
observed thus “Whoever wishes to rule Germany must conquer it and that cannot be done by
phrases.”
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It was in these circumstances that Bismarck was appointed the Minister-President of Prussia in
1862. He gave the following assurance to William I “I will rather perish with the king than
forsake Your Majesty in the contest with parliamentary government.”
Bismarck was a “bully and an absolutist.” He had no faith in parliamentary institutions. He

believed in autocracy and military force.
The Master Plan:
The man who did most to unite the German states was Otto Von Bismarck. He was the Prussian
Chancellor and his main goal was to strengthen even further the position of Prussia in Europe.
His primary aims were to:
• Unify the north German states under Prussian control

• Weaken Prussia's main rival, Austria, by removing it from the Bund
• Make Berlin the centre of German affairs - not Vienna
• Strengthen the position of the King of Prussia, William I, to counter the demands for
reform from the Liberals in the Prussian parliament (the Reichstag).
Army Reforms
Bismarck wanted to build up Prussia's army in case his unification plans led to war. To do this he
needed money. The Prussian parliament refused to allow money to be raised for Bismarck's
military reforms.
Bismarck ignored the Reichstag and simply collected the money for army reforms through
general taxation. He never bothered to obtain permission from the Reichstag.
Congress of Princes 1868 (German Bund)
In 1868, Austria summoned a Congress of the German prince to consider proposals “for the
reform of the German Confederation” Prussia was also invited. If the move of Austria had been
successful, the Austrian influence in Germany would have continued. Bismarck prevailed upon
the King of Prussia not to attend the conference and the latter ended in failure.
Isolating Austria
Bismarck knew Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To succeed in his aims war seemed
inevitable. Before he fought the powerful Austrian empire, however, he needed to weaken its
position in Europe.
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• Prussia refused to help Poland when it rebelled against Russian control. Bismarck then
formed a powerful alliance with Russia.
• Bismarck then formed another key alliance with France. In a meeting with Napoleon III,
he promised to support France in its plans to invade and control Belgium.
• Bismarck also struck a deal with Italy. Italy promised to help Prussia in any war against
Austria, providing Austria were the aggressor and Italy gained Venezia in return.
Schleswig-Holstein 1864 - 65 and the Seven Weeks War
German states annexed by Prussia 1866
Bismarck got his excuse for a war against Austria during a territorial dispute over two small
German states, Schleswig and Holstein. These were under the control of Denmark but not
technically a part of it.
• In 1863, the King of Denmark declared Schleswig and Holstein to be a part of Denmark.
• In 1864, Prussia and Austria teamed up and declared war on Denmark. They won easily.
• Bismarck then engineered a treaty with Austria (the Treaty of Gastein) which he knew
was unlikely to work. Prussia was to control Schleswig and Austria would control
Holstein. This treaty was designed to provoke, since Austrians would have to go through
a hostile Prussia to reach Holstein.
• The Austrians tried to use their influence in the German Bund to pressure Prussia to
address the Schleswig-Hostein issue.
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• The Bund backed Austria in the dispute over Schleswig-Holstein.

• In response, Prussia said that the Bund was invalid, declared war on Austria and invaded
the German states of Hanover, Hesse and Saxony.
• The Austrians were quickly defeated by the Prussian army during the Seven Weeks War,
with the help of Italy.
The Treaty of Prague
North German Confederation 1867 – 1871
Bismarck's plan to isolate Austria was working. As a result of the Seven Weeks War:
• Prussia kept all the territories it had captured.

• A North German Confederation was set up under the control of Prussia.
• A federal Diet (parliament) was established for the states in this North German
Confederation. The Diet would be elected and each state could keep its own laws and
customs.
• The southern German states formed their own independent confederation.
• Austria promised to stay out of German affairs.
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• Austria paid compensation to Prussia but did not lose land to it. Prussia did not want to
weaken Austria too much since it might be a useful ally in the future against Prussia's
enemies.
Isolating France
With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the other great stumbling block
to unification - the French. France had watched Prussia's growing power with alarm. As he had
with Austria, Bismarck tried to weaken France as much as possible before war started.
• Officially, Russia was an ally of France but Bismarck used diplomacy to make sure Russia
stayed out of the up-coming war.
• Bismarck also made sure Italy stayed neutral and wouldn't fight for France.
• Bismarck gambled that the British would stay out of the war since it didn't want France
to become any more powerful than it already was.
Franco Prussian war 1870 - 71
Bismarck found his excuse for war when Spain offered its vacant crown to a relative of the
Prussian King, William I.
• France was outraged since it didn't want Prussia to become more powerful. The French
insisted King William makes his relative refuse the crown. King William refused to
guarantee this.
• Bismarck used the King's refusal as a way to provoke the French. He published a heavily
edited and provocative telegram, known as The Ems Telegram, of the King's refusal,
making it seem he had insulted the French ambassador. The French Emperor,
responding to fury from the French press and public, declared war on Prussia.
In the Franco-Prussian war, France was heavily defeated and its ruler, Napoleon III, was
overthrown by a French rebellion.
Unification achieved: German Empire 1871
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In the build up to war, the southern confederate German states voluntarily joined the Prussian-
controlled Northern German Confederation. Germany was now unified.
The Treaty of Frankfurt
As a result of the Franco-Prussian war, France lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine on its border
with Germany. It also had to pay Germany £200 million in compensation. A new imperial
constitution was set up within the now unified German states, with William I as Emperor
(Kaiser) and Prussia firmly in control.
Summary - Bismarck's Contribution to Unification
Economic co-operation meant that unification may have happened eventually anyway, but
Bismarck made sure that it happened.
He made sure that the army reforms took place.
He successfully isolated other countries by making them look like aggressors.
He made Prussia appear to be the defender of the German states and protector of their rights.
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COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM

Imperialism and colonialism both these are used interchangeably however, both differ in
meaning substantially. Let us have a look,
Imperialism
Imperialism, state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by
direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. Because
it always involves the use of power, whether military force or some subtler form.
Colonialism
Colonialism is the practice of establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition and

expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory.
Simply, while colonialism is referring to establishing the colonial territories overseas,

Imperialism is to create and expand the empire. Imperialism is a broader category of
domination that encompasses colonialism.
The age of modern colonialism began about 1500, following the European discoveries of a sea
route around Africa’s southern coast (1488) and of America (1492). With these events sea
power shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and to the emerging nation-states of
Portugal, Spain, the Dutch Republic, France, and England. By discovery, conquest, and
settlement, these nations expanded and colonized throughout the world, spreading European
institutions and culture.
Imperialism Colonialism
Imperialism is a policy of extending a country’s Colonialism is the practice of acquiring partial
power and influence through military force or or full control over another country and
diplomacy. exploiting it economically.
Imperialism is the ideology that drives Colonialism is a practice of extending
colonialism. territories, forming colonies and settlements,
and exploiting the resources of them.
Imperialism can be categorized into formal Colonialism produced two main types of
and informal imperialism. colonies: settler colonies and dependencies.
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The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914)
Although the Industrial Revolution and nationalism shaped European society in the nineteenth
century, imperialism—the domination by one country or people over another group of
people—dramatically changed the world during the latter half of that century.
Imperialism did not begin in the nineteenth century. From the sixteenth to the early nineteenth
century, an era dominated by what is now termed Old Imperialism, European nations sought
trade routes with the Far East, explored the New World, and established settlements in North
and South America as well as in Southeast Asia.
They set up trading posts and gained footholds on the coasts of Africa and China and worked
closely with the local rulers to ensure the protection of European economic interests. Their
influence, however, was limited. In the Age of New Imperialism that began in the 1870s,
European states established vast empires mainly in Africa, but also in Asia and the Middle East.
From the late 1800s through the early 1900s, Western Europe pursued a policy of imperialism
that became known as New Imperialism. This New Imperialist Age gained its impetus from
economic, military, political, humanitarian, and religious reasons, as well as from the
development and acceptance of a new theory—Social Darwinism— and advances in
technology.
Economic Reasons
• By 1870, it became necessary for European industrialized nations to expand their

markets globally in order to sell products that they could not sell domestically on the
continent.
• Businessmen and bankers had excess capital to invest, and foreign investments offered
the incentive of greater profits, despite the risks.
• The need for cheap labor and a steady supply of raw materials, such as oil, rubber, and
manganese for steel, required that the industrial nations maintain firm control over
these unexplored areas.
• Only by directly controlling these regions, which meant setting up colonies under their
direct control, could the industrial economy work effectively—or so the imperialists
thought.
• The economic gains of the new imperialism were limited, however, because the new
colonies were too poor to spend money on European goods.
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Military and Political Reasons
Leading European nations also felt that colonies were crucial to military power, national
security, and nationalism.
• Military leaders claimed that a strong navy was necessary in order to become a great
power. Thus, naval vessels needed military bases around the world to take on coal and
supplies.
• Islands or harbors were seized to satisfy these needs. Colonies guaranteed the growing
European navies safe harbors and coaling stations, which they needed in time of war.
• National security was an important reason for Great Britain’s decision to occupy Egypt.
• Protecting the Suez Canal was vital for the British Empire. The Suez Canal, which
formally opened in 1869, shortened the sea route from Europe to South Africa and East
Asia.
• To Britain, the canal was a lifeline to India, the jewel of its empire.
• Many people were also convinced that the possession of colonies was an indication of a
nation’s greatness; colonies were status symbols.
• According to nineteenth-century German historian, Heinrich von Treitschke, all great
nations should want to conquer barbarian nations.
Humanitarian and Religious Goals
Many Westerners believed that Europe should civilize their little brothers beyond the seas.
• According to this view, non-whites would receive the blessings of Western civilization,
including medicine, law, and Christianity.
• Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936) in his famous poem, “The White Man’s Burden” expressed
this mission in the 1890s
• When he prodded Europeans to take up “their moral obligation” to civilize the
uncivilized. He encouraged them to “Send forth the best ye breed to serve your
captives’ need.”
• Missionaries supported colonization, believing that European control would help them
spread Christianity, the true religion, in Asia and Africa.
Social Darwinism
In 1859, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) published On the Origin of Species. Darwin claimed that
all life had evolved into the present state over millions of years. To explain the long slow
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process of evolution, Darwin put forth the theory of natural selection. Natural forces selected
those with physical traits best adapted to their environment.
Darwin never promoted any social ideas. The process of natural selection came to be known as
survival of the fittest. The Englishman Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was the first to apply
“survival of the fittest” to human societies and nations.
Social Darwinism fostered imperialistic expansion by proposing that some people were more fit
(advanced) than others.
The Europeans believed that they, as the white race, were dominant and that it was only
natural for them to conquer the “inferior” people as nature’s way of improving mankind.
Thus, the conquest of inferior people was just, and the destruction of the weaker races was
nature’s natural law.
Western Technology
Superior technology and improved medical knowledge helped to foster imperialism. Quinine
enabled Europeans to survive tropical diseases and venture into the mosquito-infested interiors
of Africa and Asia.
The combination of the steamboat and the telegraph enabled the Western powers to increase
their mobility and to quickly respond to any situations that threatened their dominance.
The rapid-fire machine gun also gave them a military advantage and was helpful in convincing
Africans and Asians to accept Western control.
The following table summarizes the causes of the new imperialism:
Economic Military/political Humanitarian/religious Technology

Need for markets Need of military White man’s burden New medicine
bases
Raw materials National security Spread of Christianity New weapons
Source of Source of pride - Social Darwinism Transportation
investments nationalism
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IMPERIALISM IN ASIA
India
The British took control of India in 1763, after defeating the French in the Seven Years’ War
(1756–1763). The British controlled India through the British East India Company, which ruled
with an iron hand.
In 1857, an Indian revolt, led by native soldiers called sepoys, led to an uprising known as the
Sepoy Mutiny. After suppressing the rebellion, the British government made India part of the
empire in 1858, as mentioned previously.
The British introduced social reforms, advocated education, and promoted technology. Britain
profited greatly from India, which was called the “Crown Jewel of the British Empire.”
The Indian masses, however, continued to live close to starvation and the British had little
respect for the native Indian culture.
The Dutch held the Dutch East Indies and extended their control over Indonesia, while the
French took over Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam).
The Russians also got involved and extended their control over the area of Persia (Iran).
China
Since the seventeenth century, China had isolated itself from the rest of the world and refused
to adopt Western ways. The Chinese permitted trade but only at the Port of Canton, where the
rights of European merchants were at the whim of the emperor.
Imperialism in China began with the First Opium War (1839–1842), when the Chinese
government tried to halt the British from importing opium. This resulted in a war in which
Britain’s superior military and industrial might easily destroyed the Chinese military forces.
The Treaty of Nanking (1842) opened up five ports to the British, gave Britain the island of Hong
Kong, and forced China to pay a large indemnity.
In 1858, China was forced to open up eleven more treaty ports that granted special privileges,
such as the right to trade with the interior of China and the right to supervise the Chinese
custom offices.
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Foreigners also received the right of extraterritoriality, which meant that Western nations
maintained their own courts in China and Westerners were tried in their own courts.
Between 1870 and 1914, the Western nations carved China into spheres of influence, areas in
which outside powers claimed exclusive trading rights.
France acquired territory in southwestern China, Germany gained the Shandong Peninsula in
northern China, Russia obtained control of Manchuria and a leasehold over Port Arthur, and the
British took control of the Yangzi valley.
The United States, which had not taken part in carving up China because it feared that spheres
of influence might hurt U.S. commerce, promoted the Open-Door Policy in 1899.
John Hay, the American Secretary of State, proposed that equal trading rights to China be
allowed for all nations and that the territorial integrity of China be respected.
The imperial nations accepted this policy in principle but not always in practice. For the United
States, however, the Open-Door Policy became the cornerstone of its Chinese policy at the
beginning of the twentieth century.
Japan
Japan was the only Asian country that did not become a victim of imperialism. In the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Japanese expelled Europeans from Japan and closed
Japanese ports to trade with the outside world, allowing only the Dutch to trade at Nagasaki.
In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry (1866–1925), an American naval officer, led an expedition
to Japan. He convinced the shogun, a medieval-type ruler, to open ports for trade with the
United States.
Fearful of domination by foreign countries, Japan, unlike China, reversed its policy of isolation
and began to modernize by borrowing from the West.
The Meiji Restoration, which began in 1867, sought to replace the feudal rulers, or the shogun,
and increase the power of the emperor. The goal was to make Japan strong enough to compete
with the West.
The new leaders strengthened the military and transformed Japan into an industrial society.
The Japanese adopted a constitution based on the Prussian model with the emperor as the
head.
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The government was not intended to promote democracy but to unite Japan and make it equal
to the West. The leaders built up a modern army based on a draft and constructed a fleet of
iron steamships.
The Japanese were so successful that they became an imperial power. In the Sino-Japanese War
of 1894–95, Japan defeated China and forced her to give up her claims in Korea.
Japan also gained control of its first colonies—Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands—and shocked
the world by defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Japan’s victory was the
first time that an Asian country had defeated a European power in over 200 years.
IMPERIALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST

The importance of the Middle East to the new imperialists was its strategic location (the
crossroads of three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa), vital waterways (canals and the
Dardanelles), and valuable oil resources.
The Europeans divided up the Middle East in the following manner:
Great Britain: Britain’s control of the Suez Canal forced her to take an active role in Egypt as
well as to acquire the militarily valuable island of Cyprus to secure oil resources for industrial
and military needs.
The British also secured concessions in Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain. Pipelines were
built to the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf.
Russia: Traditionally, Russia sought to gain control of the Dardanelles as an outlet to the
Mediterranean Sea and an area of expansion. Russia helped to dismember the Ottoman Empire
and gain independence for several Balkan states.
Germany: In 1899, German bankers obtained the Ottoman Empire’s consent to complete the
Berlin-Baghdad Railroad.
CONSEQUENCES OF IMPERIALISM
The new imperialism changed both Western society and its colonies. Through it, Western
countries established the beginning of a global economy in which the transfer of goods, money,
and technology needed to be regulated in an orderly way to ensure a continuous flow of
natural resources and cheap labor for the industrialized world.
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Imperialism adversely affected the colonies. Under foreign rule, native culture and industry
were destroyed. Imported goods wiped out local craft industries.
By using colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods, colonial
powers held back the colonies from developing industries.
One reason why the standard of living was so poor in many of these countries was that the
natural wealth of these regions had been funnelled to the mother countries.
Imperialism also brought confrontation between the cultures. By 1900, Western nations had
control over most of the globe. Europeans were convinced that they had superior cultures and
forced the people to accept modern or Western ways.
The pressures to westernize forced the colonial people to re-evaluate their traditions and to
work at discouraging such customs as foot binding in China and sati in India.
Although imperialism exploited and abused colonial people, Western countries introduced
modern medicine that stressed the use of vaccines and more sanitary hygiene that helped to
save lives and increase life expectancy.
Imperialism created many political problems. European nations disrupted many traditional
political units and united rival peoples under single governments that tried to impose stability
and order where local conflicts had existed for years, such as in Nigeria and Rwanda.
Ethnic conflicts that developed in the latter half of the twentieth century in many of these
areas can be traced to these imperial policies.
Imperialism also contributed to tension among the Western powers. Rivalries between France
and Great Britain over the Sudan, between France and Germany over Morocco, and over the
Ottoman Empire contributed to the hostile conditions that led to World War I in 1914.
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AMERICAN REVOLUTION
• Enlightenment ideas helped spur the American colonies to shed British rule and create a
new nation.
• The revolution created a republic, the United States of America that became a model for
many nations of the world.
BACKGROUND
Philosophes such as Voltaire considered England’s government the most progressive in Europe.
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 had given England a constitutional monarchy. In essence, this
meant that various laws limited the power of the English king. Despite the view of the
philosophes, however, a growing number of England’s colonists in North America accused
England of tyrannical rule. Emboldened by Enlightenment ideas, they would attempt to
overthrow what was then the mightiest power on earth and create their own nation.
The American Revolution, that took place between 1765 and 1783, was a political upheaval
during which colonists in the Thirteen North American Colonies of Great Britain rejected the
British monarchy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain, won political independence and
went on to form the United States of America. The American Revolution was the result of a
series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in American society, government and
ways of thinking.
Colonization of America in the 1600's
The famous European explorers came from England, Spain, Italy, Portugal and France - Refer to
the French in America and the Spanish in America. The voyages of the first explorers and the
countries of Europe were motivated by various reasons, the foremost being to build great
empires - which led to the Colonization of America. The other reasons were as follows:
• Increased Power in Europe

• Prestige
• Wealth - gold, silver, spices and the raw materials of new lands
• Opportunities for trade
• Spreading the Christian Religion - refer to Religion in the Colonies
The 1600's saw the first era of the Colonization of America which was mainly undertaken by
England and France and to a minor extent by the Netherlands and Sweden. The first 13 Colonies
were established consisting of Delaware, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts Bay Colony (which
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included Maine), New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire,
Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The story of
the Colonization of America starts, and ends, at this point in time.
Map of the 13 Colonies - The Colonization of America
SERIES OF EVENTS LEADING TO AMERICAN REVOLUTION

Background till 1763
Political Structure in Colonies
Along with increasing population and prosperity, a new sense of identity was growing in the
colonists’ minds. By the mid-1700s, colonists had been living in America for nearly 150 years.
Each of the 13 colonies had its own government, and people were used to a great degree of
independence. Colonists saw themselves less as British and more as Virginians or
Pennsylvanians. However, they were still British subjects and were expected to obey British
law.
In 1651, the British Parliament passed a trade law called the Navigation Act. This and
subsequent trade laws prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products to any
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country except Britain. In addition, colonists had to pay high taxes on imported French and
Dutch goods.
Nonetheless, Britain’s policies benefited both the colonies and the motherland. Britain bought
American raw materials for low prices and sold manufactured goods to the colonists. And
despite various British trade restrictions, colonial merchants also thrived. Such a spirit of
relative harmony, however, soon would change.
Seven-year War or French and Indian War
The Seven Years' War was a global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved every
European great power of the time and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas,
West Africa, India, and the Philippines.
The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain (including
Prussia, Portugal, Hanover, and other small German states) on one side and the Kingdom of
France (including the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire, Bourbon Spain, and
Sweden) on the other.
Meanwhile, in India, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire,
with the support of the French, tried to crush a British attempt to conquer Bengal. The war's
extent has led some historians to describe it as "World War Zero", similar in scale to other
world wars.
In 1754, war erupted on the North American continent between the English and the French. As
you recall, the French had also colonized parts of North America throughout the 1600s and
1700s. The conflict was known as the French and Indian War. (The name stems from the fact
that the French enlisted numerous Native American tribes to fight on their side.) The fighting
lasted until 1763, when Britain and her colonists emerged victorious—and seized nearly all
French land in North America.
No Taxation without Representation
The victory, however, only led to growing tensions between Britain and its colonists. In order to
fight the war, Great Britain had run up a huge debt. Because American colonists benefited from
Britain’s victory, Britain expected the colonists to help pay the costs of the war.
In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act. According to this law, colonists had to pay a tax to
have an official stamp put on wills, deeds, newspapers, and other printed material.
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American colonists were outraged. They had never paid taxes directly to the British government
before. Colonial lawyers argued that the stamp tax violated colonists’ natural rights, and they
accused the government of “taxation without representation.” In Britain, citizens consented to
taxes through their representatives in Parliament. The colonists, however, had no
representation in Parliament. Thus, they argued they could not be taxed.
Boston Tea Party
Growing Hostility Leads to War Over the next decade, hostilities between the two sides
increased. Some colonial leaders favoured independence from Britain. In 1773, to protest an
import tax on tea, a group of colonists dumped a large load of British tea into Boston Harbour.
George III, infuriated by the “Boston Tea Party,” as it was called, ordered the British navy to
close the port of Boston.
First Continental Congress
Such harsh tactics by the British made enemies of many moderate colonists. In September
1774, representatives from every colony except Georgia gathered in Philadelphia to form the
First Continental Congress. This group protested the treatment of Boston. When the king paid
little attention to their complaints, the colonies decided to form the Second Continental
Congress to debate their next move.
Second Continental Congress
On April 19, 1775, British soldiers and American militiamen exchanged gunfire on the village
green in Lexington, Massachusetts. The fighting spread to nearby Concord. The Second
Continental Congress voted to raise an army and organize for battle under the command of a
Virginian named George Washington. The American Revolution had begun.
CAUSES OF THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE

Economic
• The England economic policies towards colonies of America did not allow them to
develop an economy of their own. This was the primary cause of resentment in the
American colonies.
• The parliament of England had forbidden the colonists to use the ships other than from
England.
• Products like cotton, sugar and tobacco could be exported only to England.
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• The goods imported from other places into the colonies were imposed heavy import
duties.
• The colonies were not allowed to start modern industries like iron and steel, textile etc.
• The colonies were forced to import these industrial goods from England.
• In a nut-shell trade and industrialisation of colonies was impeded.
The Land Rents
The English aristocrats bought land to the west of colonies. And they got rents from farmers
who cultivated the lands and also issued a proclamation to prevent colonists from moving west
into new lands. This move angered the colonists.
Intolerable Acts
The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the
Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British.
They consisted of five laws enacted by the British parliament:
• The Massachusetts Government Act, altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted
town meetings.
• The Administration of Justice Act, ordered that all British soldiers to be tried in Britain,
not in the colonies. It put an end to the constitution of Massachusetts
• The Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been
compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party.
• The Quartering Act, which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes
of citizens without requiring permission of the owner.
• The Quebec Act was designed to extend the boundaries of Quebec and guaranteed
religious freedom to Catholic Canadians.
The Influence of the Enlightenment
Colonial leaders used Enlightenment ideas to justify independence. The colonists had asked for
the same political rights as people in Britain, they said, but the king had stubbornly refused.
Therefore, the colonists were justified in rebelling against a tyrant who had broken the social
contract.
In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence. This
document, written by political leader Thomas Jefferson was firmly based on the ideas of John
Locke and the Enlightenment.
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Thomas Paine forcefully supported the independence of colonies, who detested the inequalities
of English society, and had come to America. In a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, he wrote,
‘It was repugnant to reason to suppose that this continent can long remain subject to any
external power…there is something absurd in supposing a Continent to be perpetually
governed by an island’.
The philosophies of other English philosophers— Locke, Harrington, Milton—believed that men
had certain fundamental rights which no government had the right to infringe, had been the
source of inspiration for the revolution.
The War of Independence
The British were not about to let their colonies leave without a fight. Shortly after the
publication of the Declaration of Independence, the two sides went to war. At first glance, the
colonists seemed destined to go down in quick defeat. Washington’s ragtag, poorly trained
army faced the well-trained forces of the most powerful country in the world. In the end,
however, the Americans won their war for independence.
George Washington was put in command of the American forces. The first battles took place in
and around Boston. Then English sent a force to Canada with the plan to march it south to meet
another English force, and so cut the American colonies in half.
Several reasons explain the colonists’ success. First, the Americans’ motivation for fighting was
much stronger than that of the British, since their army was defending their homeland.
Second, the overconfident British generals made several mistakes.
Third, time itself was on the side of the Americans. The British could win battle after battle, as
they did, and still lose the war. Fighting an overseas war, 3,000 miles from London, was terribly
expensive. After a few years, tax-weary British citizens called for peace.
Finally, the Americans did not fight alone. Louis XVI of France had little sympathy for the ideals
of the American Revolution. However, he was eager to weaken France’s rival, Britain. French
entry into the war in 1778 was decisive. In 1781, combined forces of about 9,500 Americans
and 7,800 French trapped a British army commanded by Lord Cornwallis near Yorktown,
Virginia. Unable to escape, Cornwallis eventually surrendered. The Americans had shocked the
world and won their independence.
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Two years later, in 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed and the English recognized the
independence of its 13 former colonies.
Americans Create a Republic
Shortly after declaring their independence, the 13 individual states recognized the need for a
national government. As victory became certain, all 13 states ratified a constitution in 1781.
This plan of government was known as the Articles of Confederation. The Articles established
the United States as a republic, a government in which citizens rule through elected
representatives.
A Weak National Government
To protect their authority, the 13 states created a loose confederation in which they held most
of the power. Thus, the Articles of Confederation deliberately created a weak national
government. There were no executive or judicial branches. Instead, the Articles established
only one body of government, the Congress. Each state, regardless of size, had one vote in
Congress. Congress could declare war, enter into treaties, and coin money. It had no power,
however, to collect taxes or regulate trade. Passing new laws was difficult because laws needed
the approval of 9 of the 13 states.
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A New Constitution
Colonial leaders eventually recognized the need for a strong national government. In February
1787, Congress approved a Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation.
The Constitutional Convention held its first session on May 25, 1787. The 55 delegates were
experienced statesmen who were familiar with the political theories of Locke, Montesquieu,
and Rousseau.
The Federal System
Like Montesquieu, the delegates distrusted a powerful central government controlled by one
person or group. They therefore established three separate branches—legislative, executive,
and judicial. This setup provided a built-in system of checks and balances, with each branch
checking the actions of the other two. For example, the president received the power to veto
legislation passed by Congress. However, the Congress could override a presidential veto with
the approval of two-thirds of its members.
The Bill of Rights
Congress formally added to the Constitution the ten amendments known as the Bill of Rights.
These amendments protected such basic rights as freedom of speech, press, assembly, and
religion. Many of these rights had been advocated by Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke.
THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION

The American defeat of a mighty empire like Britain encouraged other colonies to do the same.
French rebels in 1789 fought in defense of “Liberty equality, and Fraternity”, French
revolutionaries repeated the principles of the American Declaration of Independence.
In Ireland, many people believed that they too could achieve independence from British rule by
force of arms. The American Revolution inspired men such as Theobald Wolfe Tone who went
on to form the United Irishmen to try to achieve Irish independence in 1798.
Britain's change in colonial policy — a lesson learned, but just a trifle too late.
The United States of America had an official constitution, or book of rules, on how the country
should be governed. It also had a Bill of Rights which guaranteed certain rights and freedoms to
its citizens. These documents helped to spread democracy around the world in the next two
hundred years.
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In the US, the realization that Westward Expansion was now possible altered perceptions from
the level of the individual family all the way to National Policy.
The rejection of Aristocracy started a swing between extremes of Privilege and Deification of
the Common Man.
Social Effects
• Identity of “American”- individualism; diversity

• No aristocratic titles of nobility
• Social mobility
• Westward migration encouraged
• Separation of church and state
• Issues involving women’s rights and slavery continued
• Increased importance of education to democracy
How did the American Revolution influence the French Revolution?
When American colonists won independence from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, the
French, who participated in the war themselves, were both close allies and key participants.
There were similar causes for both revolutions.
Economic struggles: Both the Americans and French dealt with a taxation system they found
discriminating and unfair. Additionally, France’s involvement in the American Revolution, along
with extravagant spending practices by King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette, left the
country on the verge of bankruptcy.
Royal absolutism: While colonists revolted against the British monarchy, the French aimed to
reform the absolute rule of Louis XVI.
Unequal rights: Like the American colonists, the French felt that specific rights were only
granted to certain segments of society, namely the elite and aristocrats.
Enlightenment philosophy was a major influence. One key ideological movement, known as
Enlightenment, was central to the American uprising. Enlightenment stressed the idea of
natural rights and equality for all citizens.
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MAINS QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. What do you understand by the term ‘enlightenment’ in the historical context? What were
the core concepts that drove enlightenment in Europe? Discuss
Focus on core concepts that drove enlightenment (priority to be given to important points
first):
Core Concepts of Enlightenment:
Reason:
• Truth can be discovered only by using logic and providing proof

• Scientific and rational thought will lead to an improved human existence
Nature: Natural laws could be used to examine and understand all aspects of society and
human nature.
Liberty: All human beings are born free to choose their life
Skepticism: Skepticism of religious superstition’s, institutionalized church and Government

authority.
Individualism:
• Emphasized on ideas of equality and human dignity

• Its moral duty of every human being to pursue happiness
• And not to prevent others from achieving their own
• Its humanities goal to continue to improve oneself, its civilization and its understanding
of world.
Progress: It is humanity’s goal to continue to improve upon itself, its civilization, and its
understanding of the world.
Enlightenment: Thinkers believed that society and humankind could improve.
Scientific Revolution: works of Astronomers and Mathematicians such as Kepler, Galileo and
Newton. Their ideas got diffused in Europe and seriously challenged the conventional ideas of
those days.
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Awareness came about with the growth of historical scholarship, but more importantly with the
technological and social changes of late 18th century.
Political Revolution: Philosophical movements stressed humans to oppose the supernatural

understanding of society and questioned the doctrines of the Church such as natural and social
orders were creations of god.
Politically, the spread of doctrines of equality, liberty and nationhood had tremendous
repercussion in America and Europe.
We can add works of Matin Luther, Voltaire, Locke.
Industrial Revolution: How geographical discoveries and exploration of world created drastic
social and economic changes.
Trade and industrial revolution created the belief that it is possible to achieve control over the
forces of change, which had previously seemed beyond the power of men.
2. What is ‘Scientific Revolution’? When did it take place? Why? Also discuss the contribution
of famous personalities during this phase of history.
It refers to the era where the focus from God shifted towards human kind and their power to
reason. The use of reason, which bought transformation, marked the beginning of scientific
revolution.
As science became the source of knowledge, nature was given scientific, logical and
mathematical understanding.
Scientific Revolution was a phase during which the flawed concepts established by the Church
regarding physical events were replaced by hypotheses that could be verified through
experiments.
It took place gradually and inevitably since Europe was reeling under Dark Age and period of
orthodoxy and irrational church laws.
To make people aware of the truth and bring scientific and logical thinking into their lives,
many personalities contributed hugely towards Scientific Revolution including:-
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1) Helios-centric Theory of Copernicus stating sun is at the centre of solar system defied the
pre-existing exact opposite views.
2) Telescope by Galileo expanded knowledge about space.
3) Gravitational Law of Newton
4) Kepler finding about the elliptical path of the planets that clarified different seasons.
3. Examine the factors that caused the American Revolution. What is the legacy of this
revolution? Discuss.
American Revolution was a political uprising that took place between 1765-1783 during which
colonists in 13 American colonies rebelled against the Crown rule of Britain subsequently
declaring independence in 1776. It was a result of the exploitative rule of Britain over America.
MAJOR CAUSES OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION
1) Political Causes
Colonial and imperialistic policy of Britain
• No representation of Americans in legislature. Local bodies where they had

representation were ineffective.
• This led to the demand for ‘No taxation without representation’.
2) Economic Causes
• Mercantilist policy of Britain with the passing of Navigation Act, Enumerated

Commodities Act, Iron Act, Sugar Act, Hat Act and Woollen Act that negatively impacted
American economy.
• Crown’s proclamation that prevented Americans from expansion beyond Appalachian
Mountains.
• Payment of losses incurred by British during the 7 years’ war was done on American
exchequer.
• Heavy and oppressive taxation laws like Stamp Act, Currency Act, Townshend Act etc.
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3) Socio-cultural Causes
• American society was open and cosmopolitan whereas British society was rigid and
feudalistic.
Ideological developments, influence of Enlightenment, republicanism, liberalism.
• Individuals like Thomas Paine, Samuel Adams and Benjamin Franklin spread awareness
among Americans about true nature of British Rule.
LEGACY OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION
• Establishment of the first republican democracy after overthrowing a European empire

served as a model for other colonies.
• Inspired future revolutions like French Revolution, Russian Revolution, Haitian
Revolution, Latin American war of Independence.
• Democratic ideals of the revolution inspired changes in position of women in the society
with the fading ideal of patriarchy, liberalising women.
• Bill of rights enshrined in the American Constitution (first written constitution) gave way
to the idea of fundamental rights.
4. What caused the French Revolution? Also discuss the effects of this revolution on Europe.
Causes of French Revolution:
Political Causes:
• The French Monarchs had unlimited power and they claimed to rule by divine right.
• The State was coterminous with the king, who could change laws anytime; people could
be imprisoned for no reason at all.
Social Causes:
• The society was divided into three estates the lowest of which carried the burden of
other two.
• The clergy and the nobility enjoyed all the luxuries but did not take part in any
productive activity, they were exempted from taxes, and taxes were levied only on the
third state.
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• The society was a closed one where lower estate did not have any avenue for vertical
mobility.
Economic Causes:
• The economic condition of France became poor due to the foreign wars of Louis XIV, the
seven year’s War of Louis XV and other expensive wars. During the reign period of Louis
XVI, the royal treasury became empty as extravagant expenses of his queen Marie
Antoinette.
• The Finance Minister of France Callone adopted the policy of borrowing in order to
meet the expenditure of the royal court. But due to this policy, the national debt of
France increased from 300,000,000 to 600,000,000 Franks only in three years.
• Then Callone proposed to impose taxes on all the classes. But he was dismissed by the
king. In this situation, the king at last summoned the States General. The economic
instability formed one of the most important causes of the French Revolution.
Effects of French revolution on Europe:
• Universality of rights was stressed, which made people more aware and assertive of
their rights. Slavery was abolished in France.
• French emigration- the political unrest in France led people to leave from France and to
settle in neighboring countries esp. in Great Britain, Germany, Austria and Prussia.
• Nationalism- the revolution resulted in great stimulus to the modern nationalism and
ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity.
• Feudalism was abolished in France, in its place new social order was established which
stressed on egalitarian society.
5. The French Revolution was an utter failure in regime change, but was a grand success in
ideological change in the thinking of the masses. Discuss the various thinkers and the ideas
behind this revolution.
“One of the main outcomes of the French revolution is the ideological impact it made in a
global scale, including India. Ideas such as Liberty, Fraternity and Equality enshrined in the
preamble of the constitution are from the French revolution.
The ideologies and values for the French revolution came from the intellectual developments in
France. Montesquieu spoke about separation of powers and Spirit of law. Locke and Voltaire
expressed in their works the basic rights any citizen should have. Rousseau noted that Religious
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toleration and freedom of speech are essential. These intellectuals based their philosophies on
rationalism and reasoning. These caught the imagination of the people of France who
eventually became the social base for the events in French revolution such as Storming of
Bastille.
But the regime change was a failure as political and economic conditions worsened. Inflation
grew to epic proportions. The suspension of constitution, removal of civil liberties, the reign of
terror and the beheading of the king did not reflect the ideals on which revolution was built.
Hence the success of French revolution can be based on ideals it created for future rather than
its economic and political changes that followed it.”
6. “He was as great as a man can be without virtue”. Critically analyse the statement
regarding Napoleon.
The above statement, made by Tocqueville, reflects the nature of Napolean’s rule in France
during the first decade of 19th century. His greatness could be measured as:
• He was considered as a military genius, who had won numerous wars and created a vast
empire in the continental Europe.
• He reduced the influence of church and birth privileges and brought meritocracy and
equal opportunity for all the sections of society in administration.
• He drafted Napoleonic code, which was considered as model code for governance in
Europe for a long time.
Still his greatness was overshadowed by the shortcomings of his character:
• His penchant for wars and empire building resulted in ruthless suppression of people
and soldiers.
• He showed contempt towards the German and Slavic races, though his own army
consisted a significant proportion of them.
• He was also against the women rights and considered women inferior to males.
• Most crucially, he had a dictatorial mindset, even though he came to power on the
backdrop of removal of monarchy and despotism. He turned out to be another despot.
Thus, although he was man of great talent and skills, but the lack of human virtues denies him
the place among the truly great persons of world history.
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7. The message of universal rights underlying the French Revolution was beset with
contradictions. Do you agree? Substantiate.
The French Revolution was a composite movement caused mainly as a result of discontent due
to a centralized despotic government, class privilege and absolute rule.
The revolution spread new principles of government, ideas of social organization, theories of
rights of man and was thus a challenge to the established norms.
French revolution (1789) started a new chapter of liberty, equality and fraternity worldwide. It
was perceived as the ideological ground of subsequent revolutions.
On the contrary, there are examples which reveal that message of universal rights underlying
the French Revolution was beset with contradictions. Although it managed to topple
monarchy and established a new government, but there were many contradictions as well:
1. Government dominated by bourgeois. The working class and peasantry were side-lined.
2. Voting: though popular form of government was conceived, yet voting was limited to only
men of 25 years of age
3. Equality: though all humans were declared equals, only men had rights, women were only
passive citizens
4. Liberty: though it was one of crucial part of Declaration, yet the Reign of terror saw many
political executions where many intellectuals were guillotined.
5. Income inequalities: the post revolution period saw the shift towards imperialism and
capitalism, voting was based on property criteria.
6. Republic: French revolution declared France as the Republic but post-revolution

contradictions led to the rise of monarchy under Napoleon.
7. Colonies: French revolution projected French as the liberators of man but they turned out to
be oppressors who acquired many colonies by conquests and wars.
8. Why did Industrial Revolution first occur in England? How did it affect the lives of people in
Europe? Examine.
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The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries, was a period
during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe became industrial and urban.
The IR happened in England because:
• Agriculture revolution – Coming up of new tools like invention of seed drill by Jethro tull,
crop rotation better than medieval period. Livestock breeding method improvement.
• Economic reasons– Large labour force, natural resources like coal, iron, cotton etc. large
land holdings because of Enclosure movement led to capital becoming free to invest.
• Political reasons: England had stable government; none of the war were fought on
British soil. Due to stability, peace and prosperity at home, the British were able to
acquire a number of colonies overseas. Colonies in America and Asia established new
import and export markets.
• Technology innovation – steam engine to transport, cotton gin to speed the chore &
flying shuttle & jenny wheel such innovation increases the amount of product with
cheap cost.
• Others factors like well develop banking system, high investment, oversea trades &
climate of progress, also positive attitude of leaders to pass law to protect business
interest.
Effects on the life of people:
• ECONOMIC – The people were exploited for want of huge profits by giving low wages
and 16 hours of work/day. With the invention of more modern machines, man-made
famine and unemployment rose.
• POLITICAL – End of laissez faire as said by Keynes led to intervention of state by
legislating ‘factories act’ to set minimum wages and working hours especially for
children and women
• GEOGRAPHICAL – Urban centres became the locus of production and economic activity,
people who migrated to polluted towns and lived in unhygienic slums lost lives due to
diseases
• SOCIAL – Middle classes emerged who specialized in certain occupations, who were the
driving for further economic expansion, they asserted their rights by forming trade
unions and demanded universal suffrage.
• IDEOLOGICAL – Socialism for just distribution of wealth and criticism of private
capitalism rose.
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9. There were various strands of colonization. Identify them along with their characteristic
features. What type of colony was India? Discuss.
Colonialism is termed as building and maintaining colonies in one territory by people from
another territory. Usually it was done for economic gains. i.e. to exploit the resources of the
colonies.
Depending upon the objectives of the colonialists, colonialism can be classified into different
types. Broadly they are:
Settler colonialism: These colonies were established by the movement of large numbers of
citizens from a mother country or metropole to the new colony. The indigenous tribes or the
aboriginal people were often moved forcibly to other regions or exterminated. Eg. Hungary,
Thailand, Canada, USA, Australia, New Zealand etc.
Dependencies: These were the colonies where the colonizers did not arrive as part of a mass
emigration, but rather as administrators over existing sizable native populations. Examples in
this category include the British Raj, Egypt, the Dutch East Indies, and the Japanese colonial
empire. In some cases, large-scale colonial settlement was attempted in substantially pre-
populated areas and the result was either an ethnically mixed population (such as the mestizos
of the Americas)
Plantation Colonies: These were the places which were climatically suitable for plantation
crops. The white colonizers imported black slaves who rapidly began to outnumber their
owners, leading to minority rule, similar to a dependency. Eg. Barbados, Jamaica etc.
Trading Posts: the primary purpose of the colony was to engage in trade rather than as a
staging post for further colonization of the hinterland. Eg. Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore etc.
In India, the colonizers came as trading vessels first. They colonized the coastal areas like
Pondicherry, Goa, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Later with the increase in greed and power,
their involvement in internal politics increased. Amongst the different colonizers, British finally
succeeded in colonizing India and it became a dependency i.e. the colony governed by British
Administration with majority of local Indian population.
10. What is nationalism? Why was nationalism on rise during the late 18th and 19th
centuries? What were its fallouts? Discuss
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A sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary
emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations or
supranational groups.
Nationalism has a number of near-synonyms, each of which carries its own distinct
meaning. Patriotism is similar insofar as it emphasizes strong feelings for one’s country, but it
does not necessarily imply an attitude of superiority.
Sectionalism resembles nationalism in its suggestion of a geopolitical group pursuing its self-
interest, but the group in question is usually smaller than an entire nation.
Jingoism closely resembles nationalism in suggesting feelings of cultural superiority, but

unlike nationalism, it always implies military aggressiveness.
Rise of Nationalism:
French Revolution:
Before the rise of nationalism, people were loyal to the monarch rather than the country.
The idea of Nationalism came after the French Revolution when Monarchy was abolished and it
became possible for the so-called common people to rule. France had become a sovereign
nation, and its people grew in their national loyalty. Many of them believed that their new
system was working well, and they were ready to move out into the world to bring their
discoveries to others.
The idea was spread by Napoleon in other European nations through wars. He created
the Napoleonic Code in 1804 that unified French law, getting rid of regional variations and
making one set of rules for everyone.
Napoleon’s aggression, however, increased the nationalistic impulses in his enemies and those
he conquered. Defeated nations united around their hatred of Napoleon and his policies. Great
Britain, for instance, avoided labor revolts because its people were busy backing their country’s
fight against the French. Austrians, stung by defeat, collectively fumed about having to give up
their territories.
Romanticism and National Identity:
Romantic movements in art and culture beginning in the early 19th century led to the
development of various national identities in Europe. The British poet Lord Byron did much to
increase the European public’s perception of nationalist uprisings.
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Unification of Italy and Germany:
During the mid to late 19th century, nationalist “realpolitik” spurred the unification of two
major European nations: Italy and Germany. “Realpolitik” is a practical approach to political
diplomacy based largely on power dynamics between nations and other material factors.
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour from the Italian nation-state of Sardinia, is best known for his
successful application of “realpolitik” as a means of convincing leaders of the various Italian
nation states to unify. Otto von Bismarck, the first chancellor to King Wilhelm I of Prussia, used
the military might of the Prussian armies to coerce other German states to unify under one
German nation. This is perhaps the most oft-cited example of “realpolitik” in 19th-century
European history.
Fallouts of Nationalism:
Nationalism affected Europe during the 19th century by making Europeans feel superior to
other countries and governments, which led to the unification of both Germany and Italy, with
Russia moving towards modernization and with France moving towards liberalism. This sense of
superiority led to a stronger sense of unity between the peoples of each country and to a desire
for increased military power which then, in turn, led to an alliance system between the
European nations.
This alliance system was particularly helpful during World War II when the European countries
needed to band together to defeat Hitler and the Nazis. However, before World War II, the
European countries would enter into World War I for their nationalism, imperialism and
militarism tendencies.
Nationalism is partly to blame for each of the wars as well because it was the primary reason
why many of the European countries decided to build up their armies as well as their navy. It
also was the reason for the great industrial movement and development in Europe, as the
Europeans wanted to prove their greatness by inventing the latest tools and gadgets.
The European nations had a balanced power until a Serbian revolutionary killed Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, the nephew to the Emperor of Austria-Hungary and one of the heirs to the Austrian
throne. The revolutionary also killed the Emperor’s wife. From here, the countries were lured in
one by one to take opposing sides and to fight in the First World War. After the end of the First
World War, the countries formed their tight alliances with one another, which would be used in
World War II.
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11. Both the American and the French Revolution were based on the ideas of Enlightenment
but had different repercussions at home. Do you agree? Substantiate with the help of
suitable reasoning.
The Enlightenment thinkers had given the idea of rationality, rule of law, liberty equality,
liberalism, progress which had shaped the American Revolution and French Revolution. But, the
revolutions and the interpretation of those ideas had different repercussion in America and
France.
• Cause: The American Revolution was by the colonies against British rulers who had
imposed unjust and undemocratic rules and restrictions on the American population.
The French Revolution was tussle between the different estates of the society.
• Aim/objective: The American Revolution had the tangible objective of getting
independence from the British, the French revolution had abstract goals such as the
attainment of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, which were difficult to quantify.
• Form of Government: The American Revolution led to the birth of Democratic state of
America. The French revolution underwent series of changes from republic to
constitutional monarchy to finally becoming republic again.
• Citizen’s rights: Both the revolutions led to granting of rights to the citizens of the
respective countries. American Revolution let to the formulation of Bill of Rights and the
French Revolution led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
• Peace and Stability: The American Revolution led to peace and prosperity of its citizens,
whereas France was mired in violence and instability.
• Attitude towards religion: America after revolution became a religion neutral secular
state, which advocated separation of State from Church, the France of post-revolution
became Anti-Religion Secular State.
• Social order: The pre-revolution classes persisted in America which justified the
continuance of slavery and racial discrimination. The French revolution led to the
abolition of classes and of slavery.
• France became representative of humanity because of the ideals like liberty, equality
and fraternity whereas America was grappled with economic disparity and social
inequality due to continuance of inhumane practices like slavery and racial
discrimination.
Conclusion:
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Though, both the revolutions were inspired by the ideals of the Enlightenment period. The
respective historical, geographical, social and economic settings led to emergence of different
forms of state and society.
12. How did the new middle class transform the social structure of Great Britain during
industrialisation?
With the advent of industrial revolution in the 18th century and it’s after effects, a new class
rose to power in Britain, The merchants and the Middle Class. As opposed to the aristocracy
these people worked hard to gain wealth. This class changed the social structure of the English
society.
The Middle class were educated, aware of their rights, and so they spearheaded various
reforms in society
• They fought for political equality in society and lead to reform act 1832 and 1867 which
increased the political voice of people.
• They raised their voice against the exploitative working condition in industries, long
working hours, child labour and improved the condition of working class.
• Middle class women worked in industries which lead to women empowerment; they
lead suffrage movement to grant voting rights to women.
• The demand from middle class lead to the growth of education sectors, technical
colleges, universities, schools and further growth of science and technology.
• Their purchasing power gave push to the demand of consumer goods and better
services which further pushed economic growth.
• A new national identity and spirit of nationalism evolved which furthered the growth of
colonialism and lead to world wars.
• Being educated the members of this class questioned the rationality behind everything
and supported scientific thinking.
• Rise of the wealthy middle class paved way for an open society with mobility among
classes.
• Rise of factories brought a large number of workers to the cities, away from their
families, resulting in a shift from joint to nuclear families.
• End of Feudalism: The feudal lords were no longer in charge of the society. The common
man was not subservient any more. He earned his bread without being answerable to
the aristocracy.
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• The population migrated from the rural to urban areas and became wage earners. They
established trade unions, workers unions etc. hence a different social circle was
established.
• The ease of transportation made geographical discoveries easier. This broadened the
horizon of trade for the merchants.
However, these also lead to the development of some negative externalities
• Crowding of Urban areas due to huge migration towards them creating issues of
sanitation, water and dwelling places.
• Exploitation of industrial worker intensified with huge demand of consumer products.
• Rise of colonialism due to rise in imperialistic ambitions and more materialism
• Thus, these developments led to a well-established middle class that rejected the
authority of aristocrats and established themselves as a strong pillar of the New Britain.
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Integrated Learning
Programmme (ILP) - 2022
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IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISORY PART 2
Contents
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 2
MARCH TO WARDS WORLD WAR-1........................................................................................................ 3
CRISIS BETWEEN 1919-1939 ................................................................................................................. 16
The Weimar Republic........................................................................................................................ 16
The Great Depression ....................................................................................................................... 17
Rise of fascism in Italy ....................................................................................................................... 19
RISE OF NAZISM: HITLER ................................................................................................................... 20
THE SECOND WORLD WAR: 1939-45 .................................................................................................... 22
Opening moves for WWII: August 1939- December 1940 ............................................................... 23
Importance of Denmark and Norway invasion to Germany ............................................................. 24
Hitler attacks Holland, Belgium and France...................................................................................... 26
The Battle of Britain (12 August to 30 September 1940) ................................................................. 27
THE AXIS OFFENSIVE WIDENS: 1941 TO THE SUMMER OF 1942...................................................... 28
The German invasion of Russia (Operation Barbarossa) began on 22 June 1941 ............................ 29
The USA enters the war, December 1941 ........................................................................................ 30
THE OFFENSIVES HELD IN CHECK: SUMMER 1942 TO SUMMER 1943 ............................................. 32
WHAT PART WAS PLAYED BY ALLIED NAVAL FORCES?..................................................................... 34
WHAT CONTRIBUTION DID AIR POWER MAKE TO THE DEFEAT OF THE AXIS? ................................ 35
WHY DID THE AXIS POWERS LOSE THE WAR? .................................................................................. 37
THE HOLOCAUST ............................................................................................................................... 38
WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR?......................................................................................... 39
MAINS QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE ....................................................................................................... 44
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INTRODUCTION
This document majorly deals with World History: World War 1 and 2 and related events.
For most of you World History appears to be little boring but let us remind that this is a scoring
section provided you have prepared it smartly considering the cost benefit aspect in picture.
Do not go through many sources for World History.
For this, every minor detail from World History is not expected in UPSC Mains, but a very
generalist approach is advised for this section when compared to Indian History. One of the
fundamental things is that you should not focus too much on facts and figures, but try to
develop an analytic frame of mind focused on causes and consequences of the events. We
will try our best to provide quality coverage of the topics.
Let us take few questions from previous years to understand the dimensions in which you
must prepare and focus:
• How did the Versailles Treaty contribute to European political instability from 1919
to 1939? Analyse.
• What factors prompted the United States to enter the first World War? What were
the consequences of the United States entering the war? Discuss.
• What was the ‘policy of appeasement’? Why was it followed? Did it serve its
purpose? Examine.
• Do you think imperialistic aspirations of European powers were the main factors
behind World War I? Critically examine. What was the scenario when the Great War
ended? Discuss.
• Rise of Nazism in Germany and that of Fascism is Italy during the inter-war period
were two different yet similar developments that laid the foundation of the Second
World War. Elucidate.
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MARCH TO WARDS WORLD WAR-1
Let us revise a bit of past events
Unification of Italy and Germany – 1870
• Germany unified into a nation state after the French – Prussian War in 1870 which
France lost
• Emergence of Italy and Germany changed the balance of power from old powers such
as Britain and France to Germany and Italy
• A race began between them to colonize maximum lands and increase wealth and
power back home
• This competition ultimately resulted in WW I and WW II
Age of Bismarck 1870-90
• Bismarck was the chancellor of Prussia (largest German province) and played a pivotal
role in German unification of 1870
• He wanted to maintain the status quo and friendly relations with other European
nations
• His idea for German future was – peace + development of German economy
• He followed the policy of French isolation as he feared France might try to avenge her
defeat in 1870 at his hands
• Germany was blessed with abundant mineral resources and made rapid economic
growth
• At the end of 19th century, its navy was only second to the British Empire
Japanese Imperialism – 1868-1900
• Japanese society was a feudal one. Emperor was only namesake and real power
lied with military officials.
• For 200 years Japan was cut off from the rest of the world
• During 1850s, Japanese independence came under threat as US navy forced Japan
to open 2 of its port for trade. Similar treaty was signed with European powers
later
• In 1868 military rule was ended and the emperor took the title of ‘Meiji’. This came
to be known as Meiji Restoration of 1868
• From 1868 to 1908, Japan emerged as an industrialized nation. Extreme
nationalism become the policy of Japanese society which believed in hard work
• Efficient education programs made Japan literate very quickly and provided skilled
labour.
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• Government setup heavy industries to make Japan self-sufficient

• Japan was a small island nation and lacked mineral resources. It too embarked on
the policy of colonization in search of raw material
o Japan-Sino war 1895 – Fought over control of Korea which was under
Chinese control till now. Japan annexed Senkaku Islands from China
o Russia-Japan war 1905 – Fought over control of Manchuria (in Russia).
Manchuria was converted by Japan as its sphere of influence. Manchuria
was rich in coal and mineral resources
• Japanese imperialism was at its peak before WW I
• Since 1900s, Japan was increasingly controlled by the army. From 1930 onwards,
the army took complete control of the country and ran the government on Fascist
lines till the end of WW II in 1945
Japanese Imperialism vs European Imperialism
• Japan was the first non-western imperial power

• Japanese imperialism was undertaken as a protective measure against European
imperialism itself
• Therefore, it was more a political necessity compared the economic nature of
European imperialism
• Japanese imperialism was limited to East Asian neighbours China and Russia only.
It did not harbour international expansion unlike the European countries
• Japanese imperialism was more socialist in nature compared to Europe.
Government took great initiative in setting up industries and educating its labour
force
US Imperialism 1865-1895
• By 1890s US emerged as a new imperialist power

• Major reason was industrial revolution – it induced demand for export markets and
raw materials
• US expanded its ‘sphere of influence’ to Pacific Islands. US annexed Hawaii in 1898
and took Guam (Pacific Ocean) and Puerto Rico from Spain
Note: Other Pacific regions such as Australia and NZ were controlled by Britain and other
small Islands by Germany and France
At the turn of the 20th century, the nations of Europe had been largely at peace with one
another for nearly 30 years. Efforts to outlaw war and achieve a permanent peace had been
gaining momentum in Europe since the middle of the 19th century.
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By 1900, hundreds of peace organizations were active. In addition, peace congresses

convened regularly between 1843 and 1907. Some Europeans believed that progress had
made war a thing of the past. Yet in a little more than a decade, a massive war engulfed
Europe and spread across the globe.
World War I, also called First World War or Great War, an international conflict that in 1914–
18 embroiled most of the nations of Europe along with Russia, the United States, the Middle
East, and other regions. The war was virtually unprecedented in the slaughter, carnage, and
destruction it caused.
World War I was one of the great watersheds of 20th-century geopolitical history. It led to
the fall of four great imperial dynasties (in Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey),
resulted in the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and, in its destabilization of European society,
laid the groundwork for World War II.
The Rise of Nationalism
• This increasing rivalry among European nations stemmed from several sources like
competition for materials and markets. Territorial disputes were also one of the
reasons.
• France, for example, had never gotten over the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in
the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Austria-Hungary and Russia both tried to dominate
in the Balkans, a region in southeast Europe.
• Within the Balkans, the intense nationalism of Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and
other ethnic groups led to demands for independence.
Another force that helped set the stage for war in Europe was imperialism.
• The quest for colonies sometimes pushed European nations to the brink of war. As
European countries continued to compete for overseas empires, their sense of rivalry
and mistrust of one another deepened
Rise of a dangerous European arms race
• The nations of Europe believed that to be truly great, they needed to have a powerful
military.
• By 1914, all the Great Powers except Britain had large standing armies. In addition,
military experts stressed the importance of being able to quickly mobilize, or organize
and move troops in case of a war. Generals in each country developed highly detailed
plans for such a mobilization.
• The policy of glorifying military power and keeping an army prepared for war was
known as militarism. Having a large and strong standing army made citizens feel
patriotic.
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Between 1864 and 1871, Prussia’s blood-and-iron chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, freely used
war to unify Germany. After 1871, however, Bismarck declared Germany to be a “satisfied
power.” He then turned his energies to maintaining peace in Europe. Bismarck saw France as
the greatest threat to peace. He believed that France still wanted revenge for its defeat in
the Franco-Prussian War. Bismarck’s first goal, therefore, was to isolate France. In 1879,
Bismarck formed the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Three years
later, Italy joined the two countries, forming the Triple Alliance. In 1881, Bismarck took yet
another possible ally away from France by making a treaty with Russia.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE- Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
In 1890, Germany’s foreign policy changed dramatically. That year, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who
two years earlier had become ruler of Germany forced Bismarck to resign. A proud and
stubborn man, Wilhelm II did not wish to share power with anyone. Besides wanting to assert
his own power, the new kaiser was eager to show the world just how mighty Germany had
become.
Wilhelm began a tremendous shipbuilding program in an effort to make the German navy
equal to that of the mighty British fleet. Alarmed, Great Britain formed an entente, or
alliance, with France. In 1907, Britain made another entente, this time with France and
Russia, The Triple Entente. By 1907, two rival camps existed in Europe. On one side was the
Triple Alliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. On the other side was the Triple
Entente—Great Britain, France, and Russia. A dispute between two rival powers could draw
all the nations of Europe into war.
TRIPLE ENTENTE- Britain, France and Russia
There were many factors that shaped the war:
• Russia’s concern over Austria’s interest in Balkan.

• Serbian Nationalism
• Military rivalry in Europe
• Growing imperialism
Note- Please read the details of certain events like Balkan Wars and other leading events. Just
know them in respective timelines (from standard text book you are following). You will have
to use them as passing references in your answer. Questions are not asked in very specific
manner.
Events like
• Moroccan Crisis- 1905-06:

• Bosnia Crisis-1908:
• Adagir Crisis-1911:
• Balkan War 1 and 2: 1912-13
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World War I – Causes
• Although the immediate cause of WW I was the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

of Austria by Serbia (due to the Balkan Wars of 1912-13), there were deep rooted
factors which caused the WW I:
o Web of Alliance – Europe was divided into various alliances. Germany was an
ally of Austria and Russia of Serbia. Both entered into the Austria-Serbia war.
Germany attacked France believing it to be a Russian ally. To protect Belgium
(lying between France and Germany), Britain entered the war against
Germany. Germany formed an alliance with the Ottoman Empire. Thus, one by
one all major powers entered the WW.
o Imperial Rivalry – Due to emergence of new powers such as Germany, there
was a race to capture more colonies across the world – especially the colonial
rivalry in Africa and Middle East. Japan and Italy entered war on promise of
colonial territories by the Allied Powers
o Naval Race – By 1914, Germany and Britain emerged as two supreme naval
powers and competed against each other. Later, Lenin blamed capitalism as
the root cause of WW I.
o Russian plan in Eastern Europe – its support for Serbian transgression of
assassinating Austrian duke opened the doors for the inevitable tensions that
had built up
The immediate cause of the War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis
Ferdinand. (June, 1914)
• The murder was committed in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia by a Serb terrorist.
• Archduke Ferdinand supported a plan to recognize the Habsburg Empire.
• In July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia in support of Serbia mobilized
its troop which was opposed by Germany. Russian didn’t agree to German demand to
which Germany declared war on Russia and France.
• To protect France against German invasion, Britain entered in the war in August 1914.
At the same time, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.
Facing a war on two fronts, Germany had developed a battle strategy known as the Schlieffen
Plan, named after its designer, General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen. The plan called for
attacking and defeating France in the west and then rushing east to fight Russia. The Germans
felt they could carry out such a plan because Russia lagged behind the rest of Europe in its
railroad system and thus would take longer to supply its front lines.
The Allies regrouped and attacked the Germans northeast of Paris, in the valley of the Marne
River. After four days of fighting, the German generals gave the order to retreat. The defeat
of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins.
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By early 1915, opposing armies on the Western Front had dug miles of parallel trenches to
protect themselves from enemy fire. This set the stage for what became known as trench
warfare. In this type of warfare, soldiers fought each other from trenches. And armies traded
huge losses of human life for pitifully small land gains.
Life in the trenches was pure misery. “The men slept in mud, washed in mud, ate mud, and
dreamed mud,” wrote one soldier. The trenches swarmed with rats. Fresh food was
nonexistent. Sleep was nearly impossible.
Even as the war on the Western Front claimed thousands of lives, both sides were sending
millions more men to fight on the Eastern Front. This area was a stretch of battlefield along
the German and Russian border. Here, Russians and Serbs battled Germans and Austro-
Hungarians. The war in the east was a more mobile war than that in the west. Here too,
however, slaughter and stalemate were common.
Early Fighting At the beginning of the war, Russian forces had launched an attack into both
Austria and Germany. At the end of August, Germany counterattacked near the town of
Tannenberg. During the four-day battle, the Germans crushed the invading Russian army and
drove it into full retreat. More than 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed.
Russia fared somewhat better against the Austrians. Russian forces defeated the Austrians
twice in September 1914, driving deep into their country. But Austria defeated the Russians
later in December and eventually pushed them out of Austria-Hungary.
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The Gallipoli Campaign
A promising strategy for the Allies seemed to be to attack a region in the Ottoman Empire
known as the Dardanelles. This narrow sea strait was the gateway to the Ottoman capital,
Constantinople. By securing the Dardanelles, the Allies believed that they could take
Constantinople, defeat the Turks, and establish a supply line to Russia.
In various parts of Asia and Africa, Germany’s colonial possessions came under assault. The
Japanese quickly overran German outposts in China. They also captured Germany’s Pacific
island colonies. English and French troops attacked Germany’s four African possessions.
Elsewhere in Asia and Africa, the British and French recruited subjects in their colonies for the
struggle. Fighting troops as well as laborers came from India, South Africa, Senegal, Egypt,
Algeria, and Indochina. Many fought and died on the battlefield.
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USA’s Entry into the War
In 1917, the focus of the war shifted to the high seas. That year, the Germans intensified the
submarine warfare that had raged in the Atlantic Ocean since shortly after the war began. In
January 1917, the Germans announced that their submarines would sink without warning any
ship in the waters around Britain. This policy was called unrestricted submarine warfare.
The Germans had tried this policy before. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine, or U-boat,
had sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack left 1,198 people dead, including 128
U.S. citizens. Germany claimed that the ship had been carrying ammunition, which turned out
to be true. Nevertheless, the American public was outraged. President Woodrow Wilson sent
a strong protest to Germany.
After two further attacks, the Germans finally agreed to stop attacking neutral and passenger
ships.
Desperate for an advantage over the Allies, however, the Germans returned to unrestricted
submarine warfare in 1917. Ignoring warnings by President Wilson, German U-boats sank
three American ships.
In February 1917, another German action pushed the United States closer to war. Officials
intercepted a telegram written by Germany’s foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, stating
that Germany would help Mexico “reconquer” the land it had lost to the United States if
Mexico would ally itself with Germany.
A large part of the American population already favored the Allies. In particular, America felt
a bond with England. The two nations shared a common ancestry and language, as well as
similar democratic institutions and legal systems. More important, America’s economic ties
with the Allies were far stronger than those with the Central Powers. On April 2, 1917,
President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany. The United States entered the
war on the side of the Allies.
By the time the United States joined the Allies, the war had been raging for nearly three years.
In those three years, Europe had lost more men in battle than in all the wars of the previous
three centuries. The war had claimed the lives of millions and had changed countless lives
forever. The Great War, as the conflict came to be known, affected everyone. It touched not
only the soldiers in the trenches, but civilians as well.
War World War I soon became a total war. This meant that countries devoted all their
resources to the war effort. In Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia, and France, the entire force
of government was dedicated to winning the conflict. In each country, the wartime
government took control of the economy. Governments told factories what to produce and
how much.
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Participation of Women: Thousands of women replaced men in factories, offices, and shops.
Women built tanks and munitions, plowed fields, paved streets, and ran hospitals. They also
kept troops supplied with food, clothing, and weapons. Although most women left the work
force when the war ended, they changed many people’s views of what women were capable
of doing. Women also saw the horrors of war firsthand, working on or near the front lines as
nurses.
Russian Revolution: In 1917 there were two revolutions in Russia – February Revolution and
October Revolution.
The February Revolution led to the end of rule of Czar and establishment of a provisional
government. The October Revolution resulted in the overthrowing of the provisional
government in a coup by the Bolsheviks and consequent establishment of a communist state
of Russia.
As a result, Russia quit WW I (Bolsheviks were against Russian participation)
In November 1917, Communist leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin seized power. Lenin insisted on
ending his country’s involvement in the war. One of his first acts was to offer Germany a truce.
In March 1918, Germany and Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended the war
between them.
From 1918-20 a civil war was fought between the Bolsheviks and the Whites (Mensheviks
who wanted genuine democracy).
Bolsheviks emerged victorious and thus the communist revolution reached its stability in
1920.
Russia’s withdrawal from the war at last allowed Germany to send nearly all its forces to
the Western Front. In March 1918, the Germans mounted one final, massive attack on the
Allies in France. As in the opening weeks of the war, the German forces crushed everything in
their path. Later, German forces started to weaken with time. The effort to reach the Marne
had exhausted men and supplies. Sensing this weakness, the Allies with the aid of nearly
140,000 fresh U.S. troops launched a counterattack.
In July 1918, the Allies and Germans clashed at the Second Battle of the Marne. With the
arrival of 2 million more American troops, the Allied forces began to advance steadily toward
Germany.
Soon, the Central Powers began to crumble. First the Bulgarians and then the Ottoman Turks
surrendered. In October, revolution swept through Austria-Hungary. In Germany, soldiers
mutinied, and the public turned on the kaiser.
On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II stepped down. Germany declared itself a republic.
A representative of the new German government met with French Commander Marshal Foch
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in a railway car near Paris. The two signed an armistice, or an agreement to stop fighting. On
November 11, World War I came to an end
World War I was over. The terms of peace, however, still had to be worked out. On January
18, 1919, a conference to establish those terms began at the Palace of Versailles, outside
Paris.
Despite representatives from numerous countries, the meeting’s major decisions were
hammered out by a group known as the Big Four: Woodrow Wilson of the United States,
Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of Great Britain, and Vittorio Orlando
of Italy. Germany and its allies were not given representation. Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Point
for Peace
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Point for Peace
As the Paris Peace Conference opened, Britain and France showed little sign of agreeing to
Wilson’s vision of peace. Both nations were concerned with national security. They also
wanted to strip Germany of its war-making power.
The differences in French, British, and U.S. aims led to heated arguments among the nations’
leaders. Finally, a compromise was reached. The Treaty of Versailles between Germany and
the Allied powers was signed on June 28, 1919.
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Adopting Wilson’s fourteenth point, the treaty created a League of Nations. The league was
to be an international association whose goal would be to keep peace among nations.
Treaty of Versailles 1920
• Loss of German territories – given away to France, Belgium, Poland

• Union between Austria and Germany was forbidden
• Germany’s African colonies were taken away
• Disarmament of Germany and an upper ceiling put on German military strength
• War guilt was put solely on Germany and made to pay huge amount of war reparation
which wrecked its economy (which was the aim of Britain and France so that Germany
cannot become a threat in the near future)
Treaty of Sevres 1920
• Ottoman Empire was broken down and territories were divided among allies
• Ottoman Empire colonies were given to France (Syria) and Britain (Jordon, Iraq,
Palestine)
Impact of World War I
• The Peace Treaties – sowed seeds of resentment and humiliation among the Germans
which would ultimately result in a second WW
• League of Nations was created to ensure global peace and prevent another world war
• Emergence of US as one of the strongest economic and military powers post WW I
• European economy suffered permanent damage and its decline began
• Rise of new nation states – Turkey, Hungary separated from Austria
• Beginning of animosity between the West and Muslim world due to the treatment
meted out to the Ottoman Empire – regarded as the Caliphate of Muslim world
League of Nations
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• League of Nations was envisaged as an international agency responsible for

maintaining world peace
• It was formed in 1920 with HQ in Geneva with 42 members. Germany granted
membership in 1926
• It worked on the principle of collective security. All member nations would collectively
act against a belligerent nation. Actions would in the form of economic sanctions or
military response
• Economic and Social Work – Various organization were created within the LoN
framework to undertake socio-economic development work across the world
• Structure of LoN – It comprised of a Security Council (like UNSC), a General Assembly,
Permanent Court of International Justice, Peacekeeping Mission and Separate
Commissions to deal with specific problems such health, labour, women rights etc.
Success of League of Nations
• The league was fairly successful in its socio-economic work through its commissions
and committees
• The International Labour Organization (ILO) was the most successful organization to
come out of League of Nations
• The Refugee Organization helped Jews facing anti-sematic persecution in Germany in
1930s
Failure of League of Nations (LON)
• Was perceived as an organization of the Allied Powers, especially France and Britain,
setup only to see the implementation of post WW I ‘unjust’ peace policies.
o Italy and Turkey were dissatisfied with the peace treaties. Turkey was angered
at its territories were handed over to Greece and Italy was dissatisfied for not
getting enough territorial gains as promised
o The peace treaties were against the principle of self-determination as the
territories of Central Powers (Germany etc.) were divided randomly with no
concern for cultural and regional ties
• LoN wasn’t a truly global organization – Major powers like US, USSR didn’t join and
Germany, Japan quit the league very soon
• Failure of Disarmament – The League of Nation failed to convince other nations
towards disarmament and only Germany was disarmed under Treaty of Versailles. In
1932 Hitler demanded equal armament as France, but France declined. Hitler used
this excuse to quit League of Nations
• It failed to implement the principle of collective responsibility – Japan invaded
Manchuria in 1931 and China in 1937, Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 etc. LoN failed
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to prevent such military aggressions. Contrary, Britain and France followed policy of
appeasement towards these fascist nations
• Economic Crisis of 1929 – LoN failed to foresee and prevent it
• Conclusion – The League failed to implement its decisions where verdict was against
a major power. Aggressive regimes in Japan, Germany and Italy defied the League.
Britain and France did little to strengthen it and the Economic Crisis of 1929 reduced
it to a mere idea.
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CRISIS BETWEEN 1919-1939

Some Major Events
• Establishment of Weimar Republic in Germany-1919

• The Kellogg–Briand Pact-1928 (or Pact of Paris, officially General Treaty for
Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy) is a 1928 international
agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or
conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise
among them". Parties failing to abide by this promise "should be denied of the benefits
furnished by the treaty". It was signed by Germany, France, and the United States on
27 August 1928, and by most other states soon after.
• The Great Depression- 1929
• Hirohito (Emperor of Japan) seizes Manchuria-1931
• Adolf Hitler was named chancellor of Germany-1933
• Ethiopia was invaded by Italy- 1935
• NO0n-aggression pact between Germany and Russia- 1939
By the late 1920s, European nations were rebuilding wartorn economies. They were aided by
loans from the more prosperous United States. Only the United States and Japan came out of
the war in better financial shape than before. In the United States, Americans seemed
confident that the country would continue on the road to even greater economic prosperity.
One sign of this was the booming stock market. Yet the American economy had serious
weaknesses that were soon to bring about the most severe economic downturn the world
had yet known-called the Great Depression.
War’s end saw the sudden rise of new democracies. Many citizens of the new democracies
had little experience with representative government. For generations, kings and emperors
had ruled Germany and the new nations formed from Austria-Hungary. Even in France and
Italy, whose parliaments had existed before World War I, the large number of political parties
made effective government difficult. Some countries had a dozen or more political groups. In
these countries, it was almost impossible for one party to win enough support to govern
effectively. When no single party won a majority, a coalition government, or temporary
alliance of several parties, was needed to form a parliamentary majority. Because the parties
disagreed on so many policies, coalitions seldom lasted very long.
THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC

Germany’s new democratic government was set up in 1919; it was named after the city where
the national assembly met (Weimar). The Weimar Republic had serious weaknesses from the
start. First, Germany lacked a strong democratic tradition. Furthermore, postwar Germany
had several major political parties and many minor ones. Worst of all, millions of Germans
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blamed the Weimar government, not their wartime leaders, for the country’s defeat and
postwar humiliation caused by the Versailles Treaty.
Economic Crisis in Germany:
• To pay the expenses of the war, the Germans had simply printed money.
• After Germany’s defeat, this paper money steadily lost its value.
• Burdened with heavy reparations payments to the Allies and with other economic
problems, Germany printed even more money.
• As a result, Germany’s currency fell sharply. Severe inflation set in. Germans needed
more and more money to buy even the most basic goods.
• For example, in Berlin a loaf of bread cost less than a mark in 1918, more than 160
marks in 1922, and some 200 billion marks by late 1923. People took wheelbarrows
full of money to buy food. As a result, many Germans questioned the value of their
new democratic government.
Note- Germany was provided a loan of 200 million dollar from American Banks to get out
of its inflation and soon it recovered from its economic crisis.
In 1920’s, America was controlling the World economy. But its poor economic policies
started to weaken the system and resulted into financial collapse and crash of stock
markets.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION

The collapse of the American economy sent shock waves around the world. Worried American
bankers demanded repayment of their overseas loans, and American investors withdrew
their money from Europe.
• The American market for European goods dropped sharply as the U.S. Congress placed
high tariffs on imported goods so that American dollars would stay in the United States
and pay for American goods. This policy backfired. Conditions worsened for the United
States.
• Many countries that depended on exporting goods to the United States also suffered.
Moreover, when the United States raised tariffs, it set off a chain reaction.
• Other nations imposed their own higher tariffs. World trade dropped by 65 percent.
This contributed further to the economic downturn.
• Because of war debts and dependence on American loans and investments, Germany
and Austria were particularly hard hit. In 1931, Austria’s largest bank failed. In Asia,
both farmers and urban workers suffered as the value of exports fell by half between
1929 and 1931.
• The crash was felt heavily in Latin America as well. As European and U.S. demand for
such Latin American products as sugar, beef, and copper dropped, prices collapse
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Recovery from the Crisis
In 1932, in the first presidential election after the Depression had begun, U.S. voters elected
Franklin D. Roosevelt. His confident manner appealed to millions of Americans who felt
bewildered by the Depression.
• Roosevelt immediately began a program of government reform that he called the

New Deal. Large public works projects helped to provide jobs for the unemployed.
New government agencies gave financial help to businesses and farms. Large amounts
of public money were spent on welfare and relief programs.
• Roosevelt and his advisers believed that government spending would create jobs and
start a recovery. Regulations were imposed to reform the stock market and the
banking system.
• The New Deal did eventually reform the American economic system. Roosevelt’s
leadership preserved the country’s faith in its democratic political system. It also
established him as a leader of democracy in a world threatened by ruthless dictators.
The Socialist governments in the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway
also met the challenge of economic crisis successfully.
• They built their recovery programs on an existing tradition of cooperative community

action. In Sweden, the government sponsored massive public works projects that kept
people employed and producing.
• All the Scandinavian countries raised pensions for the elderly and increased
unemployment insurance, subsidies for housing, and other welfare benefits.
• To pay for these benefits, the governments taxed all citizens. Democracy remained
intact.
Britain
• To meet the emergency, British voters elected a multiparty coalition known as the
National Government.
• It passed high protective tariffs, increased taxes, and regulate the currency. It also
lowered interest rates to encourage industrial growth.
• These measures brought about a slow but steady recovery. By 1937, unemployment
had been cut in half, and production had risen above 1929 levels.
• Britain avoided political extremes and preserved democracy.
France
• France had a more self-sufficient economy. In 1930, it was still heavily agricultural and
less dependent on foreign trade.
• The economic crisis contributed to political instability.
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• In 1933, five coalition governments formed and fell. Many political leaders were
frightened by the growth of antidemocratic forces both in France and in other parts
of Europe.
• So, in 1936, moderates, Socialists, and Communists formed a coalition. The Popular
Front passed a series of reforms to help the workers.
RISE OF FASCISM IN ITALY

Fascism is a political movement that promotes an extreme form of nationalism and militarism.
It also includes a denial of individual rights and dictatorial one-party rule. Nazism was the
Fascist movement that developed in Germany in the 1920s and the 1930s; it included a belief
in the racial superiority of the German people. The Fascists in Italy were led by Benito
Mussolini
Fascism’s rise in Italy was fueled by bitter disappointment over the failure to win large
territorial gains at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Rising inflation and unemployment also
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contributed to widespread social unrest. To growing numbers of Italians, their democratic

government seemed helpless to deal with the country’s problems. They wanted a leader who
would take action.
Mussolini had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. As economic conditions worsened, his
popularity rapidly increased. Finally, Mussolini publicly criticized Italy’s government. Groups
of Fascists wearing black shirts attacked Communists and Socialists on the streets. Because
Mussolini played on the fear of a workers’ revolt, he began to win support from the middle
classes, the aristocracy, and industrial leaders.
In October 1922, about 30,000 Fascists marched on Rome. They demanded that King Victor
Emmanuel III put Mussolini in charge of the government. The king decided that Mussolini was
the best hope for his dynasty to survive. After widespread violence and a threatened uprising,
Mussolini took power.
RISE OF NAZISM: HITLER

In 1919, Hitler joined a right-wing political group. This group shared his belief that Germany
had to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and combat communism. The group later named
itself the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, called Nazi. Its policies formed the
German brand of fascism known as Nazism.
Hitler’s success as an organizer and speaker led him to be chosen der Führer or the leader, of
the Nazi party.
Inspired by Mussolini’s march on Rome, Hitler and the Nazis plotted to seize power in Munich
in 1923. The attempt failed, and Hitler was arrested. He was tried for treason.
Hitler opined and asserted that the Germans, whom he called ‘Aryans’, were a “master race.”
He declared that non-Aryan “races,” such as Jews, Slavs, and Gypsies, were inferior.
He called the Versailles Treaty an outrage and vowed to regain German lands. Hitler also
declared that Germany was overcrowded and needed more lebensraum, or living space. He
promised to get that space by conquering Eastern Europe and Russia.
The Nazis had become the largest political party by 1932. Conservative leaders mistakenly
believed they could control Hitler and use him for their purposes. In January 1933, they
advised President Paul von Hindenburg to name Hitler chancellor. Thus Hitler came to power
legally.
Hitler wanted more than just economic and political power; he wanted control over every
aspect of German life.
• To shape public opinion and to win praise for his leadership, Hitler turned the press,
radio, literature, painting, and film into propaganda tools.
• Books that did not conform to Nazi beliefs were burned in huge bonfires.
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• Churches were forbidden to criticize the Nazis or the government.

• Schoolchildren had to join the Hitler Youth (for boys) or the League of German Girls.
• Hitler believed that continuous struggle brought victory to the strong.
Hatred of Jews, or anti-Semitism, was a key part of Nazi ideology. Although Jews were less
than 1 percent of the population, the Nazis used them as scapegoats for all Germany’s
troubles since the war. This led to a wave of anti-Semitism across Germany. Beginning in 1933,
the Nazis passed laws depriving Jews of most of their rights. Violence against Jews mounted
and finally Holocaust came into picture.
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THE SECOND WORLD WAR: 1939-45

As Germany, Italy, and Japan conquered other countries, the rest of the world did nothing to
stop them. By the mid-1930s, Germany and Italy seemed bent on military conquest. The major
democracies; Britain, France, and the United States were distracted by economic problems at
home and longed to remain at peace. With the world moving toward war, many nations
pinned their hopes for peace on the League of Nations. As fascism spread in Europe, a
powerful nation in Asia moved toward a similar system. Following a period of reform and
progress in the 1920s, Japan fell under military rule.
Some of the major events
• Japan invades Manchuria-1931

• Italy attacks Ethiopia-1935
• Germany occupies Rhineland- 1936
• Japan invades China-1937
• Germany annexes Austria-1938
• Germany takes Sudetenland-1938
• Germany seizes Czechoslovakia-1939
• Italy conquers Albania-1939
• For the Chinese, war began in 1931, when Japan invaded northeastern China, setting
up a Japanese state called Manchukuo.
• By 1938 Japan occupied much of China and had taken Nanking, longtime capital of
China, where Japanese troops killed more than 42,000 civilians.
• For Europeans, war began in 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. The war in Europe
ended in May 1945 and in the Pacific in August 1945.
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• For Americans, World War II began on December 7, 1941.
But war had been going on for years at different places from Europe to Asia.
• Germany conquered France. German troops occupied northern and western France.
Pro-German French officials set up a capital in Vichy and run the rest of France under
Germany’s watchful eye.
• Using more than a thousand warships, yachts, fishing boats, and smaller craft at the
battered port of Dunkirk, England evacuates more than 338,000 troops from
conquered France.
• Battle of the Atlantic begins as German submarines, called U-boats, begin sinking ships
carrying oil and other war supplies from America to England.
Who are in allies and axis side?
OPENING MOVES FOR WWII: AUGUST 1939- DECEMBER 1940

• In August 1939 Germany, under Hitler, and the Soviet Union, under Stalin, signed the
Non-aggression Pact, which secretly accepts Germany’s plan to invade Poland.
• The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, also known as the Nazi–Soviet Pact, the German–
Soviet Non-aggression Pact or the Nazi German-Soviet Pact of Aggression.
• In the Blitzkrieg attack, Germany invaded Poland in a Blitzkrieg (lightning war), the
Polish were defeated swiftly due to ill-preparedness to deal with the German
aggression.
• The Luftwaffe (the German air force) put the Polish railway system out of action and
destroyed the Polish air force.
• Polish resistance was heroic but hopeless: they had no motorized divisions and they
tried to stop advancing German tanks by massed cavalry charges.
• England and France reacted by declaring war on Germany. This begins the European
War, which will become World War II.
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The Phoney War: The Soviet Union invaded Finland, occupied part of Poland, and, by
threatening invasion, takes over Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia.
• When the Russians invaded eastern Poland, resistance collapsed. On 29 September

Poland was divided up between Germany and the USSR (as agreed in the pact of
August 1939).
• The trench warfare of World War I convinced the French that a strong defense would
be crucial to stopping a future German invasion.
• So, France constructed a series of fortifications known as the Maginot Line that
stretched along the common border between France and Germany.
IMPORTANCE OF DENMARK AND NORWAY INVASION TO GERMANY

Hitler's troops occupied Denmark and landed at the main Norwegian ports, rudely shattering
the apparent calm of the 'Phoney war'.
• Control of Norway was important for the Germans because Narvik was the main outlet
for Swedish iron-ore, which was vital for the German armaments industry.
• As the British were interfering with this trade by laying mines in Norwegian coastal
waters, and the Germans were afraid that they might try to take over some of
Norway's ports, which they were in fact planning to do.
Why Germany was able to invade Norway and Denmark and what they got in this deal?
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• The Germans were successful because the Norwegians had been taken by surprise and
their troops were not even mobilized; local Nazis, under their leader Vidkun Quisling,
gave the invaders every assistance.
• As the British had no air support, whereas the German air force constantly harassed
the Allies.
• Germany was assured of her bases and her iron-ore supplies, but had lost three
cruisers and ten destroyers. This made the German navy less effective at Dunkirk than
it might have been.
• It showed the incompetence of Chamberlain's government. He was forced to resign
and Winston Churchill became British prime minister.
• Although there has been criticism of Churchill's mistakes, there is no doubt that he
supplied what was needed at the time - drive, a sense of urgency, and the ability to
make his coalition cabinet work well together.
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HITLER ATTACKS HOLLAND, BELGIUM AND FRANCE

The attacks on Holland, Belgium and France were launched simultaneously, and again
Blitzkrieg methods brought swift victories.
• The Dutch, shaken by the bombing of Rotterdam, which killed almost a thousand
people, surrendered after only four days.
• Belgium held out for longer, but her surrender at the end of May left the British and
French troops in Belgium perilously exposed as German motorized divisions swept
across northern France; only Dunkirk remained in Allied hands.
• The British navy played the vital role in evacuating over 338 000 troops two-thirds of
them British from Dunkirk between 27 May and 4 June, which was a remarkable
achievement in the face of constant Luftwaffe attacks on the beaches.
• It would perhaps have been impossible if Hitler had not ordered the German advance
towards Dunkirk to halt (24 May), probably because the marshy terrain and numerous
canals were unsuitable for tanks.
• It was a serious blow for the Allies: the troops at Dunkirk had lost all their arms and
equipment, so it became impossible for Britain to help France.
• After that Germans swept southwards, Paris was captured on 14 June and France
surrendered on 22 June.
Why France was defeated so quickly?
• The French were psychologically unprepared for war, and were bitterly divided
between right and left.
• There were serious military weaknesses; France had to face the full weight of an
undivided German offensive, whereas in 1914 half the German forces had been
directed against Russia.
• The French High Command was content to sit behind the Maginot line, a line of
defenses stretching from the Swiss to the Belgian frontiers.
• Unfortunately, the Maginot Line did not continue along the frontier between France
and Belgium, partly because that might have offended the Belgians, and because
Petain believed that the Ardennes would be a strong enough barriers; but this was
exactly where the Germans broke through.
• France had as many tanks and armored vehicles as Germany, but instead of being
concentrated in completely mechanized armored divisions, allowing greater speed,
they were split up so that each infantry division had a few.
• The German divisions were supported by combat planes, another area neglected by
the French.
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• The French generals made fatal mistakes, like no attempt was made to help Poland by
attacking Germany in the west in September 1939, which might have had a good
chance of success.
• No troops were moved from the Maginot Line forts or most of which were completely
inactive to help block the German breakthrough on the River Meuse.
• There was poor communication between the army and air force, so that air defence
to drive German bombers off usually failed to arrive.
• Military defeats gave the defeatist right the chance to come out into the open and put
pressure on the government to accept a ceasefire.
THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN (12 AUGUST TO 30 SEPTEMBER 1940)

• This was fought in the air, when Goering's Luftwaffe tried to destroy the Royal Air
Force as a preliminary to the invasion of Britain.
• The Germans bombed harbours, radar stations, aerodromes and munitions factories;
in September they began to bomb London, in retaliation, they claimed, for a British
raid on Berlin.
• The RAF inflicted heavy losses on the Luftwaffe in which 1389 German planes were
lost as against 792 British; when it became clear that British air power was far from
being destroyed, Hitler called off the invasion. Reasons for the British success were:
Reasons for the British success were:
• Their chain of new radar stations gave plenty of warning of approaching German
attackers.
• The German bombers were poorly armed, though the British fighters were not
significantly better than the German Messerschmitt’s, the Germans were hampered
by limited range - they could only carry enough fuel to enable them to stay in the air
about 90 minutes.
• The switch to bombing London was a mistake because it relieved pressure on the
airfields at the critical moment.
The Battle of Britain was probably the first major turning point of the war: for the first time
the Germans had been checked, demonstrating that they were not invincible.
Mussolini invades Egypt, September 1940:
• Not wanting to be outdone by Hitler, Mussolini sent an army from the Italian colony
of Libya which penetrated about 60 miles into Egypt, while another Italian army
invaded Greece from Albania.
• However, the British soon drove the Italians out of Egypt, pushed them back far into
Libya and defeated
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• British naval aircraft sank half the Italian fleet in harbour at Taranto and occupied
Crete.
• The Greeks forced the Italians back and invaded Albania.
• Mussolini was beginning to be an embarrassment to Hitler.
THE AXIS OFFENSIVE WIDENS: 1941 TO THE SUMMER OF 1942

• Hitler's first moves in 1941 were to help out his faltering ally. In February he sent
troops to Tripoli, and together with the Italians, they drove the British out of Libya.
• In April 1941 Hitler's forces invaded Greece, the day after 60,000 British, Australian
and New Zealand troops had arrived to help the Greeks.
• The Germans soon captured Athens, forcing the British to withdraw, and after
bombing Crete, they launched a parachute invasion of the island; again the British
were forced to evacuate in May 1941.
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THE GERMAN INVASION OF RUSSIA (OPERATION BARBAROSSA)

BEGAN ON 22 JUNE 1941
Hitler's motives seem to have been mixed, when it comes to invading Russia:
• He feared that the Russians might attack Germany while his forces were still occupied
in the west and he hoped that the Japanese would attack Russia in the Far East.
• The more powerful Japan became, the less chance there was of the USA entering the
war.
• But above all there was his hatred of communism and his desire for Lebensraum.
The German attack was three-pronged:
• In the north towards Leningrad,

• In the center towards Moscow,
• In the south through the Ukraine.
Stalin’s thoughts on Germans and USA:
• It was Blitzkrieg on an awesome scale, important cities such as Riga, Smolensk and
Kiev were captured.
• The Russians had been caught off their guard, in spite of British and American
warnings that a German attack was imminent.
• Stalin apparently believed that Hitler could be trusted to honour the Nazi-Soviet non-
aggression pact, and was extremely suspicious of any information which came from
Britain or the USA.
• The Russians were still re-equipping their army and air force, and many of their
generals were inexperienced.
German forces failed to capture Leningrad and Moscow:
• They were severely hampered by the heavy rains of October, which turned the Russian
roads into mud, and by the severe frosts of November and December when in some
places the temperature fell to minus 38°C.
• The Germans had inadequate winter clothing because Hitler had expected the
campaigns to be over by the autumn.
• Even in the spring of 1942 no progress was made in the north and centre as Hitler
decided to concentrate on a major drive south-eastward towards the Caucasus to
seize the oilfields.
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THE USA ENTERS THE WAR, DECEMBER 1941

• The USA was brought into the war by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, their naval
base in the Hawaiian Islands on 7 December 1941.
• Until then Americans remained neutral, though after the Lend-Lease Act April 1941,
they had provided Britain with massive financial aid.
• Japanese motives for the attack were tied up with her economic problems.
• The government behaved they would soon ruin short of raw materials and cast longing
eyes towards territories such as Britain's Malaya and Burma, which had minerals, oil
and tin, and towards the Dutch Eas1t Indies, also rich in oil.
• Since both Britain and Holland were in no fit state to defend their possessions, the
Japanese prepared to attack, though they would probably have preferred to avoid war
with the USA.
• Relations between the two states deteriorated steadily. The Americans assisted the
Chinese, who were still at war with Japan; when the Japanese persuaded Vichy France
to allow them to occupy French Indo-China, President Roosevelt demanded their
withdrawal and placed an embargo on oil supplies to Japan.
• Long negotiations followed in which the Japanese tried to persuade the Americans to
lift the embargo.
The attack was brilliantly organized by Admiral Yamamoto. There was no declaration of war:
353 Japanese planes arrived undetected at Pearl Harbor, and in two hours, destroyed 350
aircraft and five battleships; 3700 men were killed or seriously injured. Roosevelt called 7
December 'a date which will live in infamy'.
Pearl Harbor had important results:
• It gave the Japanese control of the Pacific, and by May 1942 they had captured Malaya,
Singapore, Hong Kong and Burma all part of the British Empire, the Dutch East Indies,
the Philippines, and two American possessions, Guam and Wake Island.
• It caused Hitler to declare war on the USA. Declaring war on the USA was perhaps
Hitler's most serious mistake.
• He need not at this stage have committed himself to war with the USA, in which case
the Americans might well have concentrated on the Pacific war.
• However, the Germans had already assured the Japanese that they would come to
Japan's aid if she was ever at war with the USA.
• Hitler assumed that President Roosevelt of the USA would declare war on Germany
sooner or later, so he wanted to get Germany's declaration of war in first, to show the
German people that he, and not the Americans, controlled events.
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America’s reaction to Hitler’s declaring war against them:
• US Congress was naturally determined to have their revenge on Japan, but was still
reluctant to get involved in Europe.
• Roosevelt would have had a difficult job to persuade Congress to declare war on
Germany; Hitler's action saved him the trouble.
As it was, Germany was now faced with the immense potential of the USA. This meant that
with the vast resources of the USSR and the British Commonwealth as well, the longer the
war lasted, the less chance there was of an Axis victory. It was essential for them to deliver
swift knock-out blows before the American contribution became effective.
Brutal behavior by Germans and Japanese:
The behaviour of both Germans and Japanese in their conquered territories was ruthless and
brutal. The Nazis treated the peoples of Eastern Europe as sub-humans, fit only to be slaves
of the German master-race. As for the Jews - they were to be exterminated. The Japanese
treated their prisoners of war and the Asian peoples badly.
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THE OFFENSIVES HELD IN CHECK: SUMMER 1942 TO SUMMER 1943

In three separate areas of fighting, Axis forces were defeated and began to lose ground:
• Midway Island
• El Alamein
• Stalingrad
Midway Island, June 1942:
At Midway Island in the Pacific the Americans beat off a powerful Japanese attack, there were
several reasons for the American victory against heavier odds:
• They had broken the Japanese radio code and knew exactly when and where the
attack was to be launched.
• The Japanese were over-confident and made two fatal mistakes: they split their
forces, thus allowing the Americans to concentrate on the main carrier force; and they
attacked with aircraft from all four carriers simultaneously, so that when they were all
rearming, the entire fleet was extremely vulnerable.
Midway proved to be a crucial turning point in the battle for the Pacific: the loss of their
carriers and strike planes seriously weakened the Japanese, and from then on the Americans
maintained their lead in carriers and aircraft, especially dive-bombers. Although the Japanese
had far more battleships and cruisers, they were mostly ineffective: the only way war could
be waged successfully in the vast expanses of the Pacific was by air power operating from
carriers.
El Alamein, October 1942:
At El Alamein in Egypt Rommel's Afrika Korps were driven back by the British Eighth Army,
commanded by Montgomery. This great battle was the culmination of several engagements
fought in the El Alamein area:
• First the Axis advance was temporarily checked in July;

• When Rommel tried to break through, he was halted again at Alam Halfa in
September;
• Finally, seven weeks later in the October battle, he was chased out of Egypt for good
by the British and New Zealanders.
• The Allies were successful partly because during the seven-week pause, massive
reinforcements had arrived, so that the Germans and Italians were heavily
outnumbered.
The El Alamein victory was another turning point in the war:
• It prevented Egypt and the Suez Canal from falling into German hands.
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• It ended the possibility of a link-up between the Axis forces in the Middle East and
those in the Ukraine.
• More than that, it led on to the complete expulsion of Axis forces from North Africa.
• It encouraged landings of British troops in the French territories of Morocco and
Algeria to threaten the Germans and Italians from the west, while the Eighth Army
closed in on them from Libya. Trapped in Tunisia, 275 000 Germans and Italians were
forced to surrender (May 1943), and the Allies were well-placed for an invasion of
Italy.
The desert war had been a serious drain on German resources that could have been used in
Russia, where they were badly needed.
Stalingrad:
• At Stalingrad the southern prong of the German invasion of Russia, which had
penetrated deeply through the Crimea, capturing Rostov-on-Don, was finally checked.
• The Germans had reached Stalingrad at the end of August 1942, but though they more
or less destroyed the city, the Russians refused to surrender.
• In November they counter-attacked ferociously, trapping the Germans, whose supply
lines were dangerously extended, in a large pincer movement.
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With his retreat cut off, the German commander, von Paulus, had no reasonable alternative
but to surrender with 94 000 men (2 February 1943).
WHAT PART WAS PLAYED BY ALLIED NAVAL FORCES?

• After the initial shock at Pearl Harbor, the Americans were able to build up that
superiority in both air and sea departments, which was to lead to the eventual defeat
of Japan.
• At the same time the British navy, as in the First World War, had a vital role to play:
this included protecting merchant ships bringing food supplies, sinking German
submarines and surface raiders, blockading Germany, and transporting and supplying
Allied troops fighting in North Africa and later in Italy.
• At first success was mixed, mainly because the British failed to understand the
importance of air support in naval operations and had few aircraft carriers. Thus, they
suffered defeats in Norway and Crete, where the Germans had strong air superiority.
• In addition, the Germans had many naval bases in Norway, Denmark, France and Italy.
In spite of this the British navy could point to some important achievements.
(a) British successes through air and sea power:
• Aircraft from the carrier Illustrious sank half the Italian fleet at Taranto.
• The threat from surface raiders was removed by the sinking of the Bismarck,
Germany's only battleship at the time
• The navy destroyed the German invasion transports on their way to Crete.
• Their most important contribution was their victory in the Battle of the Atlantic
• Sea and air power together made possible the great invasion of France in June 1944.
(b) The Battle of the Atlantic:
This was the struggle against German U-boats attempting to deprive Britain of food and raw
materials. The reasons for the Allied success were:
• More air protection was provided for convoys by long-range Liberators;

• Both escorts and aircraft improved with experience;
• The British introduced the new centimetric radar sets, which were small enough to be
fitted into aircraft; these enabled submarines to be detected in poor visibility and at
night.
The victory was just as important as Midway, El Alamein and Stalingrad: Britain could not have
continued to sustain the losses of March 1943 and still remained in the war.
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WHAT CONTRIBUTION DID AIR POWER MAKE TO THE DEFEAT OF THE

AXIS?
(a) Achievements of Allied air power:
• The first significant achievement was in the Battle of Britain, when the RAF beat off
the Luftwaffe attacks, causing Hitler to abandon his invasion plans.
• In conjunction with the British navy, aircraft played a varied role.
• The American air force together with the navy played a vital part in winning the Pacific
war against the Japanese.
• The RAF took part in specific campaigns which would have been hopeless without
them.
• British and Americans later flew parachute troops in, to aid the landings in Sicily and
Normandy, and provided air protection for the invading armies.
(b) Allied bombing of German and Japanese cities:
The most controversial action was the Allied bombing of German and Japanese cities. The
Germans had bombed London and other important British cities and ports during 1940 and
1941, but these raids dwindled during the German attack on Russia, which required all the
Luftwaffe's strength. The British and Americans retaliated with what they called a 'strategic
air offensive' - this involved massive attacks on military and industrial targets in order to
hamper the German war effort. The Ruhr, Cologne, Hamburg and Berlin all suffered badly.
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Sometimes raids seem to have been carried out to undermine civilian morale, as when about
50 000 people were killed during a single night raid on Dresden.
Some of the arguments that this type of bombing, which caused the deaths of so many
innocent civilians, was morally wrong. Estimates of German civilian deaths from Allied
bombing vary between 600 000 and a million; German raids on Britain killed over 60 000
civilians. In 2001 Swedish writer Sven Lindquist, in his book A History of Bombing, suggested
that what he called 'the systematic attacks on German civilians in their homes' should be
viewed as 'crimes under international humanitarian law for the protection of civilians'.
In the end, therefore, after much wasted effort early on, the Allied strategic air offensive was
one of the decisive reasons for the Axis defeat: besides strangling fuel and armaments
production and destroying railway communications, it caused the diversion of many aircraft
from the eastern front, thus helping the Russian advance into Germany.
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WHY DID THE AXIS POWERS LOSE THE WAR?
The reasons can be summarized briefly:
• Shortage of raw materials- Both Italy and Japan had to import supplies, and even
Germany was short of rubber, cotton, nickel and, after mid-1944, oil.
• The Allies learning from their mistakes and failures- By 1942 they knew how to check
Blitzkrieg attacks and appreciated the importance of air support and aircraft carriers.
• The Axis powers taking on too much- they became stretched out far beyond their basic
capacity for holding their gains. For Japan was a small island state with limited
industrial power. In Germany's case, Mussolini was partly to blame: his incompetence
was a constant drain on Hitler's resources.
• The overwhelming impact of the combined resources of the USA, the USSR and the
British Empire;
• Tactical mistakes by the Axis powers- Nazi treatment of Jews, gypsies and
homosexuals in occupied territories of the USSR alienated many of the conquered
peoples who, with decent treatment, could have been brought on board to fight the
Stalinist regime.
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THE HOLOCAUST
As the invading Allied armies moved into Germany and Poland, they began to make horrifying
discoveries. At the end of July 1944 Soviet forces approaching Warsaw came upon the
extermination camp at Majdanek near Lublin. They found hundreds of unburied corpses and
seven gas chambers.
Earlier interpretations of the Holocaust can be divided into two main groups.
• Internationalists - historians who believed that responsibility for the Holocaust rests
on Hitler, who had hoped and planned to exterminate the Jews ever since he came to
power.
• Functionalists - historians who believed that the 'Final Solution' was in a sense forced
on Hitler by the circumstances of the war.
• Final solution - Alan Bullock argued that the best way to explain how the Holocaust
came about is to combine elements from both intentionalists and functionalists. From
the early 1920s Hitler had committed himself and the Nazi party to destroying the
power of the Jews and driving them out of Germany, but exactly how this was to be
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done was left vague. 'It is very likely', writes Bullock, 'that among the fantasies in which
he indulged privately, was the evil dream of a final settlement in which every man,
woman and child of Jewish race would be butchered. But how, when, even whether,
the dream could ever be realized remained uncertain.
• Genocide - As the extermination programme gained momentum, the Jews from
Eastern Europe were taken to Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka and Majdanek in eastern
Poland; most of those from Western Europe went to Auschwitz-Birkenau in south-
west Poland.
WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR?
Enormous destruction:
• There was enormous destruction of lives, homes, industries and communications in

Europe and Asia. Almost 40 million people ·were killed: well over half of them were
Russians; 6 million were Poles, 4 million Germans, 2 million Chinese and 2 million
Japanese. Britain and the USA got off comparatively lightly.
• Though the cost was high, it did mean that the world had been rid of Nazism, which
had been responsible for terrible atrocities. The most notorious was the Holocaust -
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the deliberate murder in extermination camps of over five million Jews and hundreds
of thousands of non-Jews, mainly in Poland and Russia.
There was no all-inclusive peace settlement:
This was different from the end of the First World War, when an all-inclusive settlement was
negotiated at Versailles. This was mainly because the distrust which had re-emerged between
the USSR and the west in the final months of the war made agreement on many points
impossible.
The war stimulated important social changes:
• In addition to the population movements during the war, once hostilities were over,
many millions of people were forced to move from their homes.
• The worst cases were probably in the areas taken from Germany by Russia and Poland,
and in the German-speaking areas in Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia.
• About ten million Germans were forced to leave and make their way to West Germany
so that no future German government would be able to claim those territories.
• In some countries, especially the USSR and Germany, extensive urban redevelopment
took place as ruined cities had to be rebuilt.
• In Britain the war stimulated, among other things, the Beveridge Report (1942), a plan
for introducing a Welfare State.
The war caused the production of nuclear weapons:
The first ever use of these weapons, on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, demonstrated their
horrifying powers of destruction. The world was left under the threat of a nuclear war that
might well have destroyed the entire planet. Some people argue that this acted as a deterrent,
making both sides in the Cold War so frightened of the consequences that they were deterred
or discouraged from fighting each other.
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Europe's domination of the rest of the world ended:
The four western European states which had played a leading role in world affairs for most of
the first half of the twentieth century were now much weaker than before. Germany was
devastated and divided; France and Italy were on the verge of bankruptcy; although Britain
seemed strong and victorious, with her empire intact, the cost of the war had been ruinous.
Emergence of the superpowers:
• The USA and the USSR emerged as the two most powerful nations in the world, and
they were no longer as isolated as they had been before the war.
• The USA had suffered relatively little from the war and had enjoyed great prosperity
from supplying the other Allies with war materials and food.
• The Americans had the world's largest navy and air force and they controlled the
atomic bomb.
• The USSR, though severely weakened, still had the largest army in the world.
• The rivalry of these two superpowers in the Cold War was the most important feature
of international relations for almost half a century after 1945, and was a constant
threat to world peace.
Decolonization:
• The war encouraged the movement towards decolonization. The defeats inflicted on
Britain, Holland and France by Japan, and the Japanese occupation of their territories.
• Gradually they achieved full independence, though not without a struggle in many
cases.
• This in turn intensified demands for independence among the peoples of Africa and
the Middle East, and in the 1960s the result was a large array of new states.
• The leaders of many of these newly emerging nations met in conference at Algiers in
1973 and made it clear that they regarded themselves as a Third World.
• By this they meant that they wished to remain neutral or non-aligned in the struggle
between the other two worlds - communism and capitalism.
• Usually poor and under-developed industrially, the new nations were often intensely
suspicious of the motives of both communism and capitalism, and they resented their
own economic dependence on the world's wealthy powers.
The United Nations Organization (UNO):
This emerged as the successor to the League of Nations. Its main aim was to try to maintain
world peace, and on the whole, it has been more successful than its unfortunate predecessor.
Think!
Why do you think Finland was not invited to join NATO alliance?
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• Finland fought the Soviets to a standstill, losing about 10 percent of their territory but
maintaining their sovereignty. Finland's hostility toward the Soviets forced the
relatively liberal democracy into an awkward de facto alliance with Nazi Germany. As
a result, Finland was diplomatically isolated after the war and wasn't invited to join
the anti-Soviet NATO alliance.
What are the gravest mistakes committed by Hitler which led to the downfall of axial
forces?
• It has sometimes been suggested that the attack on Russia was Hitler's greatest
mistake, but in fact, as Hugh Trevor-Roper pointed out, 'to Hitler the Russian campaign
was not a luxury: it was the be-all and end-all of Nazism; it could not be delayed. It
was now or never.' Along with that he declared war on USA aftermath pearl harbour
attack by Japan, is another gravest mistake committed by the Hitler.
What are aftermath effects of WWII on India?
• Indian contribution went beyond soldiers: Indian doctors and nurses were deeply
involved on the British soil and other countries. In 1939, the Indian Comforts Fund
(ICF) was established at India House in Aldwych that was run by Indian and British
women. Back home, the nation contributed by collecting food and other material to
support the war. Few will remember that Kolkata was the Allies’ Rest and Recreation
point, where American and British soldiers stopped to rest and recuperate before
heading back to war or heading home.
• The impact of war on Indian Independence: By the time the war ended, Great Britain
was bankrupt, unable and unwilling to continue to maintain colonies of the British
Empire. WWII acted as a catalyst to India’s fight for independence but not before the
British almost lost India to Netaji’s Indian National Army. INA was raised by Subhash
Chandra Bose as a deeply committed military force comprising Indian volunteers and
POWs of the Japanese in South East Asia, with the aim of launching a military campaign
to throw the British out of India.
• The impact of Bengal Famine: The Bengal Famine in 1943 was devastating for the
Indian people but with the British refusing to stop supplies from India in favour of
those suffering in the country, only strengthened the resolve of the nationalists in
their call for freedom.
• Calcutta Light Horse and Operation Creek: In March 1943, the SOE, which trained Noor
Inayat Khan, undertook a secret mission in India. Goa, at the time, was under
Portuguese rule and was a neutral territory during WWII. The Germans had a
merchant ship ‘Ehrenfels’ which, along with two other merchant ships, was docked in
Mormugao and transmitting information to Axis forces on Allied naval activity.
• A strong legacy: As the war came to an end, the British government in India began to
initiate steps for withdrawal. The violent partition of the country left deep scars but
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the British also left behind a professional and well trained defence force in India. The
other strong legacy of the British came in the form of institutions – the civil services,
the judiciary, the Railways and other services, all of which contributed deeply in
serving as a stable foundation on which modern India stands today.
THINK
• Assess critically the economic impact of the British rule in India till the end of the
nineteenth century, aftermath change in the policies of Britain, to hold the
supremacy in the world geo-politics.
• Was German unification achieved more by coal and iron than by blood and iron?
• What were the main features of the fascist and Nazi movements?
• Describe the different stages in the unification of Germany and Italy.
• Do you think The Brussels Treaty of 17 March, 1948 paved the way for the formation
of NATO?
• What do you think about the United States justification in using the atom bomb
against Japan?
• Why did the Soviet Union sign the Non-Aggression Pact with Germany? What did
she gain from it? Discuss
• What led to the formation of the Berlin-Rome Tokyo axis? Indicate its impact on
international politics.
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MAINS QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE
Q. How did the Versailles Treaty contribute to European political instability from 1919 to
1939? Analyse.
The Treaty of Versailles was signed between the allied powers and Germany (which was
defeated) in the aftermath of WWI. It was based on the principle- “To the victors belongs all
and the allies are the victors”. The treaty was in many ways victor’s dictation to loser because
of which the instability in Europe couldn’t be arrested.
Several provisions and limitations of the peace treaty led to political instability in Europe in
following ways:
• Signing such a derogatory peace treaty reduced the public’s faith in Weimer republic
govt. This energized the Right wing forces, who used this opportunity to overthrow
the present government.
• The army was also scaled down, which reduced the means available to the
government to suppress the rising unrest against the political establishment.
• Treaty had ensured loss of several German territories in Europe and Africa, which
decreased the government revenue and lesser capability for development. Along with
this huge war repatriations broke the country economically too.
Feeling of humiliation among Germans led to resentment and consequently in rise of Hitler.
• The treaty reduced the size of Austria and Hungary which made them economically
vulnerable and unstable
• Russia– which fought alongside allied powers wasn’t invited to negotiations which
made it unhappy and it started tilting towards Berlin (signing of non-aggression pact)
and this further led to instability in Europe
• Italy– The peace makers ignored the contribution made by Italy and this created
resentment among its people leading to instability. Italy felt cheated as the victors
Britain, France and USA didn’t kept any promises made to Italy. The huge loss suffered
by Italy in WWI led to political instability which ultimately resulted in the rise of
Mussolini and Fascism.
• The treaty failed to accommodate the aspirations of the colonies. This resulted in
further anti-imperialist struggle and an aggressive policy by Europeans as a response
to it. This resulted in frequent conflicts.
• League of Nations failed to address its objective of long-term peace, in the absence of
major power like USA.
• Hitler and Mussolini followed an expansionist foreign policy waging wars in parts of
Europe like Czechoslovakia leading to political instability there.
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• Union between Austria and Germany was broken as per the treaty and this led to
instability on both sides. Union of Austria & Germany was forbidden even tough huge
German population in Austria.
• Principal of ethnicity, nationality, self-determination was neglected in reorganization
of Europe internal border and creation of new independent states which has cause
resentment in Turks, Arabs, Germans, Austrian etc.
• Britain and France- Treaty of Versailles imposed huge war repatriation on Germany.
This made it difficult for UK and France to extract money from Germany. Subsequently
they were not able to pay loans to US, which created web of loans. This led to Great
Economic Depression ultimately leading to resentment among the people.
Hence, it can be seen that Treaty of Versailles was like a dictated peace which further fueled
the rise of Nazism and Fascism and led to WWII in 1939.
Q. What factors prompted the United States to enter the first World War? What were the
consequences of the United States entering the war? Discuss.
United States had remained neutral during the initial years, though it did support the allied
powers in kind. The initial pledge of Neutrality by Woodrow Wilson came to an end and
United States entered World War 1 on the side of the allies in 1917.
Causes of the entry of USA into WW1:
• Economic Interests: The government of USA and businessmen had provided huge
loans to British and French governments to help in their war efforts, defeat of allied
powers would have meant huge losses to America.
• Atrocities in Belgium: Germany’s invasion of Belgium and subsequent atrocities on the
citizens of neutral state had led to strong anti-German feeling in America.
• Sinking of the Lusitania: British passenger ship Lusitania was sunk by German U-boat,
which had many American citizens. This stained the relations between USA and
Germany.
• Resumption of submarine attacks: Germany had agreed not to attack civilian ships
post the sinking of Lusitania, but it resumed the attacks soon after which finally
compelled the USA to enter the war to support Allied powers.
• Zimmermann Telegram: In 1917, German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann sent
a telegram to Mexico suggesting that if the US should declare war on Germany, Mexico
should declare war on the US. In return, Mexico would get back the territory lost in
the Mexican-American War. This telegram was intercepted and made public. This led
to USA’s entry into the WW1.
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Consequences of United States entering the war:
• Entry of American troops was the greatest physical and morale booster for the tired
and exhausted armies of the Allied powers.
• America helped in the Second battle of Marne and defeated Germany marking the
end of final attempt at victory.
• The experience of American army helped in formation of innovative strategies against
Central Power.
• Rise of US as a world power – With European powers struggling with death,
destruction and debt; US rose as the new superpower.
The entry of United States into the WW1 was probably the most significant event of
20th century which had far reaching repercussions throughout the world. It led to the
emergence of United States as the new power center and of a new world order.
Q. What was the ‘policy of appeasement’? Why was it followed? Did it serve its purpose?
Examine.
The appeasement policy was a conciliatory method of dealing with a dictatorial government
in an effort to prevent conflict.
Why was the policy followed?
• The British people wanted peace- they would not have supported a war in early 1930s
– Economic depression, 1929 + Failure of League of Nations.
• Many of Hitler’s complaints appeared reasonable at the time – especially about the
Treaty of Versailles.
• Chamberlain wanted a strong Germany to serve as a barrier against expansion by
communist Russia.
• Britain’s armed forces were not ready for a war, and they could not have helped
Czechoslovakia anyway.
• Chamberlain remembered the slaughter of the First World War; he thought another
war would destroy civilization.
Did the policy serve the purpose?
• Japan who enjoyed appeasement of Britain did not stop from its invasion of China.
• Instead of avoiding any conflict, it made Allied powers appear weak and Axis powers
took full advantage of it.
• Hitler was undeterred by appeasement. In March 1939, he violated the Munich
Agreement by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia. Six months later Germany
invaded Poland and Britain was at war.
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Q. Do you think imperialistic aspirations of European powers were the main factors behind
World War I? Critically examine. What was the scenario when the Great War ended?
Discuss.
Conflict between the new and old imperialist European powers were the reasons for first
world war because the nationalism lost its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment and
transform into narrow creed with limited ends.
Imperialist aspirations are reasons for WW1:
• Economic rivalry: -In industrial and the commercial competition, Germany was gaining
ground and developed apprehension in Great Britain.
• Imperialism – because the prestige of these powers depends upon power and extent
of its non-European possessions. France had colonies in Indochina and the British had
colonized the Indian sub-continent. The colonies in Africa became the bone of
contention between many European imperial states.
• Vogue of military and the system of a military alliance like Triple Alliance, Triple
entente and Double Alliance.
• Competitive Militarism: -Where in one hand Germany increased the size of standing
power and on other France’s extension to compulsory service and Russian Military
expansion increased that friction.
Scenario after the world war:
• Mandate System leads to League of Nation which helps to develop the democratic
self-rule in defeated power’s colonies.
• Abolition of secret diplomacy and the free navigation at sea during the war was given
in President Wilson’s Fourteen points.
• Entire generation of Europe was washed out, many farmland, homes, villages were
destructed. It drained treasuries of Europe.
• Four largest Monarchies disintegrated, in their place new countries arose.
• The treaty of Versailles imposed huge repatriation on Germany which was to become
the reason for another world war.
Q. Rise of Nazism in Germany and that of Fascism is Italy during the inter war period were
two different yet similar developments that laid the foundation of the Second World War.
Elucidate.
WW I gave birth to two ideologies – Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany, which changed
the course of World Politics and economics. Italian were dissatisfied by perceived injustice by
Allied forces that they did not give deserved share to Italy in war exploits. Germany was forced
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to accept the one-sided terms of Treaty of Versailles, which created a feeling of vengeance
amongst the Germans.
Similarities:
• Both were based on Jingoistic Nationalism. They fed on the emotions of their
countrymen.
• Both Mussolini and Hitler, were strong dictators who infused their ideology into
general public through press and educational institutions.
• Both the countries followed expansionist policy and tried to expand their borders by
means of force. They both encouraged wars and believed in the concept of “might is
right”.
• They were strongly against communism and any sort of democracy.
Dissimilarities:
• Fascism believed in superiority of the nation (Italy) which Nazism was based in
superiority of Race as well as nation. The kind of atrocities seen against Jews under
Nazi regime was not seen under Fascist regime of Italy.
• Hitler didn’t mix religion with government matters but Mussolini allied with the
Church.
• Mussolini initially was against Germany supported the allied nations, but later was
influenced by Hitler’s style of rule and allied with him.
Events leading to WW2
• Germany and Italy both encouraged arms race and manufactured sophisticated
weapons like warplanes, submarines etc. Germany even made conscription
compulsory.
• Although this was not liked by other European powers, but they neglected it as Both
of them were against communism.
• Both Germany and Italy neglected the presence of League of Nations, which was a
toothless organization. They kept following expansionist policy and what league did
was to slam weak sanctions, which were ignored by them.
• Due to aggressive policy of Nazis and Fascists, expansion of army and accumulation of
arms, a war of catastrophic scale became imminent.
Q. How did the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire lead to the First World War? What
were the immediate political fallouts of the war? Discuss.
Balkan which constitutes present day Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia and Herzegovina etc.
was ruled by Ottoman Empire but since 1870s people of the area who were called as Slavs
started to question the authority and wanted to overthrow the monarchy by internal reforms.
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• This led to the weakening of empire which made the region a hot bed of rivalry for
territory and trade among then major European powers like Britain, Germany, Russia
and Austria-Hungry.
• European powers which were opposed to each other in Europe were prepared to
collaborate when dealing with the Ottoman Empire. Because France had occupied
Tunisia in 1881, and Britain had occupied Egypt in 1882, they both agreed, between
1902 and 1905, that Italy should acquire the Ottoman Province of Libya.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was a Slav dominated region, was put under the
protection of Austria.
• This led to hostility between Austria and further, Austria had signed tripartite alliance
with Germany and Italy.
• This rivalry led to assassination of duke of Austria which became the immediate cause
for the WW1.
Political fallouts:
• End of the four dynasties: Austro-Hapsburg empire, Germany Empire, Czar empire of
Russia, and Ottoman empire.
• Emergence of newly independent states: Because of disintegration of
Ottoman empire, Hapsburg empire such as Hungary, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
• Emergence of new super powers: USA ended its isolation and developed hegemony
over world. Japan emerged as superpower in Asian continent.
• Self-determination movements: Intensification of self-determination movements in
the colonies of Asia and Africa.
• League of Nations: League of Nations emerged as the world body to prevent future
catastrophe of previous scale.
Q. “The Holocaust also shows us how a combination of events and attitudes can erode a
society’s democratic values.” Examine the events that led to the systematic extermination
of Jews in Europe during the World War II.
Holocaust was one of the most heinous crime against humanity, initiated by Nazi regime and
further continued by Italy and other axis powers. It led to extermination of almost 5 million
Jews but, surprisingly it got the sanction of people, which clearly showed that democratic
ideals could be trampled by extreme Attitude and events.
Events:
• The humiliation of treaty of Versailles was too much to reconcile for Germans. Any
argument in its opposition was welcome
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• The economic problems after wars, great depression, resulted in unemployment and
people actually welcomed removal of Jews from jobs
• Nuremberg laws by Hitler, deprived Jews of basic freedoms, and that sparked the
chain of sending to concentration camps and gas chambers
Attitude:
• The anti-semitic doctrine of Hitler was very appealing, as he pinned responsibility on

Jews for conspiracy
• The hailing of racial supremacy, indoctrination by education resulted in attitudes
favorable for holocaust.
• Thus, holocaust of World War 2 sets a warning for us, that events and attitudes can
very well turn actions towards extreme hatred and propaganda. The world should
keep a strict vigil on such incidences to prevent any such holocaust in future.
Q. Critically examine the main features of the Foreign Policy of the Nazi Germany.
The aggressive foreign policy of Nazi Germany was a direct outcome of the bitterness caused
due to the humiliating Treaty of Versailles. Some of the key aims were to end the restrictions
on Germany, re-armament, Lebensraum (German expansion in the East), Volksdeutsche
(unite all German speaking people in one country) and to promote Nazi ideology to the world.
• In 1933, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations which depicted that it was no
more intimidated by the Allied powers and that it did not accept Treaty of Versailles
any more.
• The 10 year Non-Aggression pact with Poland was interpreted as pacifist, but the real
motive was expansion as 5 years later Germany invaded Poland.
• Germany retained the resource rich Saar region from France which shows
foresightedness as strong economy was important for expansion.
• In 1935, Hitler publicly announced Nazi Germany’s military status thus violating the
Treaty of Versailles. Through the Anglo-German naval agreement, the naval force was
also increased. The Treaty was also violated again by the political union of Austria and
Nazi Germany in 1938.
• The policy of spreading Nazi ideology was evident when Germany supported Fascist
rebels in Spain along with Italy in 1936.
• Since Hitler was apprehensive of another war, he strengthened his diplomatic and
military position against France, Britain and Russia with the Rome-Berlin axis
agreement and the Anti-Comintern which opposed communism.
Thus, the radical German foreign policy not only uplifted prominence of Germany again but
also prepared ground for WW2.
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Q. Do you think the peace settlements at Versailles were fair? Why or why not?
Substantiate.
At the end of the war in 1919 representatives from 32 countries met in Paris to write a peace
treaty against the defeated nations of the First World War. All the representatives from each
country had sat and discussed the terms of the treaties known as the Paris Peace Treaties.
Although, after the treaty was created there were many problems saying that were the Paris
Peace treaties fair on the defeated nations. To say that the treaty was fair is a very hard thing
to describe as everyone has a different perspective.
Why settlements were fair?
• To begin with, Germany would have also treated the allies harshly if they had won the
war. The German finance minister had claimed that if they had won the war they
would certainly make the allies pay harshly for the damages they had caused.
• The treaty was fair on Germany, as the Germans would have also make the Allies pay
harshly if they had won the war.
• Secondly In 1917 Russia and Germany had signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk because
Russia had quit the First World War after Russia had gone through a revolution.
• They say that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair but the Germans had made a much
harsher treaty for the Russians to deal with after they quit from the war.
• Germany made Russia give away 54% of their industry while the treaty of Versailles
had made Germany just give away 10%. Russia had lost 34% of its population, 89% of
its coal mines and was fined with 132 billion marks.
• While the treaty of Versailles had Germany sign off only 12% of its people, 10 of its
coal mines and pay reparations of £6.6 billion. If they had made Russia pay as hard the
treaty of Versailles was not as harsh towards Germany and was fair towards them.
• Furthermore, before the war Germany had signed the blank cheque with the Austro-
Hungarian Empire and allied with them. So, if the Austro-Hungarians had gone into
battle the Germans would have joined in to help them. When the Austro-Hungarian
Empire had gone into battle with Serbia Germany had joined in the war.
• This means that the Germans had voluntarily stepped into a battle that had not
previously involved them; the Germans had helped in making the war much larger.
The Treaty was fair as the Germans had stepped into battle voluntarily know what the
consequences would have been.
Why settlements were not fair?
There is also a debate that the Paris Peace Treaties were not at all fair. During the Paris peace
talks Germany could not give their opinion. They were also not invited at the conference when
making the terms. How could it be fair? The Germans had no way they could object to the
terms. This was already unfair towards them. Germany had to accept everything.
IASBABA 51
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• Article 231 in the Treaty of Versailles Germany had to take the full blame for starting
the war. However, it can be said that the start of the war is a complex mixture of
imperialism, militarism and rising nationalism. Accepting the entire blame for the war
is wrong.
• Germany was forced to be paying extremely high reparations to the allies; they were
supposed to be paying £6.6 billion. This was an amount that Germany would never be
able to pay. The allies were trying to bankrupt them.
• This was a harsh decision made by the allies as the German economy had already been
destroyed by the war. The Reparations had crippled them more. This was unfair on
the Germans as the Allies had known about the German economic situation and still
imposed high reparations.
• Furthermore, German overseas land had been stripped off by the allies and shared
amongst the league of nation and other neighbouring countries to Germany. Lands
like German East Africa had been given away to Britain: Cameroon and Togoland
German colonies were run by France.
• Germany had also lost land around its main land to the League of Nations like Danzig
was taken by the League of Nations to give Poland a Port. This was unfair as only
Germany lost its land and colonies to the League of Nations but the allies still got to
keep their colonies.
In Conclusion the Paris peace treaties could be said fair as the allies had won the war and they
could do anything they wanted to the Germans. The Germans had joined the war voluntarily
and should have known the consequences. The Germans did treaty Russia harshly in the
treaty of Brest-Litovsk and would have also treaty the allies harshly if they had won the war.
Although the defeated countries were not even invited to the conference to talk the terms
and it had to be unfair as they had to accept all the terms given to them. Hungary had lost a
lot of its population and Turkey had lost its strong military position to benefit the allies. The
treaty could be said fair as the allies had won the war but they shouldn’t have imposed harsh
decisions.
Q. The League of Nations was to seek international cooperation for socio-economic

development across the world. How effective was the League of Nations as an international
peacekeeping organization? Also discuss the failures of League of Nations.
First mention about League of Nation and why was it established? The background of its
existence (objective)
One of the main objectives of League of Nations was to settle international disputes before,
so as to prevent outbreak of another war. Its creation was the important step towards the
development of a contemporary system of international organization.
IASBABA 52
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You can directly divide this into League of Nations, success and failures
• The quarrel between Sweden and Finland over Aaland Islands, the League of
Nations gave verdict in favour of Finland.
• The claims of Germany and Poland over the industrial area of Upper Silesia, the
league divided the area between both.
• When Greece invaded Bulgaria, the Greek troop withdrew with the intervention of
League and was made to pay for the damages to Bulgaria.
• When Turkey claimed the province of Mosul, the British mandated territory of Iraq,
the League denied the claim and went in favor of Iraq.
• The League also settled the South American disputes between Peru and Columbia
and between Bolivia and Paraguay.
• The League was successful in forming International Labour Organisation which fixed
the minimum days and wages of work and other benefits. The Refugee Organisation
made prisoners of war return to their country. The Health Organisation was
successful in addressing the typhus epidemic in Russia.
• The main reasons for failure were the absence of major power like the USA,
withdrawal of Japan, Germany, and Italy in the early 1930s.
Despite all its failure, calling League of Nations a complete failure and irrelevant in world
history will be a statement too much extreme. Ruth Henig in her book ‘The League of Nations
(2010)’ said that it is high time that we look what League was; it was a bold step towards
enhancing international cooperation which failed on some parameters and but succeeded on
others.
League of Nations was like the first experiment which provided the blueprint for more
effective and long-lasting institution for international cooperation i.e. United Nation. The
Assembly, the council, and the secretariat were directly taken from League. League’s
Permanent court was replaced by almost identical International Court of Justice. The
International Labour Organization is still working today. Several UN bodies like World Health
Organization and Economic and Social council were built on the foundation of work done by
various commission of League.
Expectations attached to League of Nations was way too high and unrealistic. How it was
supposed to deliver when it had no military of its own nor any mechanism to compel members
to contribute troops? Having said that it was a dynamic step towards international diplomacy.
Rather than only criticizing it and only looking toward its failure we should learn lessons from
its History.
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Although, there were some occasions when the League was not able to make an impact. It
was quite successful in resolving international disputes in 1920s.
Q. WW1 was the product of existing political, diplomatic, and military conditions of Europe.
Comment
• WW1 was the product of existing political, diplomatic, and military conditions of
Europe. This was not the result of any sudden development but the condition
responsible for war was prepared over a period of almost 50 years.
• The development of arms and ammunitions during first decade of 20th century led
to arms race. This led to complete militarization of Europe. Because of militarization
of Europe it was clear that any war in future would result in large scale destruction.
As a result, most of the countries of Europe did not want to participate in war.
• The emergence of triple entente (Germany – Austria – Russia) has completed the
process of division of Europe in to 2 rival armed groups. The capability of both
groups were almost equal, under this circumstances it was impossible to predict the
outcome of military crisis which may take place in future.
• Britain followed the policy of isolation in matter of continental Europe. Russia was
defeated by Japan in 1904 because of this Russian government was not in a position
to risk another war immediately. Austria Hungary was concerned about the
maintenance of unity and integrity. Because of all these factors very few countries
wanted to participate in the war.
• European powers attempted to resolve the murder issue of Austrian prince in
peaceful manner. But when war erupted none of the major power could stay of
war. It was believed that it would be difficult to stay out of war given the complex
scenario that was existing at that time.
• The policy of peacetime military alliance initiated by Bismarck had resulted in
division of Europe in to two armed camps. Since the alliance was kept secret nobody
was sure of friendship of other. This made the condition volatile filled with
uncertainty and insecurity. At this point of time military strength was considered to
be the only strength to maintain and protect the national interest of the country.
• Russia wanted to stand by Serbia when Austrian prince was murdered by Serbian
nationalists. Relation between Germany and Austria forced Germany to stand with
Austria as at this point of time Austria was having no friend except Germany.
• The interest of Britain and France would have adversely affected if Russia was
defeated by Austria – Hungarian alliance. So, Britain and France were aware that it
would be difficult to stand out if the war erupted.
IASBABA 54
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This dichotomy created by the wish to stay out of war and compulsion to join the war had
resulted in militarization of Europe and created necessary conditions for great war and
spark was needed and the assassination of Austrian prince provided that necessary spark.
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IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Consequences of Imperialism ..................................................................................................................................76

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Why on Earth UPSC expects to remember everything in fine detail?

• French, Industrial and American Revolution?

Look at the given image and THINK!

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Put your mind to question on these lines:

• Why the revolution took place?

What inference can you make from it for contemporary times?

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

A simple plan showing how the Feudal System works

The King: Leader of the Feudal System

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Barons: Executors of the Feudal System

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Reintroduction of Classical Works

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

The invention of the Printing Press:

Patronage of Rulers, Popes and Nobles:

Similarly, geographical discoveries brought in a change in the outlook of Europeans. They

Trade and Prosperity:

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

New Wealth and the Black Death

War and Peace

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

THE IMPACT OF RENAISSANCE

Development of Literature: The Renaissance encouraged the vernacular and national

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Geographical Discoveries: Columbus, Vascodi Gama, Magellan made geographical discoveries

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

The main attributes of Pre-industrial Europe.

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Its impact on Industrial Revolution

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

FACTORS THAT LED TO INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Organizing Production: From Cottage Industry to Factory System

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

WHY DID THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION START IN ENGLAND?

Following are the major factors responsible:

Practical bent of mind of the English Researchers

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Social and political stability

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

The availability of coal and iron mines close to each other

The agricultural revolution

Presence of enterprising people

Risk-taking Private Sector

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

Better means of transport

Flexibility of English social and political system

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

IASBABA ILP 2022-WORLD HISTORY PART 1

THE GLOBAL IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

Transformation of Society Between 1700 and 1900, revolutions in agriculture, production,