Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Catarman, Northern Samar
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
2nd Semester, SY: 2022 – 2023

Understanding Electricity

and Magnetism

This module is prepared by:

RICA MAE TIZON AND KATRINA ACEBUCHE
BSED Science – 2
 Introduction to Electricity and Magnetism
Overview
These lectures provide an introduction to a subject that together with classical
mechanics, quantum mechanics, and modern physics lies at the heart of today's
physics curriculum. This introduction to electricity and magnetism assumes only a
good course in understanding of lightning, and familiarity with Newton's gravitational
laws; it is otherwise self-contained. Furthermore, these lectures, although relatively
connected, take one from Newton’s gravitational law to equations and special
relativity in Coulomb’s law.
Electricity and magnetism are separate yet interconnected phenomena associated
with the electromagnetic force. Together, they form the basis for electromagnetism, a
key physics discipline. You can have an electric field without a magnetic field, and
vice versa. But, a moving electrical charge always has an associated magnetic field,
while permanent magnets have a magnetic field without an electrical current.
In this module, we shall acquaint ourselves understanding electricity from magnetism
and the how it is related.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this topic, you would be able to:

 Know the scientific contributions to and identify some highlights understanding

electricity
 Identify briefly some highlights in the observation, use, and understanding of
magnetism
 Acquaint how electricity and magnetism are closely related
 Understanding Electricity and
12.1 Magnetism
Can you still remember when you, as a small child,
saw lightning for the first time and heard the loud
sound that followed it? What did you think it was?
Were you afraid? What did others say about it? What
do know about lightning now?
The scientific understanding of lightning has gone a
long way from when lightning was believed to be an
object controlled by whimsical gods that dispensed it
according to their moods. In fact, the same principle
that is responsible for producing lightning is now
being used, at a much smaller scale, for welding. A
similar principle is also utilized in some lasers in
research institutes and even inside lighted
fluorescent lamps. Lightning and similar phenomena are effects associated with
electricity. Electricity is commonly understood as that which is supplied to us by our
electric cooperatives that is needed to make our electrical appliances work.
However, electricity in physics refers to a broader range of phenomena that involves
electric charges. By “electric charge,” We do not mean the electric bills that we
receive regularly for our monthly electrical consumption. Electric charge in physics,
like mass, refers to a property of an object that affects how it interacts with other
objects. Since electric charge share analogous characteristics with mass, let us
briefly review gravitational interaction-an interaction between two objects that arises
due to their mass
According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation, two objects, like the Earth and the
moon, separated by some distance, can interact to mutually exert attractive forces
on each other, depending on the amount of mass that each one contains. Generally,
higher masses tend to increase the force of attraction, while longer distances tend to
decrease the force of attraction according to the gravitational relation

Where:
m1= mass of object 1
m2 = mass of object 2
r = the distance between them
The proportionality constant is G = 6.67 × 10-11 N.m/g².
The interactions between electric charges are called electric interactions that are
described by electric forces. Objects with charges q1 and q2 separated by some
distance, can also interact to mutually exert force on each other, depending on the
amount of charge that each contains. Generally, higher amounts of charges tend to
increase the force while longer distances tend to decrease the force. These are
qualitative descriptions of the relationship between the force with the factors that
affect it. What are the quantitative relationships between them?

Scientific Contributions to Understanding Electricity

In 1770’s, the English physicist Joseph Priestly postulated and performed
experiments showing that the electric force between charges, like the gravitational
force, is also inversely proportional to the square of their separation distance.
Improved experimental evidence was obtained in 1785 by the French Physicist
Charles Augustin de Coulomb. He designed and used a sensitive device for
measuring forces and carefully performed experiments to find out how the force is
affected when the amount of charge in each object is changed and when he adjusted
the distance between them. Coulomb was able to get not only the quantitative
relationship of the electric force with the separation distance, but the amount of
charges as well. His results are summarized in mathematical form as,

Where:
q1 = charge of object 1
q2 = charge of object 2
r = distance of separation
The proportionality constant (Coulomb's constant) is k = 9.0 x 10 9 Nm 2 / C 2
This is now referred to as Coulomb’s law in honor of Charles Coulomb. You can see
that this looks much like the gravitational force between objects shown above, with
the mass m replaced by q, and a different proportionality constant k, instead of G.
This means that the role played in electric interactions by the amount of charge
contained in objects is similar to the role played by the amount of mass of the objects
when they interact via gravitation.
Electric interactions resulting to the attraction between two objects have been
recorded more than 2000 years ago by Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.). He observed
that when amber is rubbed with fur, it is able to pick up pieces of feathers. A
systematic study on the qualities of charge was done and published by William
Gilbert in 1600. Gilbert was the first to use the term electricity which he based on the
Greek word for amber, meaning electron. Hence, the term electricity was first used to
refer to phenomena that exhibited similarities with that observed in amber. Since this
phenomenon is now understood in terms of charges, electricity is now used to refer
to phenomena that is related to charges. Some highlights in the understanding
electricity are shown below:

 OTTO VAN GUERICKE

In 1650, the German physicist Otto Van Guericke
(1602-1686) built the first machine that produced
charges by rubbing a rotating ball.

 STEPHEN GRAY
In 1729, English Stephen Gray showed through
experiments that materials can affect the transfer of
charges from one object to another in analogous ways
materials affect the transfer of heat from one object to
another. Some materials like metals placed between
two objects readily allow heat (then thought to be a
fluid) to transfer between them while other materials do
not allow heat to transfer between objects. Stephen
Gray classified materials as conductors or
nonconductors. When conductors are used to connect
two objects, charges can transfer between them. When nonconductors are used to
connect to objects, charges do not transfer between them. At present,
nonconductors are called insulators.
Difference between Conductors and Insulators
 Conductors are the materials or substances which allow electricity to flow
through them. They conduct electricity because they allow electrons to flow
easily inside them from atom to atom. Also, conductors allow the transmission
of heat or light from one source to another.
Example:
Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold, and Aluminium are good conductors of electricity.
We use them in electric circuits and systems in the form of wires.
 Insulators are the materials or substances which resist or don’t allow the
current to flow through them. In general, they are solid in nature. Also,
insulators are finding use in a variety of systems. As they do not allow the flow
 of heat. The property which makes insulators different from conductors is its
resistivity.
Examples:
Wood, cloth, glass, mica, and quartz are some good examples of insulators.
 CHARLES FRANCIOS DE
CISTERNAY DU FAY
In 1733, the French scientist Charles François de
Cisternay Du Fay (1698-1739) discovered that two
types of interactions can occur between charges
they can attract or repel. These two types of
interactions led him to conclude that there are two
kinds of charges which he named vitreous and
resinous. Based on these names, he discovered
that two objects with the same type of charge
repel, while objects containing different types of
charge attract.
Two different types of electricity.
When amber is rubbed with fur, it acquires so-called ``resinous electricity.’’ On the other
hand, when glass is rubbed with silk, it acquires so-called ``vitreous electricity.’’

 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
In 1747, the American statesman and philosopher
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) advanced his theory
of electricity and published Experiments and
Observations on Electricity. He used the names
“positive” (+) and “negative” (-) to identify the two
types of charges. These names remain in use until
now. Franklin also showed with his dangerous kite
experiments during thunderstorms that lightning is an
example of electricity. Thus, he helped debunk
superstition surrounding lightning. His understanding
of lightning led to his later invention of the lightning
rod. Franklin’s theory was that current is due to the
flow of positive charges. This concept then became a
starting point in the teaching of current, although it
is now known that current in metals is due to the
flow of electrons which are negative charges.
 PIETER VAN MUSSCHENBROEK

In 1745, the Dutch mathematician Pieter

van Musschenbroek (1692-1761)
discovered that charges can be built up and
stored in what he called as the Leydan jar
named after the University of Leyden where
 he worked. The Leyden jar helped in understanding charges since the stored
charges can later be used in experiments to test their properties, and how
materials respond to them.

 ALESSANDRO VOLTA
In 1800, the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-
1827) developed the first practical method of
generating electricity by inventing the battery. Volta’s
invention was inspired by the work of another Italian,
Luigi Galvani, who discovered that frog’s legs contract
when touched at different points by two disimilar
materials. In his battery, Volta used a stack of silver
and zinc plates as the dissimilar materials and
separated them from each other not by frog’s legs but
by cloth or paper saturated with a salt solution. Using
Volta’s battery, charges can be made to flow
continuously in a circuit. Volta’s invention paved the
way for experiments that led to other discoveries, enhancing, in turn, our
understanding of electricity. It was Volta who introduced the terms “electromotive
force” and “electric current.” Voltage and its unit (volt) are so-named in honor of
Alessandro Volta. Galvani and Volta’s work were the pioneers in producing electricity
using chemical means, instead of the mechanical way (by rubbing).
 GEORG SIMON OHM
In 1827, the German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm (1787-1854), discovered
that different conductors opposed the
flow of charges in different ways.
Defining resistance as the opposition of
a conductor to the flow of charges, he
found the relation between the current
passing through a conductor, the voltage
across it, and resistance in an electric
circuit. This relation is now known as
Ohm's law, and states that the voltage
across a conductor is proportional to the

current passing through it. The unit

of resistance is called ohm
(symbolized by the Greek letter
omega) in honor of Georg Ohm.
The work of Georg Ohm and that
of Gustav Kirchhoff, another
German scientist, are useful ways
of analyzing and designing electric
circuits.
  JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON
In 1897, the English physicist Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) discovered the
electron. Combined with Rutherford’s discovery of the nucleus that contained
positive protons, and experiments that measured the charges of protons and
electrons, the charge of objects are now understood to arise due to the constituents
of atoms. Most objects are electrically neutral (net charge is zero) because they
contain equal amounts of positive and negative charges. The charging that occurs
when two objects are rubbed is now understood as the transfer of electrons from one
object to another. The object that loses electrons contains more protons than
electrons and acquires a net positive charge. The object that gains electrons
contains more electrons than protons and acquires a net negative charge.

Linking Electricity and Magnetism

Did you ever play with magnets from worn-out speakers or from a science kit
given by your parents? How did you feel about being able to move other objects
without actually touching them? Many children are amazed at being able to move
objects using a magnet without touching it. What are your notions of magnetic
effects?
Let us briefly list some highlights in the observation, use, and understanding
of magnetism:
 The earliest records of magnetic effects were made more than 2 500
years ago by Greeks (also attributed to Thales). They observed that
lodestone, based on mineral magnetite (named after the district of
Magnesia in Asia Minor, where it was first discovered in quantity),
exerted an attractive force one nearby iron objects.
 Chinese explorers have used magnetic compass since 1100 A.D.
While navigators can obtain directions by looking at the stars, a
compass made it possible to know direction even during daytime and
when the weather condition prevent nighttime observation of the sky.
Knowledge about compasses eventually spread to the Arabs and to
Europe.
 The earliest recorded scientific inquiry into magnetism was made in the
1200’s by the French physician
Pierre de Maricourt while he was
serving the army. He wrote “Epistola
de Magnete (Letter on the Magnet)
in 1269 detailing his observations on
how the direction of a compass is
affected as it is moved around a
magnet (lodestone). He identified
two polus (poles), spots on the
magnet where the compass pointed.
He wrote information about the
properties of magnetism and
showed that like poles repel and
 unlike poles attract. Pierre de Maricourt is also popularly known as
Petrus Peregrinus (“Peter the Pilgrim”).
 In 1600, the English physician William Gilbert, personal physician of
Queen Elizabeth I, published “de Magnete” (On the Magnet), a treatise
on magnetism. In this book, Gilbert debunked many folk superstitions
regarding the imagined magical
properties of magnets, such as their
supposed abilities to detect marital
infidelity, cure headaches, and find gold.
From his own observations on the
orientation of compasses around
magnets, he deduced that the Earth is a
big magnet, dispelling the belief held by
some that the compass points to the
north because of the stars, or that there
were huge magnets in the north. Gilbert
used the term “electric” to describe the
attraction of objects to rubbed elektron
(Greek for amber). This is to distinguish
it from the attraction of iron to magnetite which he described as
"magnetic." Gilbert became known as the "Father of Magnetism." He
discovered various methods for producing and strengthening magnets.
 In 1819, the Danish physicist Christian
Oersted accidentally discovered that a
magnetic compass is sensitive to the
effect of an electric current flowing in a
wire. He had originally planned to
demonstrate the heating effect of
current on a wire and had a compass
nearby for an intended demonstration of
magnetism. He discovered that the
compass needle turned every time
current passed through the wire. After
unsuccessfully trying to understand the
phenomenon with careful experiments,
he published his results without
explanation.
 In 1825, the French Andre-Marie Ampere published a mathematical
theory of the relationship between electricity and magnetism
(electromagnetism). He was able to find
the relationship between the current in
the wire and the magnetic effect that it
produced. Using this, he was able to
show that two parallel wires, both with
current through them, mutually attract or
repel each other. The strength of the
 force decreases as the distance between them is increased. The force
increases as more current is made to pass through the wires. The SI
measurement unit of current, the ampere (A) is named in honor of
Andre-Marie Ampere.

 In 1831, the English scientist Michael

Faraday discovered that current can be
produced in a wire without connecting it
to battery but only by moving a magnet
near it. This electric effect produced by
magnetism is called electromagnetic
induction. Combined with ampere’s
theory, a better understanding of
electricity and magnetism is reached-
electricity can produce magnetism and
magnetism can produce ectricity. Using
his discovery, Michael Faraday invented
an electric generator. He also invented
the electric motor.
 In 1864, the English physicist James
Clerk Maxwell formalized the theory of
electromagnetism. Using equations
obtained from earlier results and by
adding his own contribution, he was
able to develop a theory of
electromagnetism. His theory formed
the framework for understanding
electricity and magnetism as
interrelated phenomena. Using his
theory, he was able to predict the
existence of electromagnetic waves
that propagated with the same speed
as that of light. Thus, his theory also
showed that light itself is related to
electricity and magnetism.
Electromagnetic waves would later revolutionize communication, as
discussed in chapter 18. Advances in the understanding of electricity
and magnetism, combined with engineering, has brought about the
invention of devices that we now enjoy today.

Electricity and Magnetism Relationship

Electricity and magnetism are closely related. Flowing electrons produce a
magnetic field, and spinning magnets cause an electric current to flow.
Electromagnetism is the interaction of these two important forces. Electricity and
magnetism are integral to the workings of nearly every gadget, appliance, vehicle,
and machine we use.
Without electricity, we’d literally be in the dark. We’d be living in a world lit by
open flame and powered by simple machines that rely on muscle power. Since the
late 1800s, electricity has brightened our homes and streets, powered our
appliances, and enabled the development of computers, phones, and many other
devices we rely on. But people often take electricity for granted. Flip a switch and it’s
there. Understanding what electricity is and how it becomes ready for our safe use
helps us appreciate this energy source. Meanwhile, without magnets, we couldn’t
generate electricity. Electricity and magnetism, and the relationship between the two,
are fundamental to the workings of the modern world.

References
https://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/electricity-and-magnetism/
tr30175.tr
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/electric-charges-and-fields/conductors-and-
insulators/
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-3/Newton-s-Law-of-
Universal-Gravitation
electricity_and_magnetism_5-6_unitguide.pdf