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10 Boecklen, W.J. and Spellenberg, R. (1990) Oecologio 85,92-100 eds), USDA General Publication, North Central Forest Experiment
11 Aguilar, J.M. and Boecklen, W.J. (1992) Oikos 64,498-504 Station, St Paul, MN, USA (in press)
12 Fritz, R.S.,Nichols-Orians, CM. and Brunsfeld. S.J.Oecologia (in press) 16 Floate, K.D. and Whitham, T.G. (1993)Am. Nat. 141,651-662
13 Whitham, T.C., Morrow, P.A. and Potts, B.M. Oecologia (in press) 17 Martinsen, C.D. and Whitham, T.G. Wilson Bull. (in press)
14 Whitham, T.G., Morrow, P.A. and Potts, B.M. in The Ecology and 18 Hall, R.W. and Townsend, A.M. (1987) Enoiron. Ent. 16,1042-1044
Eoolution of&/l-forming insects (Baranchikov, Y.N., Price, P.W. and 19 Drake, D.W. (1981) Aust. J. Bof. 29,25-36
Mattson, W.J., Jr, eds), USDAGeneral Publication, North Central 20 Coustau, C., Renaud, F., Maillard, C., Pasteur, N. and Delay, B. (1991)
Forest Experiment Station, St Paul, MN, USA (in press) Genet. Res. 57,207-212
15 Boecklen, W.J. and Larson, KC in The Ecology and Evolution of Gall- 21 Mason, J.R. (1990) Wilson Bull. 102, 160-162
forminglnsects (Baranchikov, Y.N., Price, P.W. and Mattson, W.J., Jr, 22 Heaney, L.R. and Timm, R.M. (1985) Biol J. Linn. Sot. 25,301-317
Condhnal outc
interactions
Judith L. Bronstein
M
utualisms are inter- Interspecific interactions are traditionally either the costs or the benefits
specific interactions in displayed in a grid in which each change in magnitude, then the
which both partners interaction is placed according to its degree to which an association
experience a net ben- outcome (positive, negative or neutral) for is mutually beneficial will change
efit. Mutualisms are ubiquitous each partner. However, recent field as well. Hence, any interaction
in nature, as well as extremely studies consistently find the costs and might be considered to occupy
diverselJ. They range from species- benefits that determine net effects to vary a potentially dynamic position
specific, obligate, coevolved as- greatly in both space and time, inevitably along a continuum of possible out-
sociations to looser and more causing outcomes within most comes, ranging from beneficial to
generalized ones, and include interactions to vary as well. Interactions progressively more antagonistic
relationships both between free- show ‘conditionality’ when costs and (Box 2). It is increasingly clear
living species (e.g. plants and benefits, and thus outcomes, are that over evolutionary time, cer-
their pollinators) and species liv- affected in predictable ways by current tain interactions have shifted away
ing in close association for their ecological conditions. The full range of from antagonism towards com-
entire lifetimes (e.g. mammals natural outcomes of a given association mensalism and even mutualism5.
and their gut bacteria). The more may reveal far more about Its Researchers are beginning to de-
intimate mutualisms are often ecological and evolutionary dynamics than lineate the genetic and life-history
considered separately as ‘sym- does the average outcome at a given conditions that predispose such
bioses’, adding to a confusion place and time. evolutionary transitions11J2; some
of terminology that has long of these transitions are being
plagued the study of beneficial studied with great success in lab-
interactions (Box 1). In recent Judith Bronstein is at the Dept of Ecology and oratory cultures13. Costs and ben-
Evolutionaty Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, efits also frequently vary, how-
years, however, efforts have
AZ 85721, USA.
been made to identify ecological ever, over ecological time and
and evolutionary patterns that space for a single interaction,
cut across diverse forms of mutualism3-8. leading to what have recently been referred to as con-
One such generality is that in most mutualistic associ- ditional outcomeW5. Here, I focus on conditional out-
ations, one partner performs some action (a service) that comes of mutualistic interactions, reviewing their origins,
benefits its associate, and receives some payoff (a reward) patterns of occurrence and evolutionary significance.
for doing SOT.These rewards are often costly to produce:
for example, up to 37% of the photosynthate that the milk- Causes of conditional outcomes
weed, Ascfepius syriaca, assimilates during flowering is used The fact that costs and benefits fluctuate does not
to produce nectarg. It can therefore be expected that organ- mean that outcomes of interactions are completely unpre-
isms will minimize these costs by producing as little reward dictable for their participants. A number of ecological and
as is necessary to obtain service from their mutualists. life-history factors have been shown partially to determine
Hence, mutualisms are clearly not ‘altruistic’ (Box 1): they these outcomes6J4Jj.
generally last only as long as the benefits of the interac- Outcomes of a potentially beneficial interaction often
tion outweigh its costs to each partner. Most pollinators, depend on the size or age of one of the participants,
for instance, will abandon a plant species once they dis- because either its need for the mutualist’s service, or its
cover a higher quantity or quality of nectar elsewherelo. ability to reward that partner, is stage-dependent. For
In the grid of interactions commonly presented in example, many plants appear to gain protection from her-
ecology textbooks (Box 2), mutualism is classified simply bivory by ants that feed at their extrafloral nectaries (Box
as a ‘plus/plus’ interaction. However, when mutualisms are 3). However, the magnitude of this benefit is related to
considered from a cost/benefit perspective, it becomes plant size, particularly for tree speciesl7. Relatively small
clear that outcomes must in fact be extremely dynamic. If individuals may produce so little reward that they fail
215
REVIEWS
Acknowledgements
I thank J.H. Cushman, D.W. Davidson, J.F. Addicott,
T.G. Whitham, G. Davidowitz and an anonymous-reviewer
for providing literature, insight and helpful commentary
during preparation of this manuscript. Preparation of the
manuscript was partially supported by a grant from the
National Science Foundation (BSR 9007492).