Persuasion Theories

Theories about persuasion http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/a_persuading.
htm
Calvin Klein Diem
How we change what others think, feel, believe an
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Explanations > Theories > Theories about persuasion
Here are academic theories about how we persuade other

people.
Amplification Hypothesis: Certainty hardens attitude.

Bait-and-switch: Great offer that never happens.
And the big
Conversion Theory: Minorities can convert majority
paperback book
people.
Door In The Face (DITF): Cause rejection then make
real offer.
Foot In The Door (FITD): Make small offer then
increase.
Forced Compliance: Obligation to obey.
Information Manipulation Theory: Breaking one of the
four conversational maxims.
Persuasion: factors important in persuasion.
Priming: Setting up memory to be used later.
Stuart Weitzman Reciprocity Norm: we feel obliged to return favors.
Whisker Scarcity Principle: we want what is of limited Look inside
availability.
$199.00
Sleeper Effect: when persuasive messages increase
effectiveness over time.
Social Influence: How we are strongly influenced by Need help?
others.
Subliminal Messages: famous method that is a sham. Add/share/save:
Ultimate Terms: some words are particularly powerful.
Weak Ties Theory: How far does influence go?
Yale Attitude Change Approach: factors important in
persuasion.
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See also Psychology

Principles for changing minds Theory
Theories
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Amplification Hypothesis http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/amplification_hypothesis.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Amplification Hypothesis

Description | Research | Example | So What? | See also | References
Description
Displaying certainty about an attitude when talking with
another person will act to increase and harden that attitude.
When the attitude displayed is more uncertain, then it will act And the big
to soften the attitude. paperback book
Using an emotional attack on a cognitive attitude will
increase resistance, whilst a cognitive attack will be more
effective. The same effect happens in reverse, where a
logical argument has little impact on a person who is
emotional whilst an emotional argument is more powerful.
Research
Clarkson, Tbormala and Rucker found that increasing attitude
certainty strengthened attitudes and increased resistance to
persuasion when the attitudes was univalent but weakened
them when they were ambivalent.
Look inside
Example
A cleric wants to persuade another towards a religion. When
the target person states opposing beliefs, the cleric shows
vague agreement. When the person states better beliefs, the
cleric becomes more confirmatory. Need help?
So What? Add/share/save:
Using it
To persuade another person, align your projected attitude
with theirs. If you are non-aligned you will only act to create
resistance. Ads by Google
Defending
Research
To put off a persuader, mis-match their attitudes. When they
are logical, be emotional, and vice versa.
Psychology
Amplification
See also
Confirmation Bias, Reinforcement-Affect Theory, Building
Rapport, Polarization, Amplification principle, Amplificatio Save the rain
References
Clarkson, J.J., Tormala, Z.L., & Rucker, D.D. (2008). A new
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Amplification Hypothesis http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/amplification_hypothesis.htm
look at the consequences of attitude certainty: The

amplification hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 95, 810-825.
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Bait-and-switch http://changingminds.org/techniques/general/sequential/bait_switch.htm
Stuart Weitzman Whisker
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Techniques > General Persuasion > Sequential Requests > Bait-and-Switch

Description | Example | Discussion | See also
Description
Offer them something that appears to be very good value.
This should be a real bargain, an offer they can't possibly
refuse, even if they were not thinking about it. And the big
Later, replace the item with something of less value to them paperback book
(and more profit to you).
Example
A car sales showroom puts a basic car outside
with a very low price-tag. Once the customer is
interested, the sales person trades them up to a
more expensive model.
Would you like to go out to this really expensive

restaurant? ... Oh dear, it's booked up. Never
mind, we can go to the usual place.
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Discussion
When the person sees the initial item of high value they
cognitively close on the idea of acquiring it and hence The
early bait thus moves them from a negative position to one Need help?
of commitment.
When the high value item is removed, then they enter a Add/share/save:
state of anxiety in which they seek to re-enter the
comfortable closed state. They thus seek to satisfice,
accepting almost any solution that will get them back to that
comfortable state.
There may also be an element of commitment to the person Ads by Google
making the offer. If I offer something to you, you feel some New Car Sales
obligation to me. If I then switch the offer, especially if the
switching seems reasonable, then you are likely to accept the
Psychology
second offer out of a sense of obligation to me. To do Car Pricing
otherwise would expose myself as inconsistent and break
bonding between us.
Save the rain
Although common in sales, this method was first researched
by Joule, Gouilloux, and Weber (1989), who called it the lure
procedure. They invited students to watch interesting film
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Bait-and-switch http://changingminds.org/techniques/general/sequential/bait_switch.htm
clips (and hence got a lot of volunteers), but then switched

the task to memorizing lists of numbers. In the control group
that was just asked to help by memorizing numbers (no
initial film-clip offer), only 15% agreed, as opposed to 47%
who had been first offered the film-clip experiment.
The bait and switch technique is a 'sequential request'.
See also
Consistency principle
Ben Franklin Effect, Lowball, Empty Promises
Cialdini, R. B., & Trost, M. R., (1998) Social influence: Social
norms, conformity, and compliance. In D. T. Gilbert and S. T. Blog Sports Retail
Fiske (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2. (4th Government
ed., pp. 151-192). Boston: Mcgraw-Hill. Conversion More >>
Joule, R. V., Gouilloux, F., and Weber, F. (1989). The lure: A
new compliance procedure. Journal of Social Psychology,
129, 741-749.
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And... + Power
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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:07 PM
Conversion Theory http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/conversion_theory.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Conversion Theory

Description | Example | So What? | See also | References
Description
In groups, the minority can have a disproportionate effect,
converting many 'majority' members to their own cause.
This is because many majority group members are not strong And the big
believers in its cause. They may be simply going along paperback book
because it seems easier or that there is no real alternative.
They may also have become disillusioned with the group
purpose, process or leadership and are seeking a viable
alternative.
There are four major factors that give the minority its power:
1. Consistency: Being consistent in expressing minority

group opinion.
2. Confidence: Being sure about the correctness of ideas
and views presented.
3. Unbiased: Appearing to be reasonable and unbiased in
presenting ideas. Look inside
4. Resistance: Resisting the natural social pressure and
abuse that the majority may bring to bear on minority
members.
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In addition, to gain the confidence of the 'silent majority', the
minority shows that it is not like the leadership of the
Add/share/save:
majority, typically by visibly opposing them (something most
of the silent majority would not dare do). They they show
empathy and similarity with the target people, steadily
subverting them and convincing them to join their alternative
group. Ads by Google
Example Theory
A business executive board is keen to acquire Conversion
another company, although the decision is mostly Psychology
being driven by the CEO and CFO. There seems to
be consensus on this, but the CTO thinks it is
crazy. He asks public and challenging questions Save the rain
about the move whilst talking quietly to other
board members until he is confident he can call a
motion of no confidence in the move.
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Conversion Theory http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/conversion_theory.htm
An extremist group holds regular demonstrations

against the local government, but does this
peacefully, engaging people passing by in
reasonable and persuasive conversation, getting
them sign a petition and maybe come along to the
next meeting...
So What?
Using it
If you are in the minority, do not worry. Find others who are
like minded and teach them to be straightforward and
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consistent. Develop clear messages that position yourself as
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the 'voice of reason'. Spread the word whilst undermining the
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opposition.
Defending
When a minority starts up against you, as a majority leader
or advocate, mobilize quickly to expose their methods and
verbalize their message.
See also
Minority Influence, Conversion techniques
References
Moscovici, S. (1980). Toward a theory of conversion
behavior. In L. Berkowiyz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental
Social Psychology, 13, 209-239. New York: Academic Press.
Chryssochoou, X. and Volpato, C. (2004). Social Influence
and the Power of Minorities: An Analysis of the Communist
Manifesto, Social Justice Research, 17, 4, 357-388.

Quick links

Explanations
* Behaviors
+ Beliefs
– Brain stuff
– Conditioning
+ Coping Mechanisms
+ Critical Theory
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Door In The Face (DITF) http://changingminds.org/techniques/general/sequential/ditf.htm
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Techniques > General Persuasion > Sequential Requests > Door In The Face
(DITF)
Description
First make a request of the other person that is excessive and
to which they will most naturally refuse. And the big
Look disappointed but then make a request that is more paperback book
reasonable. The other person will then be more likely to
accept.
Example
Will you donate $100 to our cause? [response is
no].
Oh. Well could you donate $10?
Can you help me do all this work?

Well can you help me with this bit?
Can I stay out until 4am?

Look inside
OK. How about midnight?
Discussion
DITF works by first getting a no and then getting a yes.
Need help?
When the other person refuses the first request, they may
feel guilty about having refused another person and fear
rejection as a result. The second request gives them the Add/share/save:
opportunity to assuage that guilt and mitigate any threat of
social rejection. In effect, the person making the request is
making an exchange of concession for belonging.
The lower request uses the contrast principle, making it seem Ads by Google
very small in comparison with the larger initial request and
hence relatively trivial and easy to agree with. Door to Door
This method works best when the requests being made have About Face
a socially valid element, for example where you are seeking Face a Face
to learn something, teach people or help others. This is so
that the other person does not reject the whole request out of
hand (it is just that the initial request is 'too much'). Save the rain
The second request should be made soon after the first
request, before the effects of guilt and other motivators wears
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Door In The Face (DITF) http://changingminds.org/techniques/general/sequential/ditf.htm
off.
Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, and Miller asked students to to

volunteer to council juvenile delinquents for two hours a week
for two years. After their refusal, they were asked to
chaperone juvenile delinquents on a one-day trip to the zoo.
50% agreed to chaperone the trip to the zoo as compared to
17% of participants who only received the zoo request.
The Door-in-the-face technique is a 'sequential request' and is
also known as 'rejection-then-retreat'.
See also Blog Sports Retail

Foot In The Door (FITD), Bait-and-switch Government
Exchange principle, Contrast principle, Highball Conversion More >>
Guilt, Social Judgment Theory
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/srs/homepage.htm
Cialdini, R., Vincent, J., Lewis, S., Catalan, J., Wheeler, D., &
Darby, B. (1975). Reciprocal concessions procedure for
inducing compliance: The door-in-the-face technique. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 206-215.
Quick links

Explanations
* Behaviors
+ Beliefs
– Brain stuff
– Conditioning
+ Coping Mechanisms
+ Critical Theory
+ Culture
– Decisions
* Emotions
– Evolution
– Gender
+ Games
– Groups
+ Identity
+ Learning
– Meaning
– Memory
+ Teaching
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:07 PM
Foot In The Door (FITD) http://changingminds.org/techniques/general/sequential/fitd.htm
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Techniques > General Persuasion > Sequential Requests > Foot In The Door
(FITD)
Description
Ask for something small.
When they give it to you, then ask for something bigger. And the big
And maybe then something bigger again. paperback book
Example
A person in the street asks me directions, which I
give. They then ask me to walk a little way with
them to make sure they don't get lost. In the end,
I take them all the way to their destination.
Dad, can I go out for an hour to see Sam? [answer

yes]
...I just called Sam and he's going to the cinema -
can I go with him?
...I haven't got money -- could you lend me Look inside
enough to get in?
...Could you give us a lift there?
...Could you pick us up after?
Need help?
Discussion
FITD works by first getting a small yes and then getting an
Add/share/save:
even better yes.
The principle involved is that a small agreement creates a
bond between the requester and the requestee. The other
person has to justify their agreement to themself. They
cannot use the first request as something significant, so they Ads by Google
have to convince themself that it is because they are nice and
Psychology
like the requester or that they actually are interested in the
item being requested. In a future request, they then feel Studies
obliged to act consistently with their internal explanation they Theory
have built.
Freedman and Fraser (1966) asked people to either sign a
Save the rain
petition or place a small card in a window in their home or car
about keeping California beautiful or supporting safe driving.
About two weeks later, the same people were asked by a
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Foot In The Door (FITD) http://changingminds.org/techniques/general/sequential/fitd.htm
second person to put a large sign advocating safe driving in

their front yard. Many people who agreed to the first request
now complied with the second, far more intrusive request.
The Freedman and Fraser study showed significant effect.
later studies showed that the actual effect was more often far
less.
The most powerful effect occurs when the person's self-image
is aligned with the request. Requests thus need to be kept
close to issues that the person is likely to support, such as
helping other people. It is also affected by individual need for
consistency.
Pro-social requests also increase likelihood of success with Blog Sports Retail
this method. It is also more likely to succeed when the Government
second request is an extension of the first request (as Conversion More >>
opposed to being something completely different).
The Foot-in-the-door technique is a 'sequential request'.
Note also that 'foot in the door' is also used as a generic term
to describe where early sales are relatively unprofitable
(maybe a 'loss leader'), as the key purpose is to enable a
relationship to be developed whereby further and more
profitable sales may be completed.
See also
Bonding principle, Consistency principle
Nibbling, Ben Franklin Effect
Self-Perception Theory, Social Norms
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/srs/homepage.htm
Beaman, A. L., Cole, C. M., Klentz, B., & Steblay, N. M.

(1983). Fifteen years of the foot-in-the-door Research: A
meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
9,181-196
Burger, J. M. (1999). The foot-in-the-door compliance
procedure: A multiple-process analysis and review.
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 303-325
Dillard, J. (1990). Self-inference and the foot-in-the-door
technique: Quantity of behavior and attitudinal mediation.
Human Communication Research, 16, 422-447
Freedman, J., & Fraser, S. (1966). Compliance without
pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195-202
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Forced Compliance http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/forced_compliance.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Forced Compliance

Description
People sometimes feel obliged to comply with commands
against their will or better judgment. When this happens,
some expected and some odd effects can happen: And the big
paperback book
People will comply with perceived authority, even acting
in strongly immoral ways or doing other things that
contradict their values.
Attempts at forced compliance can easily create a
backlash effect, particularly amongst those who refuse
to comply.
Persuaders who are disliked are more likely to be
successful in creating a change in attitude.
The reason why disliked persuader are more effective is

possibly because of the way people seek to explain and justify
their actions. If they comply with someone attractive or
Look inside
otherwise likable, they can tell themselves they were acting
as a favor to the person or because they liked them.
Research
Zimbardo et al (1965) used an authority figure to pressure Need help?
students into eating Japanese grasshoppers. When the
persuader acted politely, a significant number of students Add/share/save:
later reported a lower affinity with eating grasshoppers than
when the persuader was brusque.
Example
A sales manager rudely interrupts a sales person's spiel to Ads by Google
correct performance details about car. The customer finds the
Psychology
car more interesting.
Language Study
So What?
Car Research
Using it
Be careful with this as having other people liking you is
generally good for persuasion. An effective way of using this Save the rain
is with a collaborator who plays the persuasive 'bad guy' on a
particular point to your 'good guy' who completes the overall
persuasion.
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Forced Compliance http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/forced_compliance.htm
Defending
Notice how you react to persuasive comments. You can
sometimes be persuaded by attractive people and, as noted
here, also by people who are less attractive!
See also
Cognitive Dissonance, The effects of betrayal
References
Smith (1961), Zimbardo et al. (1965)
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Government
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Quick links

Explanations
* Behaviors
+ Beliefs
– Brain stuff
– Conditioning
+ Coping Mechanisms
+ Critical Theory
+ Culture
– Decisions
* Emotions
– Evolution
– Gender
+ Games
– Groups
+ Identity
+ Learning
– Meaning
– Memory
* Needs
+ Self-development
+ Personality
And... + Power
* Tipping
– Relationships
* Willpower
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:08 PM
Information Manipulation Theory http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/information_manipulatio...
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Explanations > Theories > Information Manipulation Theory

Description
In order to persuade or deceive, a person deliberately breaks And the big
one of the four conversational maxims: paperback book
Quantity: Information given will be full (as per expected
by the listener) and without omission.
Quality: information given will be truthful and correct.
Relation: information will be relevant to the subject
matter of the conversation in hand.
Manner: things will be presented in a way that enables
others to understand and with aligned non-verbal
language.
Example
A student is late handing in an essay. They approach the Look inside
lecture trembling and weeping, saying how they have just
been dumped by their long-term partner and forgot to hand
in the essay (they had done it in time, honestly!).
So what? Need help?

Using it
Persuade by omitting information, telling untruths, going off Add/share/save:
the subject and confusing the other person. Use excuses. Be
economical with the truth. Woffle.
Defending
Question what you are told, especially you find yourself Ads by Google
changing your mind as a result. Probe for detail. Seek Manipulation
corroborating evidence. Watch the body language.
Theory
See also Body Language
Persuasion, Non-Verbal Behavior, Theories about trust,
Expectancy Violations Theory
Save the rain
References
Dawson and Brashers (1996), McCornack, Levine, Solowczuk,
Torres and Campbell (1992)
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Persuasion http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/persuasion.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Persuasion

Description
Persuasion occurs when a person causes someone else to
change. The change may either be to their inner mental
systems or to their external behavior. Inner systems include And the big
values, attitude, beliefs, schema, goals. The change may paperback book
creation of something new, or extinguishing or modifying
something that already exists.
Elements of persuasion include:
Intent: We usually persuade intentionally, but we can

also accidentally persuade. In fact every interpersonal
interaction causes a change to both parties.
Coercion: Coercion gains compliance, where behavior is
changed, but without any internal commitment or
change of inner mental systems (in fact these may be
strengthened in the opposite direction).
Context: A changed behavior may be constrained to Look inside
limited context.
Plurality: You can persuade one person or many people.
You can even persuade just yourself.
Presence: You can be physically with the other person Need help?
(allowing maximum communication) or communicating
via such as the telephone or written words.
Add/share/save:
Media: Communication may be done via a range of
media.
Inner systems are often held as networks of connected

beliefs, etc. Persuasion often acts to break and redirect those Ads by Google
interconnections.
Research
A three part model of persuasion includes the source,
message and target: Psychology
Mental Stress
Communicator or source of the persuasion
The actual persuasive appeal
The target audience of the appeal Save the rain
See also
Coercion, Yale Attitude Change Approach, Sequential
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Persuasion http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/persuasion.htm
requests
References
Gass and Seiter (1999)
|gs|
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Government
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Quick links

Explanations
* Behaviors
+ Beliefs
– Brain stuff
– Conditioning
+ Coping Mechanisms
+ Critical Theory
+ Culture
– Decisions
* Emotions
– Evolution
– Gender
+ Games
– Groups
+ Identity
+ Learning
– Meaning
– Memory
* Needs
+ Self-development
+ Personality
And... + Power
* Tipping
– Relationships
* Willpower
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:08 PM
Priming http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/priming.htm
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book:
Explanations > Theories > Priming

Description
Priming is providing a stimulus that influences their
near-term future thoughts and actions, even though they
may not seem to be connected. And the big
Priming also increases the speed at which the second, related paperback book
item is recognized.
In effect, priming either introduces new things or brings old
thoughts close to the surface of the subconscious, thus
making them more accessible and more likely to be used
over less accessible (and possibly more relevant) thoughts.
Priming has a limited effect as the thoughts fade back to the
deeper subconscious. Typically, primed ideas are effective for
around 24 hours.
Conceptual priming occurs where related ideas are used to

prime the response, for example 'hat' may prime for 'head'. Look inside
Semantic priming occurs where the meaning created
influences later thoughts. Semantic and conceptual priming
are very similar and the terms may be used interchangeably.
Non-associative semantic priming refers to related concepts Need help?
but where one is less likely to trigger thoughts of the other,
for example 'Sun' and 'Venus'. Add/share/save:
Perceptual priming, is based on the form of the stimulus, for
example where a part-picture is completed based on a
picture seen earlier.
Associative priming happens when a linked idea is primed,
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for example when 'bread' primes the thought of 'butter'. This
particularly applies to 'free association' word pairs. Research
Masked priming occurs where a word or image is presented Psychology
for a very short time but is not consciously recognized.
Words Meaning
Repetitive priming occurs where the repetition of something
leads to it influencing later thoughts.
Reverse priming occurs where people realize they are being Save the rain
primed and, feeling they have been biased, over-respond in
their choices which are now biased in the reverse direction.
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Priming http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/priming.htm
Research
Bargh and Pietromonaco showed some people neutral words
whilst others were shown hostile words, very briefly flashed
up on a computer screen. Both groups then read about a
character with ambiguous behavior. Those who had been
primed with hostile words interpreted the behavior as being
more hostile.
Example
I take one bite from a chocolate bar. I now desire another
bite even more than before I took the first bite.
A stage magician says 'try' and 'cycle' in separate sentences Blog Sports Retail
Government
in priming a person to think later of the word 'tricycle'.
Conversion More >>
I start noticing other cars just like the one I bought.
So What?
Using it
Use a prime subtly so the person does not realize they are
being primed, thus influencing them towards a desired
outcome.
Be careful of obvious priming which can cause a reverse-
priming reaction.
Defending
When you seem to think of something in conversation with
someone else, think back to what may have triggered that
thought.
See also
Recency Effect, Availability Heuristic, Anchoring and
Adjustment Heuristic
References
Meyer and Schvanveldt (1971), Neely (1977), Bargh and
Pietromonaco (1982), Marcel, (1983), Draine and Greenwald
(1998), Sherman and Kim (2002)

Quick links
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:09 PM
Reciprocity Norm http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/reciprocity_norm.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Reciprocity Norm

Description
This is a very common social norm which says that if I give
something to you or help you in any way, then you are
obliged to return the favor. And the big
This norm is so powerful, it allows the initial giver to: paperback book
Ask for something in return, rather than having to wait

for a voluntary reciprocal act.
Ask for more than was given. You can even exchange a
smile for money.
Reciprocity also works at the level of liking. We like people

who like us, and dislike those who dislike us. This can create
a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Research
Kunz and Woolcott sent Christmas cards to a number of
Look inside
people he did not know. Most sent a card back (and they got
onto the permanent Christmas list of some).
Example
Hari Krishna people have used this by giving passers-by a Need help?
small plastic flower and then asking for a donation in return.
So what? Add/share/save:
Using it
Give people things, whether it is your time or money. It helps
if you give them something they truly appreciate. Do not give
them too much, lest they feel oppressed by their obligation. Ads by Google
Ask for something in return. Research
Defending Christmas Card
If people give you something, say thank you (which is giving Reciprocity
them something back in return!). When they ask for
something in return, say no. Be polite (giving them
something else). Or turn the tables, giving them something Save the rain
you don’t want, then ask them for something.
Always be aware of trickery when people you hardly know
offer you something, especially if they ask for something
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:09 PM
Reciprocity Norm http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/reciprocity_norm.htm
from you in return.
See also
Equity Theory, Friendship, Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, Social
Exchange Theory, Social Norms
References
Regan (1971), Kunz and Woolcott (1976), Cialdini (1993)
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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:09 PM
Scarcity Principle http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/scarcity_principle.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Scarcity Principle

Description
In our need to control our world, being able to choose is an
important freedom. If something becomes scarce, we
anticipate possible regret that we did not acquire it, and so And the big
we desire it more. This desire is increased further if we think paperback book
that someone else might get it and hence gain social position
that we might have had.
Research
Stephen Worchel and colleagues offered subjects cookies in a
jar. One jar had ten cookies in and the other jar had two.
Subjects preferred the cookies from the jar with two in, even
though they were the same cookies.
Example
The scarcity principle is used in sales, with ‘sale ends today’
(scarcity of time), ‘whilst stock last’ (scarcity of product) and
Look inside
so on.
So what?
Using it
Intimate that what you want the other person to choose is Need help?
only going to available for a limited time and that there may
not be many left in any case. Hint of other people waiting in Add/share/save:
the wings to for the chance to get it.
In romance and in business, play hard to get. Make it seem
like your time is precious.
Defending Ads by Google
When something is scarce, thing about whether you really Research
want it. If you keep buying things you do not want, you
money will be scarce instead, which is probably worse
Psychology
Nations
See also
Social Comparison Theory, Reactance Theory
Save the rain
References
Worchel
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:10 PM
Scarcity Principle http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/scarcity_principle.htm
Brehm (1966), Worchel, Lee and Adewole (1975), Cialdini

(1993)
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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:10 PM
Sleeper Effect http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/sleeper_effect.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Sleeper Effect

Description
The impact of a persuasive message will generally tend to
decrease over time. However, under the right circumstances
the sleeper effect predicts that a message from a And the big
low-credibility source can actually increase in persuasiveness. paperback book
Low credibility may be caused by a discounting cue, such as
when a prediction of improving economic conditions is given
by a government spokesperson (who is presumed to be
biased). However, when the message eventually gets
separated from its source (by dissociation), the message may
gain more credibility.
Research
Evidence for the sleeper effect is limited and inconsistent.
One of the findings is that if the impact of a persuasive
message does not increase with time, if it is given with a
low-credibility source with a discounting cue, then the impact Look inside
decline is at least slowed.
Example
I was going to the races and a work friend (who knows little
about horses) wrote down the name of three horses of which Need help?
he had heard. When I pulled out the piece of paper I had
forgotten who wrote it, but noticed that one of the horses Add/share/save:
had won. I consequently bet on all of the other horses. I did
not win.
So what?
Ads by Google
Using it
Make the message more dramatic than the deliverer. Once Research
the message catches on, the source may be safely (and Horse Racing
desirably) forgotten.
Psychology
Defending
When making a decision based on specific evidence,
Save the rain
deliberately recall the source and hence credibility of the
data.
See also
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:10 PM
Sleeper Effect http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/sleeper_effect.htm
Consistency Theory, Credibility
References
Hovland, Lumsdaine and Sheffield (1949), Stiff (1994)
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– Groups
+ Identity
+ Learning
– Meaning
– Memory
* Needs
+ Self-development
+ Personality
And... + Power
* Tipping
– Relationships
* Willpower
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:10 PM
Social Influence http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_influence.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Social Influence

Description
Social influence is the change in behavior that one person
causes in another, intentionally or unintentionally, as a result
of the way the changed person perceives themselves in And the big
relationship to the influencer, other people and society in paperback book
general.
Three areas of social influence are conformity, compliance
and obedience.
Conformity is changing how you behave to be more like
others. This plays to belonging and esteem needs as we seek
the approval and friendship of others. Conformity can run
very deep, as we will even change our beliefs and values to
be like those of our peers and admired superiors.
Compliance is where a person does something that they are
asked to do by another. They may choose to comply or not to
comply, although the thoughts of social reward and
Look inside
punishment may lead them to compliance when they really
do not want to comply.
Obedience is different from compliance in that it is obeying
an order from someone that you accept as an authority
figure. In compliance, you have some choice. In obedience, Need help?
you believe that you do not have a choice. Many military
officers and commercial managers are interested only in Add/share/save:
obedience.
Research
Solomon Asch showed how a person could be influenced by
others in a group to claim that a clearly shorter line in a Ads by Google
group of lines was, in fact, the longest. Research
Stanley Milgram did classic experiments in obedience, where
Psychology
people off the street obeyed orders to give (what they
thought were) life-threatening electric shocks to other Nations
people.
Example Save the rain

You ask me to pass the salt. I comply by giving it to you.
You tell me to pass the salt. I obey by giving it to you.
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:10 PM
Social Influence http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_influence.htm
I notice that people are using salt and passing it to the

person on their left without comment. I conform by doing
likewise.
So what?
Using it
Social Psychology includes a large domain of knowledge
around Social Influence (much of which is on this site). This
provides a powerful basis through which to persuade others.
Defending
Understand the psychology of social influence and how you
respond to it. Notice yourself in social situations. Also notice Blog Sports Retail
Government
how others are deliberately or unconsciously influencing you.
Conversion More >>
Then choose how you will respond.
See also
Theories about conforming, Normative Social Influence,
Informational Social Influence, Social Impact Theory
References
Asch (1951, 1956, 1966), Milgram (1983)
http://youtube.com/watch?v=w1u4wfRhKrY (Milgram video)

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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:10 PM
Subliminal Messages http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/subliminal_messages.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Subliminal Messages

Description | So What? | See also | References
Description
In the late 1950s, James Vicary’s marketing business was on
the rocks, so he made up the idea of subliminal advertising.
He claimed that putting a very short message in a film, ‘drink And the big
Coca-Cola’ resulted in increased sales of Coke. It was very paperback book
successful for him and fooled a whole generation and maybe
more.
Thus the field of subliminal persuasion was born, with the
promise that a message that is not consciously noticed will
have a significant effect on the subconscious.
Although some experiments got limited success, the big
claims came from improperly conducted experiments, for
example with no controls.
More recent experiments have shown that there is some
effect, although not excessive. Subliminal advertising will
only be effective if the person is already motivated to pursue
Look inside
a goal.
Research
Verwijmeren et al (2011) found that in using subliminal
advertising for a soft drink: Need help?
1. When a person is not thirsty, the subliminal message

Add/share/save:
has little effect and they pick the drink they usually
prefer.
2. If they are thirsty and they already have a strong
preference for the brand that was shown subliminally,
then of course they will choose that drink. Ads by Google
3. If they are thirsty and have no real preference, then
Subliminal
they will likely pick the subliminally-advertised drink.
4. If they are thirsty and a less-preferred drink is shown Psychology
subliminally, they will tend to choose the subliminally- Nations
advertised brand.
So what? Save the rain

This is still a controversial area and
Using it
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:11 PM
Subliminal Messages http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/subliminal_messages.htm
Be very careful. Avoid the 'magical' claims that are still found
in all kinds of products. Use it when it is (a) legal, and (b)
where people are already likely to want the sort of thing you
are selling.
See also
Mere Exposure Theory
http://alpha.fdu.edu/~gradford/subliminal.html,
http://www.snopes2.com/business/hidden/popcorn.htm
References
Zanot, Pincus and Lamp (1983)
Blog Sports Retail
Government
Verwijmeren, T., Karremans, J. C., Stroebe, W., & Conversion More >>
Wigboldus, D. (2011). The workings and limits of subliminal
advertising: The role of habits. Journal of Consumer
Psychology.
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And... + Power
* Preferences
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:11 PM
Ultimate Terms http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/ultimate_terms.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Ultimate Terms

Description
There are words which have special meaning within each
culture and carry power where they are used.
And the big
God terms carry blessings, demand sacrifice and paperback book
obedience. E.g. progress, value.
Devil terms are reviled and evoke disgust. E.g. fascist,
pedophile.
Charismatic Terms are not like God and Devil terms,
which are associated with observable things. These
terms are more intangible. E.g. freedom, contribution.
These terms can change, and God or Charisma terms that

are over-used can turn into Devil terms.
They are also sometimes called power words, especially by
sales people. Words used in sales often appeal to basic
needs, such as: Look inside
Safety: guarantee, proven

Control: powerful, strong
Understanding: because, as, so, truth, real
Need help?
Greed: money, cash, save, win, free, more
Health: safe, healthy, well
Add/share/save:
Belonging: belong, happy, good, feel
Esteem: exclusive, only, admired
Identity: you, (their name), we
Novelty: new, discover
Ads by Google
Negative words are also used in this context to scare people
into action. These often address those self-same needs, but
God
now from the opposite direction: Is God Evil
Safety: dangerous,
The Devil
Control: uncertain, scarce
Understanding: change, complicated Save the rain
Greed: lose, stolen
Health: unhealthy, sick, old
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:11 PM
Ultimate Terms http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/ultimate_terms.htm
Belonging: wrong, alone, rejected

Esteem: ridicule, laughed at
Identity: they, he
Novelty: outdated, unfashionable
Example
‘Quality’ was a God term in many companies during the TQM
era of the early 1990s. Then it became a Devil term as those
companies got it wrong and needed to blame something.
So what?
Using it Blog Sports Retail
Know the terms, and employ them well. Misuse them at your Government
peril. There are many crass advertisements that beat Conversion More >>
ultimate terms to death. To be effective, they must be subtle,
and done with a light touch. If the listener/reader realizes
what you are trying to do, not only will this take the
effectiveness out of the words, it will also cause a negative
reaction.
Defending
Listen to the use of ultimate terms. Where people are
abusing them, let them know you know. If necessary, expose
their trickery.
See also
http://www.riger.com/know_base/advertising/top_ten.html,
http://www.winstonbrill.com/bril001/html/article_index
/articles/251-300/article271_body.html
References
Weaver (1953)

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+ Beliefs
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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:11 PM
Weak Ties Theory http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/weak_ties.htm
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Explanations > Theories > Weak Ties Theory

Description
We have both friends and acquaintances. Our friends are
often a part of a close-knit group who largely know one
another. Our acquaintances are far less likely to know one And the big
another. paperback book
In terms of connection with general society and staying in
touch with what is going on in the wider world, the weak ties
with our acquaintances are paradoxically much more
important than the inwardly-focused conversations with our
closer friends. Indeed, the information we discuss with our
friends often comes from wider sources.
In the familiarity of strong ties we use simple restricted
codes, where much is implicit and taken for granted. In
communicating through the weak ties, we need more explicit
elaborated codes for meaning to be fully communicated.
When elaborating, we have more scope for creativity and the
thought that it stimulates makes innovation more likely. Look inside
The more weak ties we have, the more connected to the
world we are and are more likely to receive important
information about ideas, threats and opportunities in time to
respond to them. Need help?
Societies and social systems that have more weak ties are
more likely to be dynamic and innovative. If the system is Add/share/save:
mostly made up of strong ties, then it will be fragmented and
uncoordinated.
Some weak ties are better than others. Weak ties to friends
of your friends are not as useful as weak ties elsewhere as
Ads by Google
the information and further connections are likely to be
similar to those of your friends. Weak ties that join separate Theory
social groups are called bridges. Search Friends
You can also find absent ties, where you might expect a tie
Find Friends
but it does not exist, for example in a group of friends where
two people are still distant from one another.
As there are usually more people in lower classes, they have Save the rain
greater choice of friends and greater chance of finding similar
'people like me' and so compensate by having more strong
ties. Economic uncertainty also leads to the search for
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:11 PM
contingencies and poorer people invest far more in building

multiple strong ties who will directly help them if they are in
difficulty. However this may serve to anchor their status
further and reduce the chance of upward social mobility.
Upper class people are more relaxed about weak ties and so
tend to have more. However, they have to resort to
expensive clubs and other filtering mechanisms to find
'people like them' with whom they can build stronger ties.
The modern approach to business networking is based on the
principle of weak ties: having a wide range of acquaintances
can be far more helpful than having just a few good friends.
Weak ties are also useful for activists who need to mobilize Blog Sports Retail
large protest or action groups. Government
Weak ties are the channels of culture and are woven into Conversion More >>
successful organisations where many know many others on
first-name terms. Three types of weak ties that may be found
in towns and cities are social (casual friendship), community
(eg. neighbors) and profesional (job-related).
Research
Granovetter's original 1973 research into the subject looked
at how people find jobs. He discovered that information
about jobs that led to employment was more likely to come
from the weak ties with acquaintances than from closer
friends.
There were several moderators of this finding, for example
that this 'weak ties finds jobs' was more common in higher
status individuals, and that people who had been out of work
for longer were more likely to find jobs via their stronger ties.
Example
I have a wide circle of people I know, including many on the
internet I have never met. I hear from one of these about a
new communications system. I introduce this at my
workplace and get many plaudits for my innovation and
ability to be 'at the leading edge'.
So What?
Using it
Balance the comfort of close friends with the stimulation of
external connection and exploration. Build a network of
people you connect with occasionally. Keep tabs on them and
feed them with useful information from time to time. Listen
to them and ask for ideas and help with problem-solving.
You can also help change in organizations by encouraging
weak ties between groups. One bridge can lead to a lot more
harmony. Leaders and innovators in particular can make
great use of weak ties.
Defending
Watch for casual friends who are becoming somewhat of a
drain on you. Back off if the social balance is upset too much.
See also
Social Exchange Theory, Social Contagion, Small World
Theory
2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:11 PM
References
Granovetter (1973), Granovetter (1983), Milgram (1967)

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Yale Attitude Change Approach http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/yale_attitude_change.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Yale Attitude Change Approach

Description
A Yale University multi-year, multi-project research into
persuasive communication showed (amongst other things):
Who (source of communication): And the big
paperback book
The speaker should be credible and attractive to the
audience.
Says what (nature of communication):
Messages should not appear to be designed to

persuade.
Present two-sided arguments (refuting the ‘wrong’
argument, of course).
If two people are speaking one after the other, it is best
to go first (primacy effect).
If two people are speaking with a delay between them, Look inside
it is best to go last (recency effect).
To whom (the nature of the audience)
2013 GRAMMY Distract them during the persuasion Need help?

Nominees - Audio CD Lower intelligence and moderate self-esteem helps.
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Example
Watch politicians. They do this wonderfully well. They look
great. They talk through the other side's argument, making it
first seem reasonable then highlighting all their problems. It Ads by Google
all seems to be just common sense spoken by a really nice Yale
person...
Communication
So what? Psychology
Using it
So use the advice. And note the point about 'not appearing to Save the rain
be designed to persuade'. People with new understanding
about persuasion can get too enthusiastic about using it,
quickly getting to the point where the other people know
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:12 PM
Yale Attitude Change Approach http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/yale_attitude_change.htm
what they are doing.
See also
Persuasion
References
Hovland, Janis and Kelley (1953)
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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:12 PM
Theories about resistance http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/a_resistance.htm
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book:
Explanations > Theories > Theories about resistance
Here are academic theories about how we resist attempts at

persuasion.
Compensation: acting to disconfirm negative perception

from others.
Inoculation: a weak argument increases ability to resist And the big
it. paperback book
Insufficient Punishment: we devalue a resisted desired
object.
See also
Theories about being contrary, Objection-handling, Defensive
body language, Fallacies, Coping Mechanisms, Resisting
persuasion, Resistance to change
Look inside
Need help?
Add/share/save:
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Resistance
Theories
Psychology
Save the rain
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:12 PM
Compensation http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/compensation.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Compensation

Description
When we believe other people perceive us in a negative way,
we will deliberately act in a way to disconfirm this belief.
And the big
Example paperback book
When you first meet people, you may fear that they find you
unfriendly, so you act in a way that is more friendly than you
usually are.
So what?
Using it
Infer to a person or otherwise let them know that they are
considered greedy. Then ask them for something that will
require them to act in a generous way.
Defending
Be yourself. Avoid getting railroaded by people who tell you
Look inside
that you are what you are not.
See also
Cognitive Dissonance, Confirmation Bias, Self-Fulfilling
Prophecy, Self-Verification Theory Need help?
References
Add/share/save:
Fiske and Taylor (1991)
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Compensation
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Psychology
Save the rain
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:12 PM
Inoculation http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/inoculation.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Inoculation

Description | Research | So What? | See also | References
Description
Like in medicine, this is using a weak dose of a counter-
argument to make a person resistant to it.
Inoculation works because it exposes people to arguments, And the big
making them think about and rehearse opposing arguments. paperback book
When they hear the arguments again, even stronger
versions, they pay less attention to them, especially if they
believe their opposing argument is stronger.
There are three stages to inoculation:
Warning: Tell the person that it is about to happen so

they are forced to get ready.
Weak attack: Attack them, but weakly so they can
easily resist.
Active defending: The person must actively defend
them self (and find it relatively easy to do so).
Look inside
Example
My child was being verbally abused at school. I play-acted
with him the situation. I played the abuser, but with weak
and stupid insults. He played himself, laughing them off. Need help?
When he got to school, he found verbal abuse easy to
dismiss. Add/share/save:
So what?
Using it
After persuading someone, inoculate them to prevent anyone
else later undoing your good work. Tell them about people Ads by Google
who will try to persuade them otherwise and help them Research
develop counter-arguments.
Nations
Defending
Psychology
Just because an argument works against something, it does
not mean it is valid in other, similar circumstances.
Save the rain
See also
Attitude, Insufficient Punishment, Minimal Justification
Principle, Idea Immunization
1 of 3 1/20/2013 5:13 PM
Inoculation http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/inoculation.htm
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters
/inocul.htm,
References
Papageorgis and McGuire (1961), McGuire (1964)
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STRETCH
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2 of 3 1/20/2013 5:13 PM
Insufficient Punishment http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/insufficient_punishment.htm
New Kindle
book:
Explanations > Theories > Insufficient Punishment

Description
This is the dissonance felt when a person lack sufficient
external justification for having resisted a desired activity or
object. This often results in the person devaluing the And the big
forbidden thing. paperback book
Research
Aronson and Carlsmith (1963) threatened children with either
mild or severe punishment if they played with favored toys.
None of them played with toys, even when left alone with
them. Afterwards the children who had only been mildly
threatened favored the toys less. Lacking a strong external
justification, they had made internal attributions that they
actually did not like the toys so much.
Example
Company disciplinary systems often start with a weak
Look inside
dissuasion. This is all that most people need. Before long
they not only follow but believe the company line.
So what?
Using it Need help?
To stop someone doing something, don’t threaten massive
punishment. Threaten only just enough (or use some other Add/share/save:
minimal technique) to stop them for a while. Eventually, they
will give up voluntarily.
See also
Cognitive Dissonance, Inoculation Ads by Google
References Punishment
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Persuasion Theories

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Persuasion Theories

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Theories about persuasion http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/a_persuading.

Calvin Klein Diem

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

Disciplines Techniques Principles Explanations Theories

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Explanations > Theories > Theories about persuasion

Here are academic theories about how we persuade other

Amplification Hypothesis: Certainty hardens attitude.

See also Psychology

Save the rain

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

Disciplines Techniques Principles Explanations Theories

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Explanations > Theories > Amplification Hypothesis

look at the consequences of attitude certainty: The

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Disciplines Techniques Principles

Stuart Weitzman Whisker

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

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Techniques > General Persuasion > Sequential Requests > Bait-and-Switch

Would you like to go out to this really expensive

clips (and hence got a lot of volunteers), but then switched

Disciplines Techniques Principles

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

Disciplines Techniques Principles Explanations Theories

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Explanations > Theories > Conversion Theory

1. Consistency: Being consistent in expressing minority

An extremist group holds regular demonstrations

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Disciplines Techniques Principles

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

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Can you help me do all this work?

Can I stay out until 4am?

Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, and Miller asked students to to

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Guilt, Social Judgment Theory

Disciplines Techniques Principles

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

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Dad, can I go out for an hour to see Sam? [answer

second person to put a large sign advocating safe driving in

Beaman, A. L., Cole, C. M., Klentz, B., & Steblay, N. M.

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

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Explanations > Theories > Forced Compliance

The reason why disliked persuader are more effective is

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How we change what others think, feel, believe an

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Explanations > Theories > Information Manipulation Theory

So what? Need help?

How we change what others think, feel, believe an

Disciplines Techniques Principles Explanations Theories