MLS 123 MODULE 2 Infection Control Safety First Aid and Personal Wellness

ALTERNATIVE LEARNING MODULE FOR MLS 123 AND MLS 123L
PRINCIPLES OF
MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE PRACTICE 2
Department of Medical Laboratory Science

SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
MLS 123
Second Semester 2020-2021
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, you should be able to:
1. Trace the evolution of phlebotomy and how it
became a practice
2. Describe who is a phlebotomist and what are the
roles of a phlebotomist
3. Know the proper disinfection and
decontamination procedures, the safety
guidelines and the other pertinent safety
protocols in the laboratory
4. Identify the parts and functions of the body’s
cardiovascular system, particularly the anatomic
locations which can be utilized to collect blood
samples
5. Recall the materials and equipment used in the
performance of a phlebotomy procedure
6. Enumerate the preanalytical variables that could
affect the patient’s test results
7. Discuss and perform the different blood collection
techniques, as well as point of care testing
8. Identify when and how to troubleshoot when
problems are encountered during a phlebotomy
procedure
9. Know the proper etiquette when dealing with a
patient and provide the proper patient care
10. Characterize the specimen handling and
processing techniques
11. Discuss the importance and proper technique of
an arterial puncture
12. Describe the concept of quality assurance in the
context of the practice of phlebotomy
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Dear future Medical Laboratory Scientists,
This course will enable you to understand the basic concepts and techniques in blood extraction that
will always be part of you as a Medical Laboratory Scientist.
The topics and concepts that you will learn this second semester is interrelated to the concepts
learned from the previous semester in the course MLS 112, Principles of Medical Laboratory Science
Practice 1. In this regard, you will be learning the art of extracting blood sample from patients.
Specimen collection, handling, and processing remains one of the primary areas of preanalytical
error. Therefore, careful attention to each phase is necessary to ensure proper subsequent testing
and reporting of meaningful results.
The primary role of a medical laboratory scientist is to aid the physician in the diagnosis and treatment
of diseases. Hence, this course will provide an avenue for you to know the importance of phlebotomy,
and other special techniques to obtain blood sample which is one of the most important steps to
provide accurate results.
With everything said, we pray that you will enjoy what you will learn this semester and will take into
heart the concepts and principles not only until you finish this course but until you become
professionals in the future. A blessed semester to each and every one of you!
Best regards,
MLS 123 and 123L Facilitators

AY 2020-2021
MODULE 2
INFECTION CONTROL, SAFETY, FIRST AID, AND PERSONAL
WELLNESS
MODULE CONTENTS
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................... 1

COURSE INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 2
MODULE CONTENTS............................................................................................................................ 3
MODULE INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 4
MODULE OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................ 4
MODULE SELF MONITORING FORM .............................................................................................. 4
MODULE 2: INFECTION CONTROL, SAFETY, FIRST AID, AND PERSONAL WELLNESS ... 5
UNIT 1: TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES............................................................................................. 5
Engage ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Explore................................................................................................................................................ 6
Explain ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Elaborate ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................ 18
UNIT 2: HEALTHCARE-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS ..................................................................... 19
Engage .............................................................................................................................................. 19
Explore.............................................................................................................................................. 20
Explain .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Elaborate ........................................................................................................................................... 28
Evaluate ............................................................................................................................................ 31
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 32
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module focuses on infection control, with emphasis on the chain of infection and how to break
the chain to prevent transmission. It will review your knowledge on hazards, introduce you to
healthcare-associated infections, describe the hand hygiene practices, and expound ways on how to
deal with concerns encountered in the laboratory, such as antimicrobial resistance and exposure to
certain hazards.
MODULE OBJECTIVES
After you are done reading and doing the tasks in this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Identify the components of the chain of infection and give examples of each, describe infection-
control procedures used to break the chain, and identify four functions of infection control
programs.
2. Describe standard and transmission-based precautions for blood borne pathogens.
3. List examples of blood-borne pathogens and describe their means of transmission in healthcare
setting.
MODULE SELF MONITORING FORM

To help you keep track of your tasks for this module, you are provided with a self- monitoring form
below. Take the time to tick on the “YES” box for each activity that you finish. Be reminded about
pending events that you are yet to do. Remember that your success in achieving the module
objectives depends entirely on how conscientious you are of your progress.
Schedule Activities Completed

Yes No
Engage  
Week 3 Explore  
Explain  
Elaborate  
Evaluate  
Engage  
Explore  
Explain  
Elaborate  
Evaluate  
– 15 points
Do Read Quiz Submit
MODULE 2
WELLNESS
UNIT 1: TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES
This unit will engage you to the current general perspective of the Filipino people to vaccines,
particularly due to the recent dengue vaccine. This may also play a role in the people’s perspective
towards the very timely COVID-19 vaccine, as a means of controlling the spread of the infection. In
addition, as laboratory personnel, you must be aware of the safety precautions and infection control
measures. You will learn the chain of infection, its components, and will be introduced to the methods
of breaking the said chain to minimize, if not totally prevent, the transmission of infection. Application
of this knowledge regarding these concepts is important in the practice of phlebotomy and in public
health in general.
Vaccination Controversy
A massive measles outbreak occurred in the Philippines in early 2019. The outbreak occurred
in selected regions such as Central Luzon, Central and Western Visayas, and Northern Mindanao.
The Department of Health (DOH) declared the outbreak in Metro Manila after observing a 550%
increase in the number of patients between January and February 2019.
Measles, or rubeola, is a viral infection that starts in the

respiratory system. Measles causes a red, blotchy rash that usually
appears first on the face and behind the ears, then spreads downward
to the chest and back and finally to the feet. While it is rare in
developed countries around the world, it is still common in certain
underdeveloped regions of the world where vaccination is not
accessible enough.
Vaccination for measles in the Philippines is actually quite

accessible. It is free in government issued hospitals. However, as of
late, the trust for vaccination has been drastically reduced.
This is due to the Dengvaxia controversy that occurred around

2016-2017. Dengvaxia was a dengue vaccine produced by Sanofi
Pasteur. On December 2015, the vaccine was approved for commercial sale in the Philippines. On
April 2016, the DOH launched a massive dengue vaccination campaign in Central Luzon, Calabarzon,
and Metro Manila in response to increasing incidence of dengue fever.
However, on November 2017, Sanofi Pasteur released a statement stating that their Dengue
vaccine, Dengvaxia, posed risk to individuals vaccinated without having a prior dengue infection. The
DOH immediately suspended the vaccination, but the damage was done. An estimated 700,000
children were vaccinated with the said vaccine. Children who were vaccinated started dying from
dengue despite the vaccine, with reports of the same incidence up until 2019.
This led to a great decrease in the trust of vaccinations, as proven in the increased incidence
of measles. This brings into consideration the trust of the Filipinos to the coming COVID-19 vaccine.
As a future healthcare professional, do you have any concerns regarding the vaccine when it
comes inevitably?
Infection Control
Infection Control in a healthcare setting is the prevention of the spread of microorganisms:

› From a patient to another patient
› From a patient to a healthcare worker
› From a healthcare worker to a patient
Every healthcare worker should be aware of all infection control policies and procedures in
their working area. A hospital, or any similar healthcare setting, has an Infection Control officer which
oversees the implementation of these policies.
The healthcare setting involves contact with numerous patients who are being treated or cared
for in often confined spaces. This means that the transmission of various diseases increases in their
probability. Patients will come into contact with many healthcare workers can potentially spread
infections, and healthcare workers then spread the same disease to other patients. More about
Infection Control will be discussed in the following topic.
LABORATORY PRECAUTION
Safety begins with the recognition of

hazards, is achieved through the application of REVIEW:
knowledge, and maintained through vigilant ✓ Hazard: a potential threat to humans
awareness. A safety-focused attitude, proper and welfare
personal behavior, good housekeeping habits in ✓ Risk: the likelihood or probability of a
all laboratory work and storage areas, and the
hazard occurring or creating loss
continual practice of good laboratory technique
ensures the safety of the laboratory worker.
HAZARDS
Based on MLS 112 (PMLS 1) Module 6, recall the following:
What is biosafety? What is biosecurity?
What are the different types of hazards?
What are the different types of biosafety cabinets?
Guidelines & regulations set by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
to prevent exposure to biohazards:
Universal Precautions (UP)

› Mandates that personnel should treat all blood and blood-contaminated
samples as potentially infectious.
› Universal Precautions did not treat other bodily fluids that are not visibly
contaminated with blood as potentially infectious.
Standard Precautions (SP)

› Standard Precautions are the minimum infection prevention practices that
apply to all patient care, regardless of suspected or confirmed infection status
of the patient, in any setting where health care is delivered.
The Standard Precaution is a set of infection control work practices designed to reduce
the risk of transmission between patients and healthcare workers. These include:
1. Good hygiene practices
2. Frequent hand washing
3. The appropriate use of gloves
4. The use of other personal protective equipment, such as eye protection, masks,
aprons, gowns and overalls
5. The safe use and disposal of sharp instruments, such as needle and syringes
6. The use of disposable equipment where applicable and available
7. Correct cleaning, disinfection and sterilization of non-disposable equipment
8. Safe collection, storage and disposal of waste
9. The appropriate use of cleaning agents
10. Protocols for preventing and managing occupational exposures to blood or body
substances
The Standard Precaution employs these practices due to the fact that you can’t tell who is
infected with what disease. The Standard Precaution thus indicates that ALL body substances
are considered to be potential sources of infection. The Standard Precaution must be practiced
in the treatment and care of all patients regardless of their infectious status.
Chain of Infection
The chain of infection illustrates how pathogens are transmitted. Understanding the chain of
infection is essential for one to identify measures that will prevent infection.
COMPONENTS OF THE CHAIN OF INFECTION
Review the definitions and examples of each component of the Chain of Infection from MLS 112
(PMLS 1) Module 6.
BREAKING THE CHAIN OF INFECTION

Infection can be controlled mainly through the disruption of the chain of infection.
This can be accomplished at any given stage of the chain, but the first priority of infection
control is containing the source of any infection: the patient.
If the patient carries the infectious agent, the

patient can thus be regarded as the reservoir. As the
reservoir, their disease can thus spread by following
the continuation of the chain of infection. Stopping
the spread of the disease is then accomplished by
disrupting each succeeding stage of the chain of
infection.
A. INFECTIOUS AGENT / PATHOGEN

 Break the link by eliminating or inactivating the agent, preventing the agent from
exiting the reservoir, sterilizing surgical instruments, safe food practices, safe drinking
water, vaccinations, treating infectious individuals, practicing good hand hygiene.
B. RESERVOIR
 Break the link by treating infectious individuals, vaccination, handling and disposing
of body fluids appropriately, safe food practices, monitoring water for contamination.
C. PORTAL OF EXIT
 Break the link by implementing safe practices such as covering coughs and sneezes,
handling body fluids with gloves, performing appropriate hand hygiene, and containing
draining wounds. Healthcare providers should not work if they have exudative (wet)
lesions or weeping dermatitis.
D. MODE OF TRANSMISSION
 Break the link by ensuring transmission between objects or people does not occur;
use appropriate barriers, safe practices, spatial separation, engineering controls, hand
hygiene, environmental sanitation, and equipment disinfection/sterilization.
E. PORTAL OF ENTRY
 Break the link by performing appropriate hand hygiene, using aseptic technique when
required, applying best practice techniques with wound and catheter care, wearing
appropriate PPE, eliminating invasive devices when safe to do so and providing safe food
and water.
F. SUSCEPTIBLE HUMAN HOST
 Break the link by ensuring hosts are not susceptible including measures such as
immunizations, good nutrition, recognition and treatment of high risk patients
CASE ANALYSIS
Let’s apply the concepts of Chain of Infection here in this sample case.
SAMPLE CASE
A patient is admitted to the infectious ward for a severe respiratory disease. The patient is
isolated from other patients, and guidelines in the infectious ward enforce a strict policy in the use
of personal protective equipment.
Taking the patient’s circumstances into consideration, we can thus build from here the
specific chain of infection and the ways to disrupt this chain to break retransmission of the disease.
CHAIN OF INFECTION
As applicable to the sample case above.
1. Infectious Agent – Influenza
If the infectious agent has been identified, immediate steps can already be taken to start breaking
the chain of infection from here. The patient can begin treatment to stabilize their condition, and
possibly deactivate the transmissive capability of the infectious agent.
In this case, since the patient has a severe case of influenza, the patient will undergo IV drips
along with antiviral drugs to inhibit viral replication and boost the patient’s immune system.
2. Reservoir – Patient X
Isolating the reservoir is a possible way of reducing transmission. If the reservoir were not a living
being and were instead an inanimate object, destruction of the reservoir would be the ideal course
of action. However, since we are handling lives, destruction of the patient is an inhumane mode
of prevention.
3. Portal of Exit – Patient’s respiratory tract
Had the patient not have a severe case of influenza, the patient would be instructed to go home,
take medication, rest, limit personal interactions, and use masks to prevent transmission of the
virus they carry.
However, in the hospital setting, it is often the case the patients are not made to use masks unless
in extreme settings. It is also not recommended especially when the patient requires a ventilator
unit or has trouble breathing.
4. Mode of transmission – Airborne transmission
Once the infectious agent has left the reservoir, it can then extend towards its next host following
its mode of transmission. The influenza virus exits through respiratory droplets from the patient’s
respiratory tract, possible from coughing, sneezing, or even talking.
As the respiratory droplets are already in the air, the only way to circumvent this is through proper
ventilation of the room the patient was isolated in. But that method of infection control is variable
and is subject to numerous factors often beyond control of anyone involved. These factors include
the amount of air coming in either from a window or air conditioner, the speed of which the air
traveled, the amount of respiratory droplets emitted by the patient including the viral load in each
droplet, and so on. Thus, for this specific infectious agent, it may be more recommended to handle
breaking the chain of infection in other stages.
5. Portal of Entry – Mucous membranes
The skin is part of the body’s innate immune system which protects us from foreign pathogens.
The mucus membranes however, such as the conjunctiva of the eyes and the lining inside our
respiratory tract, do not share the same properties as skin, thus allowing for the transmission
through respiratory droplets.
Use of face masks and face shields protect the sensitive exposed mucus membranes from
coming into contact with respiratory droplets.
6. Susceptible Host – Watchers, the healthcare worker
The susceptible host could be anyone who comes into contact with the patient. This includes the
patient’s “watcher”, who is a family member or relative that is allowed to accompany the patient
in the hospital, the healthcare workers who are in charge of treating and caring for the patient,
and even other patients.
Elimination of the possible susceptible hosts could be accomplished through complete isolation
of the patient, but in a healthcare setting the patient will without a doubt come into contact with
several healthcare worker. Thus, in a healthcare setting, breaking the chain of infection during its
portal of exit, mode of transmission, and portal of entry is the only viable course of action.
Through the analysis of the case above, certain practices and policies can be created in the
workplace in order to minimize the chance of coinfection between patients and healthcare
workers.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
Occupational safety is a foundation of knowledge that must be ingrained in every professional’s

mindset. Having this knowledge ingrained in their general work habits allows them to function
seamlessly while reducing the risk of inflicting harm onto themselves or to others.
The Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) is a governing body founded
in the United States responsible for ensuring and
monitoring the implementation of work standards in
all fields, including the medical field.
The OSH Act (Occupational and Safety Act) is a set of standards providing employees,
including clinical laboratory personnel, a safe work environment. Many programs and guidelines are
based on this act, and is the basis for many of the implemented policies in the Philippines.
One of the standards stemming from the OSH Act is the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards in 1978 formulated by the Department of Labor and Employment. It was amended in
1989, and follows another revision through the passage of RA 11058.
Republic Act No. 11058, also known as the OSH Law. This act requires employers of all
establishments to provide their employees with a safe work environment, affording the working
people with full protection from all hazards in their work environment. The act also ensures ensure
that the provisions of the Labor Code of the Philippines, all domestic laws, and internationally-
recognized standards on occupational safety and health are being fully enforced and complied with
by the employers, and it shall provide penalties for any violation thereof. Department Order 198-18
implements the rules and regulations set by RA 11058.
The clinical laboratory is a workplace known for many hazards, and these laws allows
professional who seek to this career to be protected in their work environment.
.
Hierarchy of Controls
Occupational safety and health professionals use a framework called the “hierarchy of
controls” to select ways of dealing with workplace hazards. The hierarchy of controls prioritizes
intervention strategies based on the premise that the best way to control a hazard is to systematically
remove it from the workplace, rather than relying on workers to reduce their exposure. The types of
measures that may be used to protect laboratory workers, prioritized from most to least effective are:
1. Engineering controls
2. Administrative controls
3. Work practices
4. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Most employers use a combination of control methods. Employers must evaluate their
particular workplace to develop a plan for protecting their workers that may combine both
immediate actions as well as longer term solutions. A description of each type of control for non-
production laboratories follows.
1. Engineering controls
are those that involve making changes to the work environment to reduce work-
related hazards. These types of controls are preferred over all others because
they make permanent changes that reduce exposure to hazards and do not rely
on worker behavior. By reducing a hazard in the workplace, engineering controls
can be the most cost-effective solutions for employers to implement.
Examples include:
▪ Chemical Fume Hoods
▪ Biological Safety Cabinets (BSCs)
2. Administrative controls
are those that modify workers’ work schedules and tasks in ways that minimize
their exposure to workplace hazards.
Examples include:
▪ Developing a Chemical Hygiene Plan
▪ Developing Standard Operating Procedures for chemical handling
3. Work practices
are procedures for safe and proper work that are used to reduce the duration,
frequency or intensity of exposure to a hazard. When defining safe work practice
controls, it is a good idea for the employer to ask workers for their suggestions,
since they have firsthand experience with the tasks as actually performed. These
controls need to be understood and followed by managers, supervisors and
workers.
Examples include:
▪ No mouth pipetting
▪ Chemical substitution where feasible (e.g., selecting a less hazardous
chemical for a specific procedure)
4. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

is protective gear needed to keep workers safe while performing their jobs.
Examples of PPE include:
▪ respirators (for example, N95)
▪ face shields
▪ goggles and disposable gloves.
While engineering and administrative controls and proper work practices are
considered to be more effective in minimizing exposure to many workplace
hazards, the use of PPE is also very important in laboratory settings.
It is important that PPE be:
▪ Selected based upon the hazard to the worker
▪ Properly fitted and in some cases periodically refitted (e.g., respirators)
▪ Conscientiously and properly worn
▪ Regularly maintained and replaced in accord with the manufacturer’s
specifications
▪ Properly removed and disposed of to avoid contamination of self, others
or the environment;
▪ If reusable, properly removed, cleaned, disinfected and stored.
Personal protective equipment, or PPE, as defined by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration, or OSHA, is “specialized clothing or equipment,
worn by an employee for protection against infectious materials.”
Task. Below are examples of PPE that must be used in the laboratory. Name each of
the following PPE.
Implications of the COC
IMPLICATIONS IN PUBLIC HEALTH
Knowledge of the portals of exit and entry and modes of transmission provides a basis for
determining appropriate control measures in the healthcare setting. In general, control measures are
usually directed against the segment in the infection chain that is most susceptible to intervention,
unless practical issues dictate otherwise.
For some diseases, the most appropriate intervention may be directed at controlling or
eliminating the agent at its source. A patient sick with a communicable disease may be treated with
antibiotics to eliminate the infection. An asymptomatic but infected person may be treated both to
clear the infection and to reduce the risk of transmission to others. In the community, soil may be
decontaminated or covered to prevent escape of the agent.
Some interventions are directed at the mode of transmission. Interruption of direct

transmission may be accomplished by isolation of someone with infection, or counseling persons to
avoid the specific type of contact associated with transmission. Vehicle-borne transmission may be
interrupted by elimination or decontamination of the vehicle. To prevent fecal-oral transmission,
efforts often focus on rearranging the environment to reduce the risk of contamination in the future
and on changing behaviors, such as promoting handwashing. For airborne diseases, strategies may
be directed at modifying ventilation or air pressure, and filtering or treating the air. To interrupt vector-
borne transmission, measures may be directed toward controlling the vector population, such as
spraying to reduce the mosquito population.
Some strategies that protect portals of entry are simple and effective. For example, bed nets
are used to protect sleeping persons from being bitten by mosquitoes that may transmit malaria. A
dentist’s mask and gloves are intended to protect the dentist from a patient’s blood, secretions, and
droplets, as well to protect the patient from the dentist. Wearing of long pants and sleeves and use
of insect repellent are recommended to reduce the risk of Lyme disease and West Nile virus infection,
which are transmitted by the bite of ticks and mosquitoes, respectively.
Some interventions aim to increase a host’s defenses. Vaccinations promote development

of specific antibodies that protect against infection. On the other hand, prophylactic use of
antimalarial drugs, recommended for visitors to malaria-endemic areas, does not prevent exposure
through mosquito bites, but does prevent infection from taking root.
Finally, some interventions attempt to prevent a pathogen from encountering a susceptible

host. The concept of herd immunity suggests that if a high enough proportion of individuals in a
population are resistant to an agent, then those few who are susceptible will be protected by the
resistant majority, since the pathogen will be unlikely to “find” those few susceptible individuals.
IMPLICATIONS IN PHLEBOTOMY
Phlebotomy exposes both the patient and the phlebotomist to hazards, and good practices
and guidelines can lower the risk of hazards from occurring.
By its nature, phlebotomy has the potential to expose health workers and patients to blood
from other people, putting them at risk from bloodborne pathogens.
These pathogens include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV),
hepatitis C virus (HCV), and those causing viral hemorrhagic fevers (Crimean Congo hemorrhagic
fever, Ebola, Lassa and Marburg) and dengue. For example, outbreaks of hepatitis B have been
reported with the use of glucometers (devices used to determine blood glucose concentration).
Diseases such as malaria and syphilis may also be transmitted via contaminated blood, and
poor infection control practices may lead to bacterial infection where the needle is inserted and
contamination of specimens.
Serious adverse events linked with phlebotomy are rare, but may include loss of
consciousness with seizures. Less severe events include pain at the site of venipuncture, anxiety and
fainting. The best documented adverse events are in blood transfusion services, where poor
venipuncture practice or anatomical abnormality has resulted in bruising, hematoma and injury to
anatomical structures in the vicinity of the needle entry. For example, one study reported bruising and
hematoma at the venipuncture site in 12.3% of blood donors. Nerve injury and damage to adjacent
anatomical structures occurred infrequently, and syncope occurred in less than 1% of individuals.
Injuries from sharps (i.e., items such as needles that have corners, edges or projections
capable of cutting or piercing the skin) commonly occur between the use and disposal of a needle or
similar device. One way to reduce accidental injury and blood exposure among health workers is to
replace devices with safety (i.e., engineered) devices.
Safety devices can avoid up to 75% of percutaneous injuries; however, if they are
disassembled or manually recapped, or if the needle safety feature is not activated, exposure to blood
becomes more likely. Eliminating needle recapping and instead immediately disposing of the sharp
into a puncture-resistant sharps container (i.e., a safety container) markedly reduces needle-stick
injuries
OSHA Requirements for Phlebotomists
A phlebotomist's main duty is to draw blood from a patient's vein for diagnostic testing,
transfusions or treatments. Phlebotomists risk exposure to a variety of bloodborne pathogens
including HIV and Hepatitis B and C. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration enforces
regulations to ensure the safety and health of phlebotomists in the workplace.
1. Cleanliness
One of OSHA's primary requirements for phlebotomists is washing hands before and after
working with patients, after removing personal protection equipment such as gloves, and anytime
they are exposed to blood or anything else that may carry infection.
In addition, phlebotomists must keep their work areas clean. This includes wiping down and
disinfecting surfaces and storing supplies in their proper place. Phlebotomists may not eat, drink
or store food in areas where blood or infectious materials are collected or processed.
Phlebotomists may not apply make-up, put in contact lenses or use lip balm in work areas.
2. Disposing of Materials
Needles and tubes used to collect blood must be immediately disposed of in a proper sharps
container. OSHA regulations require containers to be sealable, resistant to punctures, leak-proof
and easily accessible. The container must be color-coded red and labeled "bio-hazardous."
3. Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment protects the employee from contact with blood or other infectious
materials. This includes latex gloves, goggles, gowns and face masks. Phlebotomists must use
this equipment when blood exposure is possible. They must keep their personal equipment clean
and replace equipment if it has damage that would make it ineffective.
4. Disposal of Blood
Phlebotomists must use proper technique and care to avoid splattering or dripping blood. OSHA
regulations mandate that any material exposed to blood or other infectious matter must be
disposed of in a container labelled bio-hazardous. Reusable materials must be properly
disinfected to remove any possible infection.
Kindly wait for the instructions of your MLS 123 course facilitator.
MODULE 2
WELLNESS
UNIT 2: HEALTHCARE-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS
This unit acquaints you with the principle of infection control. You will learn the basic infection
control guidelines, policies and procedures, that are important in your future practice as a medical
laboratory scientist or as a phlebotomist. This unit also tackles healthcare-associated infections,
antibiotic resistance, as well as some relevant procedures that are to be done when accidents happen
in the laboratory.
Introduction to Infection
Control
A hospital has discovered a sudden increase of Staphylococcus infections in a pediatric ward.
Microbiology staff were sent to the ward to immediately swab the entire ward for the possibility of
nosocomial reinfection. Bacterial culture often take 4-5 days on average to produce a result, of which
during that time the ward was discontinued for use for that duration.
The results returned with terrible news. The bacterial culture

revealed Staphylococcus aureus, a common infective bacteria, but the
bacterial sensitivity test returned and showed Oxacillin resistance.
Oxacillin is a more stable form of methicillin, a narrow-

spectrum antibiotic stronger than other antibiotics. Resistance to this
antibiotic is dangerous as treatment becomes more difficult. The
existence of S. aureus bacteria resistant to this antibiotic is due to
years of careless prescription for antibiotics. The more bacteria
become subject to these antibiotics, the more likely it is to mutate and
develop resistance for that specific drug.
With the return of the bacterial culture and sensitivity results, all the patients who were
originally in the pediatric ward immediately begin treatment for MRSA, or Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus. Patient mortality was low, but treatment for patients became extremely
challenging. The pediatric ward was also subject to heavy sanitation treatment with ultraviolet lights.
Part of the role of infection control is the management of the distribution of antibiotics by
physicians, the control of disease transmission in the healthcare setting to prevent an outbreak,
and care and management of the healthcare professionals exposed to these biological hazards.
Infection Control Committee
Infection control is important due to several reasons:

1) Increasing incidence of healthcare-associated infections caused by antibiotic-resistant
organisms
2) More susceptible patients are admitted in healthcare facilities, such as very old or young
patients, immunosuppressed individuals, patients undergoing invasive diagnostic procedures,
and patients suffering from chronic diseases
3) The emergence of highly transmissible life-threatening infections
Infection control standards was developed relatively recently.
1992
The Philippine Hospital Infection Control Society (PHICS) was founded to develop, implement
and sustain effective strategies in preventing and controlling healthcare-associated infections.
2004
SARS outbreak leads to talks in developing standards in collaboration of DOH and NGO
professional societies (PHICS, PHICNA, and PSMID) after the SARS outbreak
2012
Creation of the National Center for Health Facility Development Technical Working Group for the
development of the National Policy on Infection Prevention and Control
2016
Sign and release of the National Policy on Infection Prevention and Control
The National Policy on Infection Prevention and Control is the standards used in the
development of infection control procedures in healthcare facilities such as hospitals and clinics. The
standard requires an Infection Control Committee under the Office of the Chief of Hospital.
The Infection Control Committee formulates the policies, guidelines, and procedures
followed by the hospital, ensures their implementations, and ensures the availability of resources for
these policies. They are also responsible for disseminating necessary information and coordinates
with medical, nursing, administration, and other hospital committees.
As a multidisciplinary committee, the members of the ICC are made up of the following:
1. Infection Control Physician
› An active consultant for cases in the hospital
2. Infection Control Nurse
› A senior nurse with supervisory functions that coordinates all infection control
activities with the other areas in the healthcare facility
3. Representatives from:
a. Microbiology laboratory
b. Nursing Service
c. Special and High Risk Units (such as the ER and ICU)
d. And other departments
The Infection Control Committee initiates development, implementation, evaluation, review,

and updating of written guidelines, policies, and procedures pertinent to the activities of that
department/unit.
These guidelines include:
I. Basic Infection Control Guidelines, Policies, and Procedures

o Hand Hygiene
o Isolation Precaution
o Decontamination, Disinfection, Sterilization; Disinfectants for specific medical
equipment/items and areas
o Environmental Care and Healthcare Waste Management
o Protection of healthcare workers
II. Infection Control guidelines, policies, and procedures on prevention of healthcare-associated

infection
o Respiratory care
o In-dwelling Intravascular Device Care
o Urinary catheter care
o Wound care
III. Infection Control guidelines and policies on Housekeeping procedures for:

o Isolation rooms
o Regular rooms/ wards
o Special Areas and High Risk Units
o Outpatient department
IV. Infection Control guidelines, policies, and procedures for Specific Patient Care areas
o ICU/CCU
o OR, DR, Nursery
o Dialysis Unit
o Burn Unit, Trauma ward
o Emergency Room
o Transplant Unit
o Dental Clinic
o Endoscopy Unit
o Oncology Unit
V. Infection Control guidelines, policies, and procedures for Hospital Auxiliary Service
Departments/Units
o Clinical Laboratory
o Radiology
o Dietary
o Laundry
o Linen
o Pharmacy
o Sterile Supply Service
o Engineering and Building Service
o Mortuary care and management
o Patient transport facilities
VI. Guidelines, Policies, and Procedures on Outbreak investigation
VII. Infection Control Guidelines and Policies related to purchasing of medical equipment,
drugs/medicine and supplies
VIII. Guidelines and policies on Rational Antibiotic Use in coordination with Microbiology
Laboratory and Pharmacy Drugs and Therapeutic Committee
IX. Guidelines and Policies on Upholding Patient Confidentiality (Patient’s Rights)
Healthcare-Associated Infection
A healthcare-associated infection can be defined as “an infection occurring in a patient

during the process of care in a hospital or other healthcare facility, which was not present or
incubating at the time of admission.” This includes infections acquired in the hospital but appearing
after discharge and also occupational infections amongst staff of the facility.
Nosocomial infections, also known as hospital-acquired infections, is an infection that

is acquired in a hospital or other health care facility.
Known nosocomial infections include:

i. Ventilator-associated pneumonia
ii. Staphylococcus aureus
iii. Canidida albicans
iv. Tuberculosis
v. Urinary tract infections
vi. Gastroenteritis
Nosocomial infections are often caused by improperly sterilized or unsterilized healthcare
equipment. Urinary tract infections can arise from reused urinary catheters, Candida albicans yeast
infections can occur from improperly sterilized gynecological equipment, and pneumonia can occur
from improperly sterilized ventilators or air conditions.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for

several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It is also called multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus or oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ORSA). MRSA is any strain of
Staphylococcus aureus that has developed resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the
penicillins (methicillin, dicloxacillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, etc.) and the cephalosporins. Strains unable
to resist these antibiotics are classified as methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus, or MSSA.
The development of such resistance does not cause the organism to be more intrinsically virulent
than strains of Staphylococcus aureus that have no antibiotic resistance, but resistance does make
MRSA infection more difficult to treat with standard types of antibiotics, and thus more dangerous.
Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), or nosocomial pneumonia, refers to any

pneumonia contracted by a patient in a hospital at least 48-72 hours after being admitted. It is
usually caused by a bacterial infection, rather than a virus. HAP is the second most common
nosocomial infection (urinary tract infection is the most common), and accounts for 15-20% of the
total. It is the most common cause of death among nosocomial infections, and is the primary cause
of death in intensive care units.
Nosocomial infections do not occur only with patients, but also with healthcare
workers that are continuously exposed to such biological hazards.
Sharps-associated infections are

related to bloodborne transmission of diseases
arising from sharps injuries from contaminated
used needles.
Healthcare personnel are at risk for

occupational exposure to bloodborne patho-
gens, including hepatitis B virus (HBV),
hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Exposures occur through needlesticks or cuts from other sharp instruments contaminated
with an infected patient's blood or through contact of the eye, nose, mouth, or skin with a patient's
blood.
Important factors that influence the overall risk for occupational exposures to bloodborne
pathogens include the number of infected individuals in the patient population and the type and
number of blood contacts. Most exposures do not result in infection. Following a specific exposure,
the risk of infection may vary with factors such as these:
• The pathogen involved
• The type of exposure
• The amount of blood involved in the exposure
• The amount of virus in the patient's blood at the time of exposure
Pathogens such as HBV, HBC and HIV may be transmitted in the absence of visible blood
contamination. Vector-borne diseases such as malaria can also be transmitted through blood, but
require large volumes, such as are found in a blood transfusion. Blood transfusions also involve a
different technique of phlebotomy, involving needles that can cause sharps injuries and bloodborne
transmission of pathogens.
Healthcare workers’ (HCWs’) hands are the most common vehicle of microorganisms
causing HAI. The transmission of these pathogens to the patient, the HCW, and the
environment can be prevented through hand hygiene best practices.
The Five Sequential Steps for Cross-Transmission of Microbial Pathogens
1. Organisms are present on the patient’s skin or have been shed onto inanimate objects
immediately surrounding the patient
2. Organisms must be transferred to the hands of healthcare workers
3. Organisms must be capable of surviving for at least several minutes on healthcare workers’
hands
4. Handwashing or hand antisepsis by the healthcare worker must be inadequate or omitted
entirely, or the agent used for hand hygiene inappropriate
5. The contaminated hand(s) of the caregiver must come into direct contact with another
patient or with an inanimate object that will come into direct contact with the patient
Transmission of health-care–associated pathogens from one patient to another via the

hands of HCWs requires the following sequence of events:
1) Organisms present on the patient’s skin, or that have been shed onto inanimate objects
in close proximity to the patient, must be transferred to the hands of HCWs.
2) These organisms must then be capable of surviving for at least several minutes on the
hands of personnel.
3) Next, handwashing or hand antisepsis by the worker must be inadequate or omitted
entirely, or the agent used for hand hygiene must be inappropriate.
4) Finally, the contaminated hands of the caregiver must come in direct contact with
another patient, or with an inanimate object that will come into direct contact with the
patient.
Review the proper handwashing technique. Refer to your Laboratory Activity.
Task. Arrange the following icons to demonstrate the proper sequence and steps of hand washing
by assigning their correct number in the sequence. (Example: 471…)
HAND HYGIENE
Hand hygiene has long since been recognized as one of the most effective intervention to
control the transmission of infections in a hospital and education is an important tool to ensure its
implementation.
Several studies have shown evidence such

as bacterial cultures before and after handwashing
has severely reduced the amount of potential
pathogens present in hands. Proper handwashing
is regarded as the single most effective way of
controlling the spread of infectious diseases.
In the healthcare setting, proper hand

hygiene is highly recommended in the reducing
healthcare-associated infections.
INDICATIONS FOR HAND HYGIENE
A. Wash hands with soap and water when visibly dirty or visibly soiled with blood or other body
fluids or after using the toilet.
B. If exposure to potential spore-forming pathogens is strongly suspected or proven, including

outbreaks of Clostridium difficile, hand washing with soap and water is the preferred means
C. Use an alcohol-based handrub as the preferred means for routine hand antisepsis in all other
clinical situations described in items D(a) to D(f) listed below, if hands are not visibly soiled. If
alcohol-based handrub is not obtainable, wash hands with soap and water
D. Perform hand hygiene:

a. before and after touching the patient
b. before handling an invasive device for patient care, regardless of whether or not gloves
are used
c. after contact with body fluids or excretions, mucous membranes, non-intact skin, or
wound dressings
d. if moving from a contaminated body site to another body site during care of the same
patient
e. after contact with inanimate surfaces and objects (including medical equipment) in the
immediate vicinity of the patient
f. after removing sterile or non-sterile gloves
E. Before handling medication or preparing food perform hand hygiene using an alcohol-based
handrub or wash hands with either plain or antimicrobial soap and water
F. Soap and alcohol-based handrub should not be used concomitantly.
Hands should be decontaminated:
✓ Before commencing work/after leaving clinical area
✓ Before and after direct contact with patients or clients
✓ After touching patient’s or client’s surroundings
✓ Before and after wearing gloves
✓ Before performing aseptic procedures, e.g., catheterization, wound dressings
✓ After risk of exposure to body fluids (and after aseptic procedures)
✓ Before and after handling invasive devices
✓ Before and after handling food
✓ After using the toilet
✓ After leaving patient or client’s environment e.g., domestic setting
Studies show that health

care staff frequently use poor hand
washing techniques and the most
commonly neglected areas are the
tips of the fingers, palm of the hand,
and the thumb. It is important that
hand washing is carried out
correctly to prevent the spread of
infection.
WHO’s Five Moments for Hand Hygiene
HOW DO PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND HAND HYGIENE
BREAK THE CHAIN OF INFECTION?
PORTAL OF EXIT BREAKING THE LINK/ CHAIN

Respiratory Tract. Microorganisms leave the body ▪ Do not talk directly into patient’s face
of the infected person by means of ▪ Wear a mask
droplets exhaled as a spray when coughing, ▪ Stay home if you are sick
sneezing, talking, singing or just breathing. ▪ Practice good cough etiquette (cover your
Microorganisms also escape through nose ▪ coughs and sneezes)
and throat secretions. ▪ Perform good hand hygiene
Gastrointestinal Tract. Microorganisms that leave ▪ Handle and dispose of body secretions
the body of the infected person by means of body ▪ properly
secretions (e.g., stool and ▪ Use personal protective equipment
vomit). For example, hepatitis A virus is shed in ▪ Perform good housekeeping
the stool of the infected person. ▪ Perform good hand hygiene
Skin. Microorganisms that leave the body of ▪ Dispose of wound dressings properly
the infected person by wound drainage or ▪ Use personal protective equipment (PPE)
through skin lesions. ▪ Perform good hand hygiene
Blood. Infection may occur when someone’s ▪ Safe handling of sharps

blood gets into another person’s system. ▪ Use gloves for procedures where there is
risk
▪ of exposure to blood
▪ Use care in obtaining, transporting and
▪ processing specimens
▪ Perform good hand hygiene
PORTAL OF ENTRY BREAKING THE LINK/ CHAIN
Respiratory Tract. Small particles that result from ▪ Wear a mask/respirator
evaporation of droplets from the respiratory tract of ▪ Maintain good ventilation
infected persons remain ▪ Isolate those with respiratory symptoms
suspended in the air of poorly ventilated spaces for ▪ Good respiratory hygiene/etiquette practices
periods of time. The infectious ▪ Perform good hand hygiene
microorganisms can be inhaled by a well person
who may then become infected with the disease.
Gastrointestinal Tract. Pathogenic microorganisms ▪ Dispose of body excretions carefully

enter the body of a new host ▪ Careful food handling
when food or water contaminated by feces is ▪ Perform good housekeeping
ingested (fecal/oral route). ▪ Wear appropriate personal protective
equipment
Mucous membranes. Absorption of ▪ Protect eyes, nose and mouth with face
microorganisms through exposed eyes, nose shield during procedures likely to generate
and mouth. splashes or sprays
▪ Carry out good housekeeping
Skin. Microorganisms enter the body when a ▪ Dispose of wound dressings carefully and
person comes into contact with wound properly
drainage or skin secretions. ▪ Wear personal protective equipment
▪ Maintain healthy intact skin
Antimicrobial Resistance
Very few new antimicrobial agents have been developed since the late 1980s and early 1990s,
and with the continued rise of multidrug resistance, particularly amongst Gram-negative bacteria,
antimicrobial resistance has been acknowledged to be a major public health threat and a global
concern since the late 1990s.
An organism can be classed as resistant if it is not inhibited or killed by one or more classes
of antibiotic at concentrations achievable after normal dosage. From a microbiology laboratory
perspective, this essentially means that a sensitive organism is one that is likely to respond to therapy
with the antimicrobial agent tested, and a resistant isolate is one that will not. Resistance gives
organisms a distinct competitive advantage, and can be inherent or acquired.
Antimicrobial resistance is attributed to the following factors:
• Survival of the fittest, or selection.
Resistance often occurs among normal bacterial flora in patients receiving antibiotics. If
further infection requiring treatment subsequently develops, that bacterial population is more likely
to become resistant than in patients who have not received treatment. Darwin’s theory of the
‘survival of the fittest’ favors selection systems. Within the microbial population there is variation
amongst microorganisms, and selection occurs which favors those organisms with traits that are
most advantageous in the prevailing environment.
• Use of antibiotics in animals
The driving force behind the whole ‘resistance problem’ has been the widespread use of
antibacterial drugs, and the misuse and overuse of antibiotics worldwide in the treatment of
humans and animals. Antimicrobial agents are used to treat infections in animals, accounting for
in excess of 50% of total antibiotic use, but in those animals bred for human consumption they
are often administered prophylactically to protect whole herds from disease, and also for growth
promotion.
• Overprescribing of antibiotic medication
Historically, there has been huge pressure on general practitioners to prescribe antibiotics
for the treatment of minor coughs and colds and other illness because of the level of patient
expectation and demand for treatment. This has led to the prescription and administration of
antibiotics in situations where their use is not justified and the emergence of resistant organisms
within the community, partly through poor prescribing, with the dose prescribed at sub-therapeutic
levels, and partly due to poor patient compliance. Lack of regulation regarding the sale of over-
the-counter antibiotics and antibiotic prescribing generally in developing countries has
exacerbated the problem of resistance.
EXPOSURE TO SHARPS
1. Immediately following an exposure to blood:

 Wash needlesticks and cuts with soap and water
 Flush splashes to the nose, mouth, or skin with water
 Irrigate eyes with clean water or saline
No scientific evidence shows that using antiseptics or squeezing the wound will reduce
the risk of transmission of a bloodborne pathogen. Using a caustic agent such as bleach
is not recommended.
2. Report the exposure

› To the department (e.g., occupational health, infection control) responsible for
managing exposures.
Prompt reporting is essential because, in some cases, postexposure treatment may be

recommended and it should be started as soon as possible.
Discuss the possible risks of acquiring HBV, HCV, and HIV and the need for postexposure
treatment with the provider managing your exposure.
TREATMENT FOR THE EXPOSURE
POST-EXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS
In the event of a high-risk event such as an accidental sharps injury from a known or
unknown source, Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is used as an immediate treatment to
prevent the development of disease on the inflicted patient.
Post-exposure prophylaxis procedures are different for each pathogen. The table below is an
example of PEP procedure for Hepatitis B.
The table above shows the recommended treatment for a healthcare worker following a sharps
injury. The recommended treatment varies based on the known status of the source (positive,
negative or unknown), and the vaccination status of the health care worker (in regards to their Anti-
HBs titer).
Hepatitis B has the highest incidence of needle stick transmission. This is why healthcare
workers are often vaccinated or start vaccination before they start work. Preceding their internship,
medical laboratory scientist interns are required to undergo Hepatitis B vaccination.
There is no vaccine against hepatitis C and the CDC does not recommend any mode of
treatment, although certain modes of treatment are rapidly emerging. Neither immune globulin nor
antiviral therapy is recommended after exposure. For these reasons, following recommended
infection control practices to prevent percutaneous injuries is imperative.
There is no vaccine against HIV. However, results from a small number of studies suggest
that the use of some antiretroviral drugs after certain occupational exposures may reduce the
chance of HIV transmission. Postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) is recommended for certain
occupational exposures that pose a risk of transmission. However, for those exposures without risk
of HIV infection, PEP is not recommended because the drugs used to prevent infection may have
serious side effects.
If the source individual cannot be identified or tested, decisions regarding follow-up should be
based on the exposure risk and whether the source is likely to be infected with a bloodborne
pathogen. Follow-up testing should be available to all personnel who are concerned about possible
infection through occupational exposure.
BASIC FIRST AID PROCEDURES
Task: Research on the basic first aid procedures for the following laboratory injuries.
1. Alkali or acid burns on the skin or in the mouth
2. Alkali or acid burns in the eye
3. Heat burns
4. Minor cuts
5. Serious cuts
Perfect Match
MATCHING TYPE. Match the mode of transmission for the specific infectious agent or disease.
Choose from the given choices below. (15 points)
A. Contact Transmission C. Common Vehicle Transmission

B. Airborne Transmission D. Vector-borne Transmission
1. Leprosy 6. Chlamydia 11. Hepatitis A

2. Yersinia pestis 7. Trypanosoma brucei 12. Chicken pox
3. Influenza 8. Diphtheria 13. Lyme disease
4. Typhoid fever 9. Measles 14. Yellow fever
5. Tuberculosis 10. Gonorrhea 15. Ascaris lumbricoides
REFERENCES
› Strasinger, S. and Schaub, M. 2011. The Phlebotomy Textbook. 3rd Edition.
› Ernst, D. 2005. Applied Phlebotomy.
› McCall, R. 2012. Phlebotomy Essentials. 5th Edition.
› Bishop, M. 2013. Clinical Chemistry. 7th Edition.
› Turgeon, M. 2012. Clinical Hematology. 5th Edition.
› WHO guidelines on drawing blood: Best practices in phlebotomy. 2010.
› Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute: Collection of Diagnostic Venous Blood

Specimens. 2017. 7th Edition.
› Kaplan, A. 1988. Clinical Chemistry: Interpretation and Techniques.
› Burtis, C. and Bruns, D. 2014. Tietz Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular
Diagnostics. 7th Edition.
› McPherson, R. and Pincus, M. 2011. Henry’s Clinical Diagnosis and Management by

Laboratory Methods. 22nd Edition.
› Weston, D. 2013. Fundamentals of Infection Prevention and Control.
› Turgeon, M. 2012. Linne & Ringrud’s Clinical Laboratory Science. 6th Edition.
› Kunkel, D. 2003. Exposure to Blood: What Healthcare Personnel Need to Know. Center for
Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from:
https://www.cdc.gov/hai/pdfs/bbp/exp_to_blood.pdf
› Torres, R. 1989. Occupational Safety and Health Standards. Department of Labor and
Employment. Retrieved from: https://bwc.dole.gov.ph/images/Downloads/OSH-Standards-
Amended-1989.pdf
› WHO. Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV
and Recommendations for Postexposure Prophylaxis. Retrieved from:
https://www.who.int/occupational_health/activities/5pepguid.pdf
› Philippine Hospital Infection Control Society. 2009. National Standards in Infection Control for
Healthcare Facilities. DOH. Retrieved from:
https://doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/publications/NATIONAL_STANDARDS_IN_INFECTION_
CONTROL_FOR_HEALTH.pdf

MLS 123 MODULE 2 Infection Control Safety First Aid and Personal Wellness

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ALTERNATIVE LEARNING MODULE FOR MLS 123 AND MLS 123L

Department of Medical Laboratory Science

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Dear future Medical Laboratory Scientists,

MLS 123 and 123L Facilitators

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................... 1

MODULE SELF MONITORING FORM

Schedule Activities Completed

Do Read Quiz Submit

Measles, or rubeola, is a viral infection that starts in the

Vaccination for measles in the Philippines is actually quite

This is due to the Dengvaxia controversy that occurred around

Infection Control in a healthcare setting is the prevention of the spread of microorganisms:

Safety begins with the recognition of

Universal Precautions (UP)

Standard Precautions (SP)

BREAKING THE CHAIN OF INFECTION

If the patient carries the infectious agent, the

A. INFECTIOUS AGENT / PATHOGEN

1. Infectious Agent – Influenza

3. Portal of Exit – Patient’s respiratory tract

4. Mode of transmission – Airborne transmission

6. Susceptible Host – Watchers, the healthcare worker

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

Occupational safety is a foundation of knowledge that must be ingrained in every professional’s

The Occupational Safety and Health

4. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

IMPLICATIONS IN PUBLIC HEALTH

Some interventions are directed at the mode of transmission. Interruption of direct

Some interventions aim to increase a host’s defenses. Vaccinations promote development

Finally, some interventions attempt to prevent a pathogen from encountering a susceptible

OSHA Requirements for Phlebotomists

3. Personal Protective Equipment

The results returned with terrible news. The bacterial culture

Oxacillin is a more stable form of methicillin, a narrow-

Infection control is important due to several reasons:

Infection control standards was developed relatively recently.

The Infection Control Committee initiates development, implementation, evaluation, review,

These guidelines include:

I. Basic Infection Control Guidelines, Policies, and Procedures

II. Infection Control guidelines, policies, and procedures on prevention of healthcare-associated

III. Infection Control guidelines and policies on Housekeeping procedures for:

VI. Guidelines, Policies, and Procedures on Outbreak investigation

IX. Guidelines and Policies on Upholding Patient Confidentiality (Patient’s Rights)

A healthcare-associated infection can be defined as “an infection occurring in a patient

Nosocomial infections, also known as hospital-acquired infections, is an infection that

Known nosocomial infections include:

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for

Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), or nosocomial pneumonia, refers to any

Sharps-associated infections are

Healthcare personnel are at risk for

The Five Sequential Steps for Cross-Transmission of Microbial Pathogens

Transmission of health-care–associated pathogens from one patient to another via the

Review the proper handwashing technique. Refer to your Laboratory Activity.

Several studies have shown evidence such

In the healthcare setting, proper hand

INDICATIONS FOR HAND HYGIENE

B. If exposure to potential spore-forming pathogens is strongly suspected or proven, including

D. Perform hand hygiene:

F. Soap and alcohol-based handrub should not be used concomitantly.

Studies show that health

WHO’s Five Moments for Hand Hygiene

PORTAL OF EXIT BREAKING THE LINK/ CHAIN