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Institution Building and Development: A Conceptual

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Politics Administration and Change
Vol. 5, No. 2, 1980 pp. 109-24.

Institution Building and Development:

A Conceptual Overview
HABm MOHAMMAD ZAFARULLAH

N ATIONS in the process of transition from tradition to modernity

have been experiencing severe constraints in adapting their age-old ins-
titutions to modern social and economic changes. The common problems
they face cent er around political, economic, social and psychological as-
pects. High rates of population increases with rates of capital forrration
remaining correspondingly low; difficulties in adapting advanced techno-
logy; problems of launching an agrarian and industrial revolution due to
.lack of coherent policies; heavy dependence on foreign 'aid' : I and lack of
balance between political policy-making institutions and bureaucratic policy-
implementing structures? have caused tremendous obstacles to develop-
ment. Economic development.! as a determining variable in the process
of modernization, is largely dependent "on the intellectual and political as-
pects of the process, the growth in knowledge and the ability of political
leaders to mobilize resources't.t In transitional societies, however, the
weakness of political, legal and administrative institutions have inhib ited
the process to a great extent.
The political aspects of modernization entails the creation of a system
of public administration, known as development administration, that
focus on organization-influenced change toward progressive political, ecc-
nomic, political and social objectives- ... where the administrator would re
viewed as a policy-maker and advisor, interest aggregator and articulator,
political communicator, adjudicator, an.d socializer,s
Fainsod, in an illuminating work, has defined development adminis-
tration as "a carrier of innovating values ... [involving] the establishment or
mobilizing and allocating resources to expand national income"," It in-
volves the organization of new planning and development agencies; the re-
orientation of existing nation-building agencies; and the creation of an ad-
ministrative cadre to provide leadership in stimulating and supporting deve-
lopmental programsf
One of the many aspects of development administration is institution
building; As a component of economic development it contributes to guides
 110 POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION .AND CHANG~

for development action and is utilized for inducing and protecting

change. As Esman and Bruhns observe :
Institution building is .. an approach of the developmental
process which relies heavily on the concept of 'social engineering'
and which stresses the leadership functions of modernizing elite
groups within that process and the alternative action strategies
available to them.'

The institution building model has been primarily designed for deve-
loping countries that have taken the path to modernization, their overri-
ding-goals being socio-economic pr.ogress and nation-building. The major
components of the model have been identified as :
(a) a governing, goal-oriented elite which bears the major respon-
sibility for initiating and directing the process of modernizing change;
(b) a doctrine, or set of action commitments, which establishes, com-
municates, and legitimizes norms, priorities and styles for operating prog-
rams; and
(c) a set of action instruments through which communication with
the community is maintained and operating programs are implemented.l''
The purpose of this paper is to examine the concepts associated with the
institution building model and show briefly how institutionalization can
contribute towards a ttaining the goals of development.

THE INSTITUTION BUILDING MODEL

An institution is the product of interaction and adaptation. When

an organization goes beyond its normal functions in inducing and protecting
innovations and change and becoming significant and important in the en-
vironment it serves, it acquires the status of an "institution",'! Such an orga-
nization becomes institutionalized, the process involving interactions between
the institution and the environment. Uphc ff believes that the essential
dynamic of institution building is the organization's capacity of attracting
support and legitimacy from the environment. This helps in the better per-
formance of its functions and services.P Duncan and Pooler stress that
an institution serves as a model "for defining legitimate normative and value
patterns, conserving and protecting them for the larger society.l'P Orga-
nizations, to qualify as institutions, have to embody values that become
normative in society having clear, open and purposeful programs of discri-
minating and promoting certain types of values.'! Blaise states:

... the institutional approach emphasize s not only the instrumental

characteristics, nor is the focus of analysis and acion primarily on
the structural, functional and behavioral elements which are
internal to the organization system... In insinnional analysis,
we are concerned with purposes and values which extend beyond
 INstITUTION BUILDING AND DEVELOPMENT U1

the immediate task at hand [with the spreading of] norms which
affects participants and clientele beyond the functional and pro-
ductive specialization. [Institutional values] and specific relation-
ship and action patterns governing the performance of functions
within the insitution become normative beyond the confines
of the institution itself .. [and 1 stable points of reference both
within the organization and for the environment.IS
Thus, values represent one of the significant dimensions of institutions.
Institution building differs from institutional change: Only when orga-
nizations undergo change and adapt over time in response to changes in
external and internal conditions, leadership and resources there is probable
likelihood of their survival. This adaptive capacity of organizations is ter-
msd institutional change. Institution building on the other hand, "refers
to the deliberate infusion of fundamentally different values, functions and
technologies requiring changes in the institution's doctrine, in it!' structural
and behavioral patterns."16 The institution building model maintains
that technology is one of the keys to development and that the establish-
ment of effective organizations is the essential instrumental problem of de-
livering technology. The model also argues that normative factors are the
critical concerns in building organizations to deliver technology and hence,
are an organization's developmental fruits.'? Bjur identifies a number of
forces that set in motion the formation of new institutions or reformation
of existing ones and having a close relationshio with the development pro-
cess. These are: (a) the differentiation of social functions, inherent in the
development process, creates a vacuum in w hich the institution is born and
perhaps grows to fill; (b) pressing problems are identified and their solutions
seem to require the establishment of a remedial institution or institutions;
and (c) new physical and social technologies are deemed desirable, perhaps
for more effi .ient and effective performance of existing services or as a part
of other changes taking place. IS Development presupposes the changing
of the environment to complement or accomodate these new physical and
social technologies. The supporting values, norms, processes and struc-
tures, usually not present at the time when such technologies are introduced,
must be provided by the environment and institutionalized through organi-
zations. .
Milton J. Esman, who conceptualized the model, assumes that insti-
tution building is a generic social process and recognizes a set of elements
and actions. His analysis is developed upon three analytical categories:
institution variables, transactions and linkages.
T.HE ANALYTICAL CATEGORIES
In explaining his model, Esman has defined and described five insti-
tution variables: Leadership, Doctrine, Resources, Program and Internal
Structure,
112 POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND CHANGE

LEADERSHIP:

Leadership is defined as the group of persons who direct the institution's

internal operations and manage its relations with the external environment."
These persons are actively engaged in the formulation of the doctrine and
program of the institution. As deliberately induced change processes require
intensive, skillful and highly committed management both of internal and
of external relationships, leadership is considered the single most critical
element in institution building. It is a group process which entails a variety
of roles such as representation, decision-making and operation control that
can be distributed in various patterns among the group.
Es.nan identifies political viability, professional status, technical com-
petence, organization competence and continuity as leadership properties
or variables. Successful leadership can be the outcome of high ranking on
each of these variables.P 'Uphoff and Illchman describe the leader as an
entrepreneur who combines different factors of organizational production
to produce valued outputs which, in turn, yield him resources that may be
utilized to further the process of organizational growth."
In his design of a framework for analysis of the institution building
process, Blaise lists seven elements as determinants of the value of leader-
ship. These are:
1. FWzctional role :- ... the role or position of the leadership in the
social structure bears on its channels of communication, its power
and iifluence in the functional area and the environment ...
2. Status---While functional role refers to the formal position in the
hierarchy, status refers to the ascribed power and influence position ...
3. Motivation ... Beyond the actual motivation of the leadership, we
are also concerned with the motivations ascribed by the environ-
ment...
4. Factional competence=Tuis refers to the technical competence
in the functional area of the institution as it is represented in the
leadership groups ...
5. Organization competence-By organization is meant... "a talent for
combining personnel and resources into dynamic, self-sustaining
enterprises" - ...
6. Role distribution- ... which indicates whether the potentially available
complementarily among the members of the leadership unit is in
fact fully used .
7. Continuity- Without continuity in the leadership group there
are likely to be changes in values and approaches which are detri-
mental to the consistent and systematic building of an institution.
Besides, it hampers the development of the necessary competences
and their application to a given situationll~
 INSTITUTION BUILDING AND DEVELOPMENT

Joseph Eaten hypothesizes that "resident and entrenched leadership

can -nore easily command resources for a new program and develop strong
enabling linkages with other institutions in the society than absentee and
changing b1dership."23 This institution variable will have to relate the
org-i riz ttion to its environment to ensure survival and appropriategrowth,
An effective adjustment between organizational needs and environmental
'norms and values must be made and the leadership must claim and esta b-
lish the legitimacy of the organization.e'

DOCTRINE
Montogomery defines doctrine as "the self-propelling, self-renewing
valuesystem that gives an organization a life line independent of the cor-
porate sum reached by adding up the qualities of its individual members:"25
As one of the institution variables, it is the expression of'.an institution's
m ljo~ purposes, objectives, and methods of operations.P It is regarded
as "a series of themes which project.i.a set of images and expectations of
institutional goals mid styles of action" .27 This projection may happen
bath internally and externally within the organization or outside it. The
sub-variables that appear to be significant for the effectiveness of doctrine
are: specificity, i.e., the extent to which elements of doctrine supply the
necess-ary base for action in a given situation; the extent to which the insti-
tutional doctrine conforms to the expected and sanctioned behavior of the
society; and the degree to which the institution's doctrine confcrrr.s to the
preferences and priorities, intermediate goals and targets of the society.28
In the institution building literature, the term doctrine has been used
'to denote the broader objectives that are converted into a more concrete
set of policies and guidelines that direct the activities of an institution.P
,Considering the terms as a synonym for applied ideology, Carvalho explains:
.. doctrine is closely associated with autonomy in the sense that
doctrine may also mean rules and values which are built in the
organization in such a way as to justify its functions and
existence.30

In his study of the roles of values in the management of institutional

doctrine, Bruhns differs with Esman in considering doctrine as a stable re-
ference point of an institution to which all other variables relate. On the
eo rt.ary, he views doctrine "as a combination of a number of different and
frequently heterogeneous elements which in regard to stability, differ from
.each other in change proneness or propensity; some might be more, others
less, stable"." He hypothesizes the concept as an important tool that
another variable, leadership can skill fully handle firstly, to increase the insti-
tution's acceptability in the external environment by gaining support therein
a;n,d by overcomin¥ resistance and indifference; and, secondly, to build,
 114 POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND CHANGE

maintain or strengthen the internal cohesion and organization of the

institution in order to enhance organizational production and goal
performance.P
Uphoff and Illchman underscore the importance of the time horizon as
a basic element of doctrine. As available resources become increasingly
scarce doctrine becomes significant with a decrease in the time available for
achieving desired ends.33

RESOURCES
One of the important preoccupations of all institutional leaden hip is
represented by the problems that are involved in mobilizing and in ensuring
the steady and reliable availability of resources. These resources, affecting
all aspects of the activities of an institution.include both tangible inputs like
financial, physical, and human and intangibles like legal and political autho-
rity and information about technologies and the external environment.tt
These inputs are important not only in quantitative terms but also because of
their sources. There are two dimensions or categories of theresource variable:
availability and sources. The former includes the physical and human inputs
which are available or can be obtained for the functioning of the instituton
and the performance of its program. The latter includes the sources in the
environment from which resources have been obtained and alternative sources
to which the institution has access.f
Emphasizing the time dimension in institution building, Uphcff and
Ilchman view time as permitting the productive use of resources and con-
sequently. see time as a quality of resources. According to them, institutions
are marked by rou, ine and relatively predictable flows of the resources over
time. They determine the value of time through their possession and uti-
lization. As a rule, the longer resources are available to an institution, the
greater output or value is accrued. The value of time is a proxy for the
value of the resources possessed and utilized to produce valued outputS.36

PROGRAM
Tae translation of doctrine into concrete practical activities. of an or-
ganization like producing and delivering outputs of goods and services is
represented as program in institution building model. The translation also
takes the form ofallocation of energies and other resources within the insti-
tution itselfvzs-c-vzs; the external environment.P
A program is designed to attain the organization goals that are defined
in legal mandates or official doctrine.P The important program variables
relevant to the output functions of the institution have been identified as
consistency with doctrine, stability of output, feasibility regarding resources
and substantive contribution to societal needs,~
 iNSTItUTION BUILDING AND DEVELOPMENt' 115

As an organization's program consists of allocating resources over time,

the program variable is closely related to time like the other institution vari-
ables. Uphoff and Ilchman note three time dimensions: synchronizatic n,
sequence and rate.40 Synchronization or coordination is intrinsically bound
to time. The essence of establishing program priorities is sequencing resource
allocations. The rate of institutional production is anc ther important
dimension because the needs of the society must be met in a timely
manner-s-merely meeting them is not sufficient for institutionalization. The
content and i.nplementation of program beccme critical when rapid results
are desired. When the resources are scarce it is important to make the
efficient allocation through program strategy.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE

Thompson has viewed internal structure as the organization of resources

into patterns of authority that may be both formal and informal. Other
aspects are division of responsibility among the different units of the orga-
nization, systems of communication, and the means of resolving corfficts
and formulating consensus on priorities, policies and procedures." The
ingredients of this variable are identification of participants with the insti-
tution and its doctrine, consistency. of the structure with the doctrine and
program, and adaptability of the structure to changes. These affect program
performance and maintenance of the system.
Blaise believes that if organizational structure and process deviate from
the established norms within the environment, then the internal structure
of the institution may affect the relationship between the institution and the
outside world."2 The number of persons involved in the decision making
process, their position in the organizational hierarchy and their relative power
plus the extent to which they can cause change to be accepted and implemen-
ted are two aspects of internal structure that affect the introduction of change
in an institution.f Some of the other factors that obstruct the introduc-
tion of change, according to Blaise and Rodriguez, are : decentralization;
decision making on virtually all institutional matters by representational
bodies; elected officials without discretionary powers; lack of administrajive
services; and lack of communication.f
Williarn J. Jorns, in making his operational analysis of case studies in
institution building theory, further develops the model conceptualized by
Esrnan and others. He disaggregates the institution variables into twenty
eight sectors of activity to strengthen the analytic matrix." The variables
are sub-divided in the following way:
 f ~ :
116

tnstitutioll Variable~ Sub-variables

1. Leadership 1: Technical competence

2. Administrative cc mpetence
3. Political competence
4. Commitment to doctrine
5. Continuity and succession
6. Depth of leadership

2. Doctrine 1. Ifs source

2. Its realism in terms of needs and
resources
/ 3. Its specificity, consistency and arti-
culation
4. Its sensitivity to societal norms
5. Its official legitimization
6. Its provision for conflict management
7. Its degree of innovativeness
3. Resource 1. Indigenous financial support
2. Staff training and development
3. Physical facilities
4. Information on new technologies
5. Access to feedback
4. Program 1. Consistency with doctrine
2. Consistency with resources
3. Staff commitment
4. Program visibility
5. Program stability
6. Management of opposition
5, InternalStructure 1. Adequate structure
2. Resource allocation
3. Conflict regulation
4. Centralization versus decentralization;

Immediately after the establishment of an institution due irrporrance

'should be given to the need for developing the technical competence within
'the leadership. This would provide a strong base for subsequent prr gram
planning and implementation that would make an impact on the external
environment. In addition, doctrine must be spelled out specifically for ob-
taining the authority to operate and official recognition and legitin iz: tion
acquired to lead to ultimate institutionaliry. Adequate resources in the
form of indigenous financial support and indigenous staff are critically
essential to sustain the organization and W implement the innovative
aspects of programs."
LINKAGES AND TRANSACTIONS

No institution can exist in isolation. For its survival and proper func-
tioning it has to establish and maintain. a network of complementarities in
the environment it works. An institution must depend upon other 'insti-
t utions for its authority and resources. Since the basic objective of an insti-
tution is to-induce change in its environment, its linkages with other entities
for the purpose of gaining support, overcoming resistance, exchanging re:
s-ources, structuring the environment, and transferring norms and values are
crucial.f?
Linkages have been defined as follows :
Patterned relationships between the institution and other orga-
nizations and groups in the environment. These relationships
compromise the exchange of resources, services, and support
and may involve various degrees of cooperation or corn:
petition.048
The institutional linkages are particularly significantfor the creation of new
institutions or the restructuring of existing ones. The institution building
process largely depends on the number and kinds of linkages which a new
institutiouhas with its environment and how these are affected; The insti-
tution, through innovations, tend to affect the external relations .and inter-
nal processes of other organizations in the functional complex.w Fcur sub-
categories of linkages that establish and maintain interdependencies betw een
ani rstitution and other segments ofthe society are: enabling linkages, func-
tional linkages, normative linkages and diffused linkages .
.] Enabling linkages bind an institution to other organizations and sociai
groups that control the allocation of authority and resources essential for
innovative functioning. This relationship proves vital in the initial sts ges
of an i nstitution's life. A second sub-category of linkages relate the insti-
tution to organizations that supply needed inputs or which take outputs.
These functional linkages also relate to organizations which constitute 'real
or potential competition; Through these linkages an institution endeavc urs
to spread its innovations. The normative linkages specify the institution's
relations with other entities that share an interest in social purposes Through
r ,

these linkages the socio-cultural norms are protected by the insttuticn fol-
lowing certain guidelines established by the society. These may either en-
hance or hamper the institution building process.P Finally, the fourth
sub-category of linkages, the diffused ones, deal with the relationships between
the institution and individuals and groups not associated in formal organiza-
. HOI1S, i. e., with the public in general. Diffused linkages, according to
Nehnevajsa, "c-oncerns such issues as those of public opinion, and fhe
 its
relations with the larger public as mediated by the various mass media
or communication and other channels for the crystallization of individual
and aggregate opinion not reflected in formal institutions of a society."51
An institution carries on transaction with other aspects of the society
via the four categories of linkages. These two concepts, viz., linkages and
transaction are closely related. The transactions, defined by Esman as
"exchange of goods and services or of power and influence", are "the rela-
tional activities through which resources and mandates are procured and
purposes are pursued" .52 As substance of an institution's linkages with the
environment, they may either promote or thwart organizational growth.
They also shape and manifest institutional qualities. The transactions entail
physical inputs and outputs as well as social interactions as communication,
support acquisition, and the transfer of norms and values.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION; THE END.STATE
The completion of the institution building process results in the institu-
tionalization of an organization in the environment. The clientele groups
then come to perceive the instrumental value of the OUtputs of the process.P
and the organization and its procedures acquire value and stability.r' Insti-
tutionalization, according to Blaise, is "the process through which values
and goals come to be shared and social relationships and actions become nor-
matively regulated ... [i.e.] ... when values, goals, social relationships and pro-
cesses evoke patterned responses among the participants in an interaction
process, they have been institutionalized't.P Thus, the conditions that
characterize institutionalization are: (a) the establishment er a viable orga-
nization incorporating innovations; and, (b) acceptance of the organization
and the innovations it represents by the clientele in the environment.P
Institutionalization consists of three basic processes: (a) the organizat on
of new clusters of roles; (b) the diffusion of the symbolic meaning of roles
and cluster of roles; and (c) the infusion with value, a process in which, as
the newly organized patterns continue to be successful, they take on value
in and of themselves.P Taylor opines that the process shows adherence
to the following assumptions:
First, society consists of an institutional structure in which the
institutions interact with each other.
Second, as a result of the relationships between institutions,
values and norms emerge which determine the functional beha-
vior and structural composition of the institutions. Third, it is a
process in which change may be consciously introduced through
creating new institutions for this very purpose. 58
Hanson sets forth six criteria of institutionality ; (a) the use made by
publics of organizational output and services; (b) verbal approval from these
publics; (c) survival and growth of the organization; (d) support from other
 INSTITUTION BUILDING AND DEVELOPMENT 119
organizations ; (e) autonomy; and (f) spread of innovative norms to others
within the environment.P

INSTITUTIOS BUILDING AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth, Powelson believes, depends, inter alia, on the capacity of the
government of a developing country to establish institutions for managing
conflicts. A national consensus on an economic and political ideology are
essential for the purpose. This consensus would make the institutions effec-
tive thus facllitating economic growth. Powelson maintains that in project
development institutional effectiveness is the principal criterion rather than
cost-benefit ratio and only those projects should be given priority which are
most likely to increase a nation's capacity for effective decision making. He
further maintains that institutional effectiveness is a measurable concept
with different values in different nations and would prove useful in explaining
the difference in their growth rates.60
B~l1t61attaches importance to the high-level competence of public ad-
ministration in a developing country. In his comparative analysis of public
ad ninistration in modern, traditional and modernizing societies he finds that
bureaucratic innovativeness is essential in the process of modernization and
that public administration play a variety of roles. He formulates a conti-
nuum of bureaucratic innovativeness where the modern and the traditional
are placed at the two ends, and the modernizing in the middle subsequently
in t'!r:11Sof policy-formulation, institution building and policy implemen-
tation. He categorizes three types of institution builders for different
types of institutions. The functionally trained expert is needed at the
top for institutions involved in innovation and change. Institutions
concerned with internal stability and order may make use of the generalisf.
The management specialist would be most useful in the fiscal, financial and
auditing branches of government, Finally, functional experts are vital to
government departments concerned with nation-building activities.s-
Any development strategy aiming at radical change consists of three
phases. Phase one stresses basic institutional change together with massive
increases in the production capacity. Phase two involves the movement
of the restructured economy onto a new and efficient path. The final phase
emphasizes the institutionalization of the progressive growth process.P
BLIt there is a multiplicity of problems in institutionalization and, as Morse
states:
To put it simply, the very societies that are in need of massive
institutional change are those that lack an effective complement
of mechanisms for carrying out such change in an orderly, syste-
matic manner. While they have the advantage of being able to
imitate the mechanisms found in modern socieites, the process.
of imitation is far from simple. Wherever one looks there are
difficulties.e+
120 POLITICS, APMINISTRATION AND CHANGE

!n these societies, thepossibilityof change is extremely difficult due to

un •..ieldy legislation for reform. Administrative agencies dealing with the
problems of change face numerous problems and "the institutional frame-
wor'c, and )a:ticularly the power structure, seriously inhibit problem-solving
activities in pre-modern societies".65 Schultz shows that the rise of the eco-
no.nic value of .nan makes new demands on institutions. The non-adjust-
melt of these institutions to these demands call fOFutilizing economic theory
to clarify and solve public problems.e He talks of three approaches to
the dynamics of economic growth as far as institutions are concerned. These
are: (a) the approach that omits or impounds institutions by abstracting
from them: (b) the approach that treats these institutions as subject to
change exogeneously ; and (c) the approach that treats these institutions
as variables within the economic domain, variables that respond to the
dynamics of economic growthF
In explaining those changes in institutions that occur in response to the
dynamics of economic growth, Schultz writes:

The institution is treated as a supplier of a service which has an

economic value. It is assumed that the process of growth alters
the demand for the service and that this alteration in the demand
brings about a disequilibrium between the demand and supply
measured in terms of long-run costs and returns.68

But the developing of a system of services is a recent phenomenon in the

developing countries. In the initial years due importance was not given to
the role of the institution and scant attention was paid for the development
of a fu nctioning system with sufficient linkages between. the various new Iy
established institutions belonging to different sectors of development.s?
Lack of interdependency among institutions often creates problems and the
poorly developed institutions have to pay a heavy price for it. This has a
negative impact on development and growth,

EPILOGUE

The in stitution building model has been widely applied and tested. The
Inter-U iiversity Research Program in Institution Building (IRPIBYo has
conducted the bulk of the research in the field and produced quite a large
number of literature. Case studies have been undertaken in a variety of
sectors like agriculture, business and public administration, community
development, cooperatives, educational institutions, government operations,
planning agencies, trade union and youth in many countries of the world."
In Bangladesh, however, large-scale research in institution bui'ding is yet
to be undertaken. Only the Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development
has been analyzed with an institutional approach.P It is important tha]
 INSTITUTION BUILDING- AND DEVELOPMENT 1~1

research is undertaken to apply the instituon building framework "to

identify the sources of discrepancy between intended and actual system
outpUt."73 Thorough analysis of institutions serving the society could
help in clearly identifying major institutional strengths and weaknesses and
make way for strategies for modification and improvement so that they can
play their roles effectively and meaningfully,
NOTES:
1. Richard T. Gill, "The Economic Problems of the Underdeveloped Countries", in
Frank Tachau (ed.) The Developing Nations: What Path to Modernization? New
York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1972, p. 20
2. See Fred W.Riggs,"Bureaucrats and Political Development: A Paradoxical View"
in Joseph LaPalombara (ed.) Bureaucracy and Political Development. Princeton :
Prince ton University Press, 1963.
3. Many scholars have distinguished the terms economic development and economic
growth. According to Powelson, "economic growth is a state of increase in the
national product, without reference to income distribution" while economic deve-
lopment is growth "combined with the nurture of those culture objects (norms,
institutions, and values) necessary to make growth continuous".
4. Cyril E. Black. "The Dynamics of Modernization" in Frank Tachau, op. cit., pp.
30-31.
S. Edward W. Weidner, "The Elements of Development Administration" in Wiedner
(ed.), Development Administration in Asia, Durham, N.C. : Duke University Press,
1970, p. 98.
6. Milton J. Bsrnan, "The Politics of Development Administration" in J.D. Monto-
gomery and W. J. Siffln (eds.) Approaches to Development: Politics, Administration
and Change. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1966, pp. 61-u.4.
7. Merle Fainsod,"The Structure ofDevelopmentAdministration"in Irving Swerdlow,
Development Administration: Concepts and Problems. Syracuse : Syracuse University
Press, 1963, p. 2.
1:1. C. F. Grant, "A Note on Applications of Development Administration", Public
Policy, Vol. XV, 1966, pp. 200-201.
9. Milton J. Esman and Fred Bruhns, "Institution Building in National Deve-
lopment : An Approach to Induced Social Change in Transitional Societies".
Graduate School of Public and International Affairs (GSPIA), University of
Pittsburgh, 1965, p.6 (Mirne o).
10. Ibid., p. 22
11. See Philip Selznick, Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation.
New York: Harper and Row, 1957, pp. 21-22; D. Woods Thomas and Judith G.
Fender(eds.)Proceedings: Conference on Institution Building and Techntcal Assistance.
Washington, D. C. : Agency for International Development and the Committee on
Institutional Cooperation, December 4 and 5, 1969, p. 22 ; and Centerfor Economic
Development and Administration, Proceedings: Seminar on Institution Building
and Development. June 26 to June30, 1971. p. 24.
12. Center for Economic Development and Administration, Ibid.
13. William S. Pooler and Richar L. Duncan, "Technical Assistance and Institution
Building: An Empirical Test" in Joseph W. Eaton (ed.), Institution Building and
Development: From Concepts to Application, Beverly Hills, Calif, : Sage Publi-
cations, 1972, p, 183.
 122 POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND CHANGE

14. Hollis W. Peter (ed.), Comparative Theories 0/ Social Change. Ann Arbor, Mich, :
Foundation for Research on Human Behavior, 1966, p. 343.
15. Quoted in Esman and Bruhns, op. cii., p. 5-6.
16. Hans C. Blaise and Luis A. Rodriguez, "Introducing Innovation at Ecuadorean
Universities". GSPIA, University of Pittsburgh, undated, p. 95.
17. SeeWilliarn J. Siffin, "Institution Building as Vision and Venture: A Critique",
in Eaton, op. cit .
18. W. E. Bjur, "Technical Assistance and Institution Building: A University Experi-
ence in Brazil". Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Claremont Graduate School,
Calif., 1967, pp. 212-213.
19. Thomas and Fender, op. cit., p. 22.
20. Milton J. Esman, "The Institution Building Concepts--An Interim Appraisal".
GSPIA, University of Pittsburgh, 1967, p. 3.
21. Norman T. Uphoff and Warren F.Ilchman, "The Time Dimension in Institution
Building" in Eaton, op. cit., p. 9.
22. Hans C. Blaise;"The Process and Strategy of Institution Building in National Deve-
lopment : A Case Study in Cambodia". Unpublished Ph D dissertation, University
of Pittsburgh, 1964, pp. 196-199.
23. Joseph W. Eaton, "Guideline to Development Theory Formulations" in Eaton,
op. cit., p. 144.
24. William J. Siffin, "The Thai Institute of Public Administration: A Case Study in
Institution Building;', GSPIA, University of Pittsburgh, 1967, pp. 253-254 .
.25. Jiri Nehnevajsa, "Institution-Building: Elements of a Research Orientation" in
Nehevajsa et. al., Institution Building and-Education : Papers and Comments, Bloom.
ington, Ind. : Comparative Administrative Group, Department of Government,
Indiana University, undated, p. 28.
26. Thomas and Fender, op. cit., p. 22.
27. Esman, op. cit., p, 3.
28. See Ibid.
29. Thomas M. Hill et al., "Management Education in India: A Study of International
Collaboration in Institution Building". Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,
1971, cb. 2, pp. 11-12.
30. J. de Silva Carvalho, "EBAP : An Experiment in Institution Building". Unpub-
lished Pb D dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, calif.'
196il, pp. 32-33.
31. Fred Charles Bruhns, "The Roles of Values in the Management oflnstitutional
Doctrine: The Institution Building Experience of an African Regional Organiza-
tion". GSPIA, University of Pittsburgh, 1969, p. 5.
32. Ibid., p. 264.
33. See Norman T. Uphoff and Warren F. I\chman, op. cit.,
34. Esman, op. cit., pp. 3-4; andO.P. Gautamt et. al., A Method a/Assessing Progress 0/
Agricultural Universities in India, Part 1. New Delhi: Indian Council of Agri-
cultural Research, 1970, p. 3.
35. Blaise,op.ci/.,p.206.
36. See Uphoff and l\chman, op. cit.,
37. Esman, op. cit., pp. 3-4.
38. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock of El Salvador and United States Agency for
International Development in El Salvador, Proceedings 0/ the Institutional Develop.
ment Seminar. San Salvador: The Ministry, 1971, pp. 146-147 (Here in aftercited
'IS El Salvador).
 fNSTlTUnON BUILDING AND DEVELOPMENT 123

39. Blaise and Rodriguez, op, cit., pp. 203-204.

40. See Uphoff and I1chman, op. cit.,
41. El Salvador, op. cit., p. 145.
42. Blaise,op.cit.,pp.207-208.
43. See Blaise and Rodriguez, op. cit.
44. Ibid, p. 125.
45. See WiIliam James Jorns, "Operational Analysis of Case Studies in Institution Buil-
ding Theory". Unpublished Ph D dissertation, North Carolina States University
at Raleigh, 1971.
46. Ibid, pp. 168-169.
47. Esman, op. cit., p. 5.
48. Thomas and Fender, pp. 22-23.
49. Blaise,op. cit.,pp. 210-211.
50. Nehnevajsa, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
51. Ibid., p. 7.
52. Siffin, op. cit., p. 266.
53. A. U. Qureshi, "California State Training Division : A Study in Institution Building
Unpublished Ph D dissertation, University of Southern California, 1967, pp.30-31.
54. David R. Derge et. aI, "Institution Building and Rural Development: A Study
of United States Technical Assistance Projects". Bloomington, Indiana University,
1968, p. 4.
55. SamuelP. Huntington, "Political Development and Political Decay", World Politics
17, April 1965, p. 12.
56. Blaise,op.cit.,p.84.
57. Thomas and Fender, p. 22.
58. See Chandler Morse et. al, Modernization by Design: Social Science in the Twen-
tieth Century, Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 1969.
59. Donald A. Taylor, Institution Building in Business Administration. The Brazilian
Experience. East Lansing : Michigan State University, 1968, p. 8.
60. See JohnP. Powelson, Institutions ofEconomic Growth: A Theory of Conflict Ma-
nagement in Developing Countries. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.
61. See Chapter Five in Morse , op, cit.,
62. Ibid, p. 214.
63. See Chapter Six in Morse, op. cit.
64. Ibid, p. 315.
65. Ibid, p. 317.
66. T. W. Schultz, "Institutions and the Rising Economic Value of Man", American
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 50, December, 1968, p. 1113.
67. Ibid, pp. 1115-1116.
68. Ibid, p. 1117.
69. J. A. Rigney, and R. W. Cummings, A Report on the Asian Agricultural College and
University Seminar. Raleigh: North Carolina State University, 1970, p. 22.
70. The IRPIB is a multidisciplinary consortium program participated by scholars from
/
the Michigan State University, svrecuse University, Indiana University and
the University of Pittsburgh. The consortium is financed by the United States
Agency for International Development and the Ford Foundation.
71. See Melvin G. Blase, Institution Building A Source Book. Washington D. C.:
United States Agency for International Development, 1973.
 124 POLITICS, ADMINIST~ATION ANDCHANbE

72. Se e Henry M. Choldin, "An Organizational Analysis of Rural Development Pro-

.jects at Comilla, East Pakistan", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 20,
July 1972, pp. 671-690 ; and Harry W. Blair, The Elusiveness of Equity. Institutional
Approaches to Rural Development ill Bangladesh. Rural Development Cornmi-
ttee, Center for International Affairs, Corn ell University, 1973. See also, Habib
Mohammad Zafarullah, "Experiences in Rural Development: An Institutional
Analysis of the Comilla Projects", The Dacca University Studies, 28, June 1978 .
. 73. See Chapter Three, Eaton, op. cit .

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