IS PROJECT

MANAGEMENT 1
K AT H Y S C H W A L B E . 2 0 1 9 . I N F O R M AT I O N
SYSTEM/TECHNOLOGY PROJECT MANAGEMENT 9E.
CENGAGE LEARNING, INC.
 Chapter 2:
The Project Management and Information Technology Context
 Objectives

1. Describe the systems view of project management and how it

applies to information technology (IT) projects
2. Understand organizations, including the four frames,
organizational structures, and organizational culture
3. Explain why stakeholder management and top management
commitment are critical for a project’s success
 Objectives

4. Understand the concept of a project phase and the project life

cycle, and distinguish between project development and product
development
5. Discuss the unique attributes and diverse nature of IT projects
6. Describe recent trends affecting IT project management, including
globalization, outsourcing, virtual teams, and agile project
management
The systems view of project management is a holistic approach that
considers a project as a complex system with various interconnected
components and elements. This perspective emphasizes the
interdependence of different aspects of a project and how they
collectively contribute to its success. When applied to information
technology (IT) projects, the systems view becomes particularly
relevant due to the intricate nature of IT systems and the challenges
associated with their development and implementation.

Here's how the systems view of project management applies to IT

projects:

1. Systems Thinking: In IT projects, systems thinking involves understanding how the various components of a
project (hardware, software, people, processes, data) interact and influence each other. This approach helps
project managers anticipate the potential ripple effects of changes or issues within the system.
2. Interconnectedness: IT projects often involve multiple sub-projects or
workstreams, such as software development, hardware procurement,
network setup, and user training. The systems view emphasizes that these
components are interconnected, and changes or delays in one area can
impact others. Project managers must consider these dependencies when
planning and executing IT projects.

3. Lifecycle Perspective: The systems view recognizes that an IT project

doesn't end with its initial implementation; it has a lifecycle that includes
planning, development, deployment, and maintenance phases. Project
managers must account for long-term considerations, such as scalability,
sustainability, and ongoing support, to ensure the success of the IT system
over time.

4. Stakeholder Engagement: IT projects involve a wide range of

stakeholders, including end-users, business owners, IT teams, and external
vendors. The systems view emphasizes the importance of effective
communication and collaboration among these stakeholders to ensure
that project objectives align with organizational goals and user needs.
 5. Risk Management: IT projects are inherently risky due to the ever-evolving technology landscape and the potential for
unexpected challenges. The systems view encourages project managers to identify, assess, and mitigate risks systematically
throughout the project's lifecycle, considering both technical and non-technical factors.

6. Feedback Loops: Feedback mechanisms are crucial in IT projects to continuously improve the system and address issues
promptly. The systems view encourages the establishment of feedback loops for monitoring and adapting the project as it
progresses, which helps in maintaining alignment with evolving requirements and expectations.

7.Quality Assurance: IT projects often prioritize the delivery of high-quality software or systems. The systems view
emphasizes the need for robust quality assurance processes, including testing, validation, and verification, to ensure that the
IT solution meets the defined standards and requirements.

8. Adaptability: The IT landscape is dynamic, with evolving technologies and changing business needs. The systems view
encourages adaptability in project management, allowing for adjustments and changes as necessary to accommodate
shifting priorities or emerging opportunities.

In summary, the systems view of project management recognizes IT projects as intricate systems with numerous
interconnected components and stakeholders. Applying this perspective to IT projects helps project managers navigate the
complexity, anticipate challenges, and ensure that the final IT solution aligns with the organization's goals and provides long-
term value.

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 Understanding organizations involves looking at them from multiple perspectives, including the four frames, organizational
structures, and organizational culture. These frameworks provide different lenses through which to analyze and make sense
of how organizations operate:

1. Four Frames of Organizations: The Four Frames model, developed by Lee G. Bolman and Terrence E. Deal, offers four
different ways to view and understand organizations:
1. Structural Frame: This frame views organizations as rational entities with a clear structure, roles, and hierarchies.
It emphasizes efficiency, rules, and goals. In this perspective, organizations are like machines that need to be well-
oiled and organized for optimal performance.
2. Human Resource Frame: This frame focuses on the human element within organizations. It sees organizations as
families or communities, where people's needs, relationships, and values play a central role. Motivation,
teamwork, and employee development are key considerations in this frame.
3. Political Frame: In the political frame, organizations are seen as arenas where power, conflicts, and competition
are prevalent. Decision-making processes, influence, and negotiation are emphasized. This frame acknowledges
that organizations are often filled with diverse interests and agendas.
4. Symbolic Frame: The symbolic frame views organizations as theaters or cultures, where symbols, rituals, and
shared meanings hold significance. In this perspective, storytelling, culture, and the organization's identity are
essential for understanding its dynamics.

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 Organizational Structures: Organizational structure refers to how an organization arranges its various
components, including departments, teams, roles, and reporting relationships. Common types of
organizational structures include:
• Functional Structure: Organized by functions or departments, such as marketing, finance, and HR.
• Divisional Structure: Groups activities by product lines, geographic regions, or customer segments.
• Matrix Structure: Combines aspects of both functional and divisional structures, often used in complex
organizations.
• Flat Structure: Minimal hierarchy with few or no middle management layers.
• Hierarchical Structure: Clear, vertical hierarchy with multiple layers of management.

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 Organizational Culture: Organizational culture encompasses the shared values, beliefs, norms, and
practices that define the identity and behavior of an organization. Culture influences how employees
interact, make decisions, and align with the organization's mission. Key aspects of organizational culture
include:
1. Values and Beliefs: The core principles and ideals that guide organizational behavior.
2. Norms and Behaviors: The accepted patterns of behavior and conduct within the organization.
3. Symbols and Rituals: The tangible and symbolic elements that represent the organization's
culture.
4. Leadership and Role Modeling: The role of leaders in shaping and reinforcing the culture.
5. Adaptability and Change: The organization's ability to adapt its culture in response to changing
circumstances.

Understanding an organization involves considering these cultural elements along with the structural and
frame-based perspectives. An organization's culture can significantly impact its structure and how it
responds to challenges and opportunities, while the structural and frame-based perspectives help provide a
comprehensive understanding of how the organization functions within its broader context.

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 Stakeholder and Top Management
Stakeholder management and top management commitment are two critical factors for the success of a project
because they play essential roles in ensuring alignment, support, and the necessary resources throughout the
project lifecycle. Here's an explanation of why these factors are crucial:

1. Stakeholder Management:
1. Alignment of Objectives: Projects typically involve multiple stakeholders, each with their own interests,
expectations, and objectives. Effective stakeholder management involves identifying, prioritizing, and
engaging with these stakeholders to ensure that their interests align with the project's goals. When
stakeholders are on board and supportive, it reduces the likelihood of conflicts and resistance, thus
promoting project success.
2. Resource Availability: Many projects depend on resources, whether they are financial, human, or
technological. Stakeholders can influence the allocation of these resources. Effective stakeholder
management can help secure the necessary resources and support from stakeholders, ensuring that
the project has what it needs to succeed.
3. Risk Mitigation: Stakeholders may also introduce risks to a project, such as scope changes, delays, or
conflicts of interest. Managing stakeholders involves identifying and addressing potential risks by
actively communicating, addressing concerns, and managing expectations. This helps in minimizing
disruptions and unexpected challenges that could derail the project.
 Stakeholder and Top Management

4. Continuous Feedback: Engaging stakeholders throughout the project allows for ongoing
feedback and course correction. This feedback loop enables the project team to adapt to changing
circumstances, requirements, or stakeholder needs, increasing the likelihood of a successful outcome.
5. User Acceptance: In many cases, stakeholders include end-users or customers. Their
satisfaction and acceptance of the project's deliverables are critical to its ultimate success. Engaging with
users from the early stages ensures that the project meets their needs and expectations.
 Stakeholder and Top Management
Top Management Commitment:
• Resource Allocation: Top management commitment involves dedicating the necessary resources, including
funding, personnel, and technology, to support the project. Without such commitment, projects may struggle
due to insufficient resources, leading to delays and compromised quality.
• Priority Setting: Top management sets the strategic priorities for an organization. When they commit to a
project, it signals that the project is aligned with the organization's goals and objectives. This alignment
increases the project's chances of receiving the attention and support it needs to succeed.
• Decision-Making Authority: Top management commitment often comes with the authority to make important
decisions. This authority can expedite the resolution of issues, the approval of change requests, and the
removal of obstacles that may hinder project progress.
• Visibility and Accountability: When top management is committed to a project, it increases its visibility within
the organization. This visibility creates a sense of accountability for project success, motivating all stakeholders,
including team members and lower-level managers, to contribute their best efforts.
• Organizational Culture: Top management commitment can help shape the organization's culture by promoting
a culture of project excellence and a focus on results. This cultural support is instrumental in creating an
environment where project success is the norm rather than the exception.
 Stakeholder and Top Management

In summary, stakeholder management ensures that all relevant parties are informed,
engaged, and supportive of the project, while top management commitment provides
the necessary resources, authority, and strategic alignment. Together, these factors
create a conducive environment for successful project execution, reducing risks,
increasing the likelihood of meeting objectives, and ultimately delivering value to the
organization.
 Project Phase and Project Life Cycle

Understanding the concepts of a project phase, project life cycle, and the distinction between project
development and product development is crucial in project management. Let's break down these
concepts:
Project Phase:
• A project phase is a distinct and manageable stage within the overall project life cycle. It represents a
portion of the project's timeline, during which specific activities, tasks, and objectives are
accomplished. Each phase typically has its goals, deliverables, and associated resources.
• Phases are often sequential and interconnected, with the completion of one phase leading to the
start of the next. The number and nature of phases can vary depending on the project's complexity
and requirements.
• Common project phases include initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and control, and closure.
However, some projects may have additional phases tailored to their unique needs.
• The purpose of dividing a project into phases is to provide structure, clarity, and better control over
the project's progression, allowing for effective planning, resource allocation, and risk management.
 Project Phase and Project Life Cycle

Project Life Cycle:

• The project life cycle is the overall framework that encompasses all the phases and stages of a
project, from its inception to its completion and closure. It outlines the entire journey a project takes,
from conceptualization to delivery and beyond.
• The project life cycle typically consists of phases like initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and
control, and closure, but it can also include pre-project and post-project phases. These phases are
designed to ensure that the project achieves its objectives, meets quality standards, stays within
budget and schedule, and ultimately delivers value to stakeholders.
• The project life cycle helps project managers and stakeholders understand the big picture and how
each phase contributes to the overall project success. It guides decision-making, risk assessment,
and resource allocation throughout the project.
 Project Development vs. Product Development:

• Project Development: This term refers to the process of planning, executing, and completing
a project. A project is a temporary endeavor with a specific set of goals, constraints, and
deliverables. Project development involves organizing and coordinating resources, managing
risks, and ensuring that the project's objectives are met.
• Product Development: Product development, on the other hand, focuses on creating or
improving a tangible or intangible product, such as a software application, a physical device,
or a service. While a project can involve product development, product development itself is
often an ongoing process that extends beyond a single project. It includes activities like
research and development, design, testing, manufacturing, marketing, and ongoing
maintenance.
In summary, project phases are distinct stages within the project life cycle, each with its unique
objectives and deliverables. The project life cycle encompasses the entire journey of a project,
from initiation to closure. Finally, project development involves managing projects to achieve
specific goals, while product development centers on creating or enhancing products or services,
which can be an integral part of a project or a separate ongoing effort.

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 Unique attributes and diverse nature of IS/IT projects

Information Technology (IT) projects are characterized by unique attributes and a diverse nature
due to the rapidly evolving technology landscape, the variety of IT applications, and the dynamic
requirements of different industries. Here are some key aspects that make IT projects distinct:
1. Technological Advancement:
1. Rapid Changes: Technology evolves at an unprecedented pace. New hardware,
software, programming languages, and methodologies emerge regularly, making IT
projects subject to constant updates and changes.
2. Obsolescence: IT projects often face the challenge of dealing with outdated
technology. Managing legacy systems and ensuring their compatibility with modern
solutions is a common concern.

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 Unique attributes and diverse nature of IS/IT projects

2. Diverse Applications:
1. Software Development: IT projects frequently involve the creation and maintenance
of software applications, including desktop, web, mobile, and cloud-based solutions.
2. Infrastructure: IT projects encompass the design, implementation, and management
of IT infrastructure, such as networks, servers, data centers, and cloud platforms.
3. Cybersecurity: The increasing importance of cybersecurity means IT projects often
include efforts to protect data and systems from threats and breaches.
3. Customization and Complexity:
4. Tailored Solutions: Many IT projects are custom-built to meet specific organizational
needs. This customization adds complexity but ensures that solutions align closely
with business requirements.
5. Integration Challenges: Integrating diverse IT systems and platforms is a common
challenge. Ensuring seamless communication between different software and
hardware components is critical.

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 Unique attributes and diverse nature of IT projects

4. Project Size and Scope:

1. Varied Scale: IT projects range from small initiatives, such as developing a single
application feature, to large-scale endeavors like implementing an enterprise-wide
ERP system. Project size and scope can vary significantly.
2. Complexity: The complexity of IT projects can be high, particularly in large-scale
systems integration projects that involve multiple technologies and stakeholders.
5. Interdisciplinary Nature:
3. Cross-Functional Teams: IT projects often require collaboration between
professionals from various domains, including developers, engineers, designers,
cybersecurity experts, and business analysts.
4. Alignment with Business Goals: Successful IT projects must align with an
organization's strategic objectives and add value to its core operations.
6. Agile and Iterative Approach:
5. Iterative Development: Many IT projects follow agile methodologies, which
emphasize incremental development, adaptability to changing requirements, and
close collaboration with end-users.
6. Continuous Improvement: Agile practices promote ongoing feedback and
improvement, allowing projects to evolve over time based on real-world usage and
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 Unique attributes and diverse nature of IS/IT projects

7. Globalization and Remote Work:

1. Global Teams: IT projects often involve teams distributed across different
geographical locations. Managing remote teams and coordinating work across time
zones is a common challenge.
2. Outsourcing: Organizations frequently outsource IT project components or even
entire projects to leverage cost efficiencies and access specialized expertise.
8. Compliance and Regulations:
3. Data Privacy: Compliance with data protection regulations, such as GDPR and HIPAA,
is essential in IT projects, particularly those involving sensitive data.
4. Industry-specific Regulations: Different industries (e.g., healthcare, finance) have
specific regulatory requirements that must be met in IT projects.
In conclusion, IT projects are characterized by their fast-paced and dynamic nature, diverse
applications, technological complexity, and their essential role in supporting and enhancing
modern businesses. Successful IT project management requires a deep understanding of these
unique attributes and the ability to adapt to the evolving IT landscape.

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 Significant Impact affecting IS/IT PM

Recent trends have significantly impacted the field of IT project management, reshaping how
projects are planned, executed, and delivered. Here are some notable trends:
1. Globalization:
1. Distributed Teams: IT project teams are increasingly spread across the globe,
leveraging talent and expertise from different geographical locations. This trend
allows organizations to tap into a diverse talent pool, but it also presents challenges in
terms of communication, collaboration, and time zone management.
2. Cultural Sensitivity: Globalization requires IT project managers to be culturally
sensitive and aware of cultural differences that can affect communication styles,
decision-making processes, and project dynamics.
2. Outsourcing and Offshoring:
1. Cost Efficiency: Organizations continue to outsource IT project components or entire
projects to reduce costs and gain access to specialized skills and resources available in
other regions.
2. Vendor Management: IT project managers now need to excel in vendor management,
ensuring that outsourced work aligns with project goals, quality standards, and
timelines.

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 Significant Impact affecting IS/IT PM

3. Virtual Teams:
1. Remote Work: The rise of remote work, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has
made virtual teams a common occurrence. IT project managers must adapt to
managing teams that work from various locations, requiring effective communication
and collaboration tools.
2. Virtual Leadership: Virtual team leadership skills, such as fostering team cohesion,
tracking progress remotely, and maintaining team morale, have become essential for
IT project managers.
4. Agile Project Management:
3. Agile Adoption: Agile methodologies, such as Scrum and Kanban, have gained
widespread acceptance in IT project management due to their flexibility, adaptability,
and emphasis on customer-centricity.
4. Hybrid Approaches: Organizations are increasingly adopting hybrid project
management approaches that combine elements of agile and traditional project
management frameworks to suit their specific needs.
5. Continuous Delivery: Agile practices encourage continuous delivery and integration,
reducing project cycle times and enabling rapid responses to changing requirements
and market dynamics.
 Significant Impact affecting IT PM

5. DevOps:
1. Integration of Development and Operations: DevOps practices focus on collaboration
between development and IT operations teams to automate processes, improve
efficiency, and enhance the reliability and speed of software delivery.
2. Continuous Deployment: DevOps emphasizes continuous deployment, allowing IT
project managers to deliver features and updates more frequently and reliably.
6. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Automation:
3. AI Integration: AI and automation technologies are increasingly integrated into IT
projects to enhance decision-making, streamline repetitive tasks, and improve project
predictability.
4. Predictive Analytics: AI-driven analytics can provide insights into project performance
and risks, enabling proactive management and mitigation.
7. Cybersecurity and Data Privacy:
5. Data Protection: IT project managers must prioritize cybersecurity and data privacy,
especially when handling sensitive information. Compliance with regulations like
GDPR and HIPAA is critical.
6. Security by Design: Security is now considered a fundamental aspect of IT project
development, with security measures integrated from the project's inception.
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 Significant Impact affecting IT/IS PM

8. Sustainability:
1. Environmental Considerations: Organizations are increasingly integrating sustainability
into IT projects, aiming to reduce carbon footprints, minimize electronic waste, and
optimize energy usage in data centers and IT infrastructure.

In summary, recent trends in IT project management reflect the dynamic and evolving nature of
the IT industry. Globalization, outsourcing, virtual teams, agile practices, DevOps, AI,
cybersecurity, sustainability, and remote work have reshaped project management strategies
and require IT project managers to adapt and acquire new skills to effectively navigate this
changing landscape.

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