Unit 10: The Sociology of Management and

Business Administration

- Sociology of organizations
- Networks and organizations
- Analysis of organization
- Organizational / bureaucratic goals and societal expectations
- Managers and corporations vis-à-vis politics and power
- Work and leisure
- Group dynamics and intergroup relations
- Indigenous management and management of indigenous knowledge
- Dynamics of social capital
- Interdependence of social and technical skills
- Market and political culture
- Management of non-government development organizations
- Social movement politics and organization
- Relations in Business
 Sociology of organizations :

• Social organization consists of the relatively stable pattern

of social relationships among individuals and groups in
society. These relationships are based on systems of social
roles, norms, and shared meanings that provide regularity
and predictability in social interaction.
• formal organizations are large secondary groups organized
to achieve their goals efficiently.
• Formal organizations, such as business corporations and
government agencies, differ from families and neighborhoods
in their impersonality and their formally planned atmosphere
• Bureaucracy is an organizational model rationally designed
to perform tasks efficiently. Bureaucratic officials regularly
create and revise policy to increase efficiency
Max Weber identified six key elements of the
ideal bureaucratic organization:
1. Specialization
2. Hierarchy of positions.
3. Rules and regulations.
4. Technical competence.
5. Impersonality
6. Formal, written communications.
 Networks and organizations:

• A network is a web of social ties.

• Think of a network as a “fuzzy” group containing people who come into
occasional contact but who lack a sense of boundaries and belonging. If you think
of a group as a “circle of friends,” think of a network as a “social web” expanding
outward, often reaching great distances and including large numbers of people.
• Networks are based on people’s colleges, clubs, neighborhoods, political parties,
and personal interests.
• Social Network refers to a group of individuals who voluntarily interact on the
basis of the interest which they profess for an idea, a problem, a product, etc.
• A social network may be defined as having three principal elements:
consciousness of kind, rituals and traditions of the community and the moral
responsibility of the individuals it comprises

• Obviously, some networks contain people with considerably more wealth, power,
and prestige than others; that explains the importance of being “well connected.”
The networks of more privileged categories of people—such as the members of
an expensive country club—are a valuable form of “social capital,” which is more
likely to lead people to higher-paying jobs (Green, Tigges, & Diaz, 1999; Lin, Cook,
& Burt, 2002).
• Networks consist of the web of relationships formed by people in order to
get things done. This web supports the many functions that people fulfill at
work, from completing routine transactions to socializing, innovating,
planning, learning, and developing their careers.
Organizational networks influence virtually everything organizations do:
a. Change: If networks are effective, they can adapt quickly to change.
b. Decision Making: The quality of people’s networks influences the quality of
their decisions.
c. Leadership: Effective leaders tend to cultivate their networks in specific
ways.
d. Culture: An organization’s culture is embedded in its networks. Networks
can effectively resist or enable culture change.
e. Mergers & Acquisitions: If networks don’t integrate well after a merger or
acquisition, the organizations won’t achieve desired synergies or cost
savings.
f. Innovation: Bringing the people with the right skill sets together from across
networks improves innovation.
g. Projects: Successful projects are run by leaders with stronger networks.
 Major Issues on Organizational Networks:

a. The effects of social structure on entrepreneurial behavior and

outcomes
b. The interplay between organizations and labor markets
c. The effects of status and vertical differentiation in markets on
organizational behavior
d. The consequences of organizational structure and design for
organizational performance
e. The dynamics of change in organizational communities
f. The role individual and organizational networks play in
structuring information flow
g. Structural and environmental constraints on organizational
adaptation
 Organizational Analysis:
• Organizational analysis is the process of reviewing the development, work
environment, personnel and operation of a business.
• This review is often performed in response to crisis, but may also be carried
out as part of a demonstration project, in the process of taking a program to
scale, or in the course of regular operations.
• Organizational analysis focuses on the structure and design of the
organization and how the organization's systems, capacity and functionality
influence outputs.
• Organizational analysis is the process of appraising the growth, personnel,
operations, and work environment of an entity. Undertaking an organizational
analysis is beneficial, as it enables management to identify areas of weakness
and then find approaches for eliminating the problems.
• Additional internal and external factors are also accounted for in assessing
how to improve efficiency. Undertaking an organizational analysis is helpful in
assessing an organization's current well-being and capacity, and deciding on a
course of action to improve the organization's long-term sustainability.
• A restructuring of an Organization may become necessary when either
external or internal forces have created a problem or opportunity for
improvement in efficiency and effectiveness
Strengths
Assessing the strengths of an organization involves evaluating management, workforce,
resources, as well as current marketing goals.
Weaknesses
• Weaknesses are obviously an aspect of an organization that can affect its performance.
Recognizing weaknesses is important, as it enables the organization to locate problems
and implement beneficial changes.
Opportunities
• An external assessment includes sizing up the competition, analyzing market trends, and
evaluating the impact of technology on the performance of an organization.
Threats
• Not all threats are detrimental to the success of a business. For instance, labor can be a
threat or an opportunity, depending on the prevailing economic conditions. Legislation
and regulations set by the government also exert an effect on how well an organization
performs in its industry.

Organizational analysis offers many benefits to a business. For one, it helps businesses
improve on their weaknesses. Understanding how a business functions helps to shed light
on areas of weakness that may only require simple changes to spur growth. An
organizational analysis helps businesses find innovative ideas, such as new ways to
structure objectives so that employees are more productive.
 Organizational Goals and Objectives
Organizational Goals:
• Goals are outcome statements that define what an organization is trying to
accomplish, both programmatically and organizationally.
• Goals are usually a collection of related programs, a reflection of major actions of the
organization, and provide rallying points for managers. Try to think of each goal as a
large umbrella with several spokes coming out from the center. The umbrella itself is
a goal. Organizational goals should be as per societal expectation.
• Goals are defined as the lifelong aims, which an individual or entity endeavor to
achieve something. It determines what the company is attempting to accomplish. On
the other hand, objectives are the specific milestones which a person plans to
achieve in a limited period. These are precise, measurable, time-based, actions that
assist in the achievement of goal.
Organizational Objectives:
(1) be related directly to the goal;
(2) be clear, concise, and understandable;
(3) be stated in terms of results;
(4) specify a date for accomplishment; and
(5) be measurable.
• Setting the objectives by using SMART model:
S= Specific: What type of company do you want to be the
best at? On what scale do you want to compete? Do you
want to be the best company in your area or in the world?
M= Measurable: How will you know when you have
achieved your objective? What benchmarks are you going
to use to measure your success?
A=Attainable: Is this objective achievable given your
resources? What are the obstacles that you are going to
encounter and can you get past the hurdles?
R= Relevant: How relevant is this objective to the company
and its employees? Will it benefit your organization?
T= Time bound: When do you want to achieve this objective
by?
 Managers and corporation vis-à-vis politics and power:
• The word manager refers to the person who is in charge of running
organization and in management sense person who is in charge of
supervising, controlling, and coordinating of productive activity in industrial
and other formal organizations, whereas corporation refers to the large
business organization having many branches controlled by the head office.
• Here, the nature of roles to play by both managers within the organization
and head office in corporation are similar as they both involve in the process
of supervision, control, and coordination of productivity activity. To involve in
these activities they both hold the power.
• Power is directly related to the politics. Here, politics can be defined as the
mechanism through which we try to mobilize our valuable resources
appropriately. By using power they make decisions and implement it to
mobilize the existing own resources to achieve the desired goals of the
organization.
• Marxists argue that what goes on in the work place and social organization
of work can only be explained in reference to the structure of class and power
relationship.
• The existence of bureaucratic organization itself related to
control of junior level worker by using power. They claim that
the specialized division of labor which typifies industrial
society is based on a hierarchical principle of authority and
control.
• The job fragmentation and specialization have evolved as a
means of control based on principle of divide and conquer. A
hierarchy of authority is said to be necessary in order to
coordinate the many specialized tasks in the division of labor.
• For example, in factories, workers on the shop floor are
controlled by supervisors and foremen/women who are
responsible to junior management who are subject to the
authority of middle and senior management who are
answerable to the board of directors. Major decisions travel
from the top downwards.
 Work and Leisure :
• Work plays a major role in people's lives. When you think of 'work' there are several
definitions depending on your own experiences.
• Work is socially defined depending on the society in which you live. In modern,
western societies, paid employment is considered to be the most important type of
work.
• We can define work, whether paid or unpaid , as being carrying out of tasks requiring
the expenditure of mental and physical effort, which has as its objective the
production of goods and services that cater to human needs.
• A household worker is usually female and is part of the informal economy. It is
difficult to estimate the economic value of household activities such as raising and
rearing children, cooking and cleaning.
• For the purpose of this paper, work refers to paid employment. In fact, work for many
people is an integral part of their everyday lives and forms an important part of our
values system. Think of the many activities that occur in our daily lives that are in
some way related to work.
• Work provides us with a major source of self identity and status. People who work
hard are seen as role models who are often emulated.
• Social status in a post-industrial society is often determined by occupation.
Functions of Work :
1. Work fulfills many functions apart from satisfying basic needs and wants associated with living in a
consumer society.
2. Work is an integral part of an individual's identity and contributes to social status, social identity and
self esteem.
3. Work provides a formalized means to develop social relationships and social contacts outside the
home.
4. Work provides the necessary income required to participate in leisure and sporting activities.
5. Work also influences where people live and the life styles they follow.

Leisure:
- Leisure has been defined as a quality of experience or as free time.
- The word leisure is derived from the Latin word, ‘licere’ which means ‘to be free’. So, leisure is defined
as the free time where time is spent beyond one’s work/job, business, domestic chores, education,
regular activities such as eating and sleeping.
- Leisure as experience usually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice. It is done for
"its own sake", for the quality of experience and involvement. According to Thorsten Veblen's (1899)
Leisure means "nonproductive consumption of time." Mullett (1988), defined leisure as “a time after
work.” Soule mentioned that a time sold by people to earn money is work (job) and the rest time can
be accepted leisure without worrying about what to do.
Importance of leisure:
• Provides relaxation, Relieves stress, Recharge mind and body
 Difference between Work and Leisure:

• Work is what we do because we have to (usually for money). While, leisure

is what we choose to do in our free time (usually for pleasure, or relaxation).
• Work is an activity, where an individual participates in regular jobs for
survival and is usually bound by norms and values of the workplace. While,
leisure is an activity, in which an employee or worker experiences freedom
of choice to do anything.
• Work is sold time to another person in compensation for pay (salaries and
wages). While, leisure is not a time in which nothing is done, but leisure is a
time to be spent fruitfully to create knowledge, pleasures, and satisfaction
and may or may not involve pay.
• The participant in work is under compulsion to participate. While the
participant in a leisure activity is under no compulsion to participate.
• Work is productive. While leisure may or may not be productive but must
not involve an individual’s duties and functions in the workplace. For
example, a person may play the guitar in a nightclub in leisure (free time).
• Relationship between Work and Leisure:
- Research has generally found positive relationships between
work and leisure, such that people choose leisure activities
involving the same psychological, social, and behavioral skills
as their work.
- The present study argues, however, that negative relationships
may also occur, with individuals sometimes compensating for
work deficiencies through leisure activities.
- Evidence is presented showing that individuals with low
occupational status are more likely to stress the importance of
prize winning in leisure than individuals with high status.
- Since low-and high-status individuals did not differ in their
abilities actually to win prizes, the results are attributed to the
desire of low-status individuals to compensate for lack of
occupational status through leisure achievement.
 Group dynamics and intergroup relations:
• A social group is two or more people who identify with and interact with one
another. Human beings come together in couples, families, circles of friends,
churches, clubs, businesses, neighborhoods, and large organizations.
• Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more
people who share a common meaning and evaluation of themselves and
come together to achieve common goals.
• In other words, a group is a collection of people who interact with one
another; accept rights and obligations as members and who share a
common identity.
Characteristics of Group:
a. Two or more persons
b. Formal social structure
c. Common goals • Face-to-face interaction (they will talk with each other)
d. Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the other)
e. Self-definition as group members
f. Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group).
Types of Group :
1. Formal :- command , task , Functional
2. Informal:- interest, friendship, reference

• An in-group is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty.
• An in-group exists in relation to an out-group, a social group toward which a
person feels a sense of competition or opposition.
• According to Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929), a primary group is a small
social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. Joined by
primary relationships, people spend a great deal of time together, engage in a
wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another pretty well. In
short, they show real concern for one another. The family is every society’s most
important primary group
• In contrast to the primary group, the secondary group is a large and impersonal
social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity. In most respects,
secondary groups have characteristics opposite to those of primary groups.
Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal
knowledge of one another. Many secondary groups exist for only a short time,
beginning and ending without particular significance. Students in a college
course, who may or may not see one another again after the semester ends, are
one example of a secondary group
• A group can be defined as several individuals who come together
to accomplish a particular task or goal.
• Group dynamics refers to the attitudinal and behavioral
characteristics of a group.
• Group dynamics concern how groups form, their structure and
process, and how they function. It is relevant in both formal and
informal groups of all types. In an organizational setting, groups
are a very common organizational entity and the study of groups
and group dynamics is an important area of study in
organizational behavior.
• Group-dynamics is concerned with the formation and structure
of groups and the way they affect individual members, other
groups and the organization.
• It is a system of behaviors and psychological processes
occurring within a social group (intra-group dynamics), or
between social groups (intergroup dynamics).
• Intergroup relations refers to the way in which people who
belong to social groups or categories perceive, think about, feel
about, and act towards and interact with people in other groups.
• The definition of intergroup is something that deals with two or
more collections of different people. The study of intergroup
relations has long been a staple in social science research and in
particular, social psychology. More recent work has tried to
determine when contact between groups is likely to result in
positive outcomes.
• Intergroup relations are influenced by the social identities and
perceptions of groups that individual group members hold.
Furthermore, the quality of intergroup relations influences group
members’ group identities.
• Thus, there is a circular aspect to group identity processes and the
quality of intergroup relations. One influences and is influenced by
the other.
 Management of Indigenous Knowledge
• Indigenous knowledge refers to understandings, skills, and philosophies
developed by local communities with long histories and experiences of
interaction with their natural surroundings .Indigenous knowledge is the
local or folk knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society.
• It refers to a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal educational system. It is embedded in culture and it is
unique to a particular location and its culture
• Indigenous knowledge includes a broad array of knowing that are often
particular to local communities and rooted in history yet which
encompass a wide range of specific practices, relationships, and cognitive
understandings.
• It is built up by a group of people through generations of living in close
contact with nature but mostly not available in codified form
• Indigenous knowledge is regarded as the sum of experience and
knowledge for the given ethnic group on specific aspects, which form the
basis for decision making (Gupta et al., 2015).
• Today, many indigenous knowledge systems are at risk of
becoming extinct (wipe out) because of rapidly changing
natural environments and fast pacing economic, political,
and cultural changes on a global scale.
Characteristics of Indigenous Knowledge :
1. Indigenous Knowledge is local.
2. Indigenous Knowledge is orally-transmitted, or
transmitted through imitation and demonstration.
3. Indigenous Knowledge is the consequence of practical
engagement in everyday life.
4. Indigenous Knowledge is characteristically situated within
broader cultural traditions.
5. Indigenous knowledge is the result of survival strategy of
the community people
• Indigenous or traditional knowledge is the knowledge
that people in a given community have developed over
time, and continue to develop.
• Indigenous Knowledge is the basis for self-sufficiency and
self-determination. It should be managed scientifically at
least for three reasons:
1) People are familiar with indigenous practices and
technologies. They can understand, handle, and maintain
them better than introduced western practices and
technologies.
2) Indigenous Knowledge draws on local resources. People
are less dependent on outside supplies, which can be
costly, scarce and unavailable regularly.
3) Indigenous knowledge can be used by any organization for
self-help promotion in a long run.
• Indigenous Management refers to the development,
protection, promotion, and maintenance of the local, folk
and historical heritage, tradition, people and others
living and non-living things.
Major elements of indigenous management:
a. Management of native people/ethnic people
b. Management of indigenous skills
c. Management of indigenous knowledge
d. Management of indigenous technology
e. Management of indigenous cultures (language, music,
literature, norms, values, customs, beliefs etc.)
f. Management of indigenous productions
 Dynamics of Social Capital:
• Social capital is a form of economic and cultural capital in which social
networks are central, transactions are marked by reciprocity, trust,
cooperation, and market agents produce goods and services not mainly
for themselves, but for a common use. “
• social capital refers to features of social organization such as networks,
norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for
mutual benefit.
Robert Putnam The term generally refers to:
(a) resources, and the value of these resources, both tangible and intangible,
(b) the relationships among these resources, and
(c) the impact that these relationships have on the resources involved in each
relationship, and on larger groups.
• Social capital has been used to explain improved performance of diverse
groups, the growth of entrepreneurial firms, superior managerial
performance, enhanced supply chain relations, the value derived from
strategic alliances, and the evolution of communities
• According to Fukuyama (1995,p.10) social capital in terms of
trust as: “... the ability of the people to work together for
common purposes in groups and organizations”
• Social capital is a productive resource having varying quantities
(stocks and flows) and qualities (trust, reciprocity, norms, social
networks, and information channels). It is a productive resource
and requires investment (Lin, 2001).
• Social capital directly enhances the factor productivity and,
hence, it can be treated as capital. Becker (1996) considers
social capital as an intermediate good (commodities) for the
production of assets.
• Bourdieu (1986) first introduced the capital metaphor of social
capital by differentiating three different forms of capital—
human, cultural, and social.
• Dynamics of Social Capital:
The dynamics or changing aspects of social capital is based on its
functions, they are: •
a. Serves on committee for local organization
b. Making Civic and social organizations
c. Spends time with friends
d. Entertains with family members
e. Volunteer services
f. Works on community project
g. Accumulations and mobilizations of resources.
h. Develops the leadership for performing the socio-political
functions
i. Serves for information dissemination
j. Helps for economic growth, adaption and overall development
 Interdependence of Social and Technical Skills
• Social skill is any skill facilitating interaction and communication with others.
• Social rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and
nonverbal ways.
• The process of learning these skills is called socialization. Interpersonal skills are
sometimes also referred to as people skills or communication skills.
• Interpersonal skills are the skills a person uses to communicate and interact with others.
• They include encouragement, active listening, delegation, and leadership.
• The term "interpersonal skills" is used often in business contexts to refer to the measure
of a person's ability to operate within business organizations through social
communication and interactions. Interpersonal skills are how people relate to one
another.
Factors for developing social skills:
1) More and Better Relationships
2) Better Communication
3) Greater Efficiency
4) Advancing Career Prospects
5) Increased Overall Happiness
6) Practicing in the Real World
• Technical skills comprise the knowledge and capabilities
to perform specialized tasks related to a specific field.
• Technical skills reflect specific practical knowledge. All
fields with technical skills are often referred to as
"technicians" in their chosen field.
• Technical skills apply to specific job requirements. In other
words, technical skills are practical and often pertain to
mechanical or scientific subjects. Typically, you attain
these from training and through experience in a field.
• For example, a research scientist’s technical skills might
include the ability to use and maintain laboratory
equipment, and a baker’s technical skills might include
operating kitchen equipment and maintaining sanitary
cooking areas.
Interdependency between social and technical
skills:
1. Good performance can be made by using
combine skills.
2. Both skills are necessary to make better
management and captivating administration.
3. Both skills are required for business success.
4. Social skills help to enhance technical skills
and vice versa.
 Market and Political Culture:
What is Market?
- The market is a central category of economics.
- An actual or nominal place where forces of demand and supply
operate, and where buyers and sellers interact (directly or through
intermediaries) to trade goods, services, or contracts or
instruments, for money or barter.( Slavery Market, Feudal Market,
and Capitalist Market).
- Markets include mechanisms or means for:
(1) Determining price of the traded item,
(2) Communicating the price information,
(3) Facilitating deals and transactions, and
(4) Effecting distribution.
- The market for a particular item is made up of existing and potential
customers who need it and have the ability and willingness to pay
for it.
• The sociology of markets has been one of the most vibrant
fields in sociology in the past 25 years.
• There is a great deal of agreement that markets are social
structures characterized by extensive social relationships
between firms, workers, suppliers, customers, and
governments
• From a sociological perspective, markets are understood to be
arenas of social action in which actors who share a pragmatic
interest in exchange come together under competitive
conditions. Ideal-typically, market exchange is based on
voluntary participation.
• What is Political Culture?
- The term 'political culture' is used in the field of social science.
- It refers to historically-based, widely-shared beliefs, feelings, and values about the
nature of political systems, which can serve as a link between citizens and
government.
- A Political Culture is a set of attitudes and practices held by a people that
shapes their political behavior. It includes moral judgments, political myths,
beliefs, and ideas about what makes for a good society.
- A political culture is a reflection of a government, but it also incorporates
elements of history and tradition that may predate the current regime.
- Governments can help shape political culture and public opinion through
education, public events, and commemoration of the past.
- Political cultures vary greatly from state to state and sometimes even within a
state. Generally speaking, however, political culture remains more or less the
same over time.
- Understanding our own political culture can also provide clues to political
relationships, such as those we share with each other or our governments.
- A political culture is the product of both the history of a political system and the
histories of the members. Thus it is rooted equally in public events and private
• The major types of political systems are democracies,
monarchies, and authoritarian and totalitarian regimes.
• Democracy is a political system that gives power to the people
as a whole( Macionis,2011). Supreme power is vested in the
people
• Market and Political Culture Markets are social institutions
which interact with political structures and processes. The
worldwide trend since the 1990s towards domestic and
international market liberalization, for example, has been
accompanied by a parallel trend towards more government
regulation and public-private partnerships.
• A number of public policies increasingly rely on market
mechanisms and instruments. Economic policy decisions,
furthermore, are often heavily influenced by political
considerations.
Interactions between markets and political culture in areas such as trade,
finance, environment, network industries, taxation, social policies, and
education are particularly interested in the following issues:
• Governments intervene in markets and regulate identical or similar problems
(e.g., unemployment, poverty, biotechnology, intellectual property rights, air
pollution) in different ways. We study the causes of cross-national differences in
the political regulation of markets and their economic, social and political
effects.
• When, why and how do specific public policies or government practices spread
within and between countries? That is, processes of policy diffusion, for
instance, with respect to market liberalization in the utilities sector, banking
regulation, social policies, and environmental protection.
• Processes of industrialization, market liberalization and market integration
(globalization) affect many areas of policy making. We look at the effects of
structural change on individual preferences, distributive (welfare state) and
economic policies, and public goods provision in areas such as environmental
protection, education, monetary policy or labor markets.
• Finally, we investigate how governments respond to international financial and
economic crises. We are particularly interested in how, and to what extent,
their actions are constrained by domestic audiences, and how they coordinate
their responses with other governments and international organizations.
 Management of Non-government Development
Organization (Management of NGOs)
• A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non-profit group that functions
independently of any government.
• It is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from state or international
governmental organizations
• According to World Bank “NGOs are private organizations that pursue activities to
relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment,
provide basic social services, or undertake community development.”
• The World Bank identifies two broad groups of NGOs:
• Operational NGOs, which focus on the design and implementation of development
projects.
• Advocacy NGOs, which defend or promote a specific cause and seek to influence
public policy.1

• NGO in Nepal: Maiti Nepal , . CWIN, ABC Nepal, Shakti Samuha etc
• INGO in Nepal: Action Aid Nepal, Helvetas Nepal, Karuna Foundation, Plan Nepal,
Save the Children etc
 Characteristics NGOs
1. NGOs are voluntary, independent and non-profitable organizations.
2. Their principal is to improve the circumstances and prospects of disadvantaged
people.
3. The majority of NGOs are small and horizontally structured with short lines of
communication.
4. NGOs often maintain a field presence in remote locations, where there is few
government facilities.
5. They have pioneered a wide range of participatory methods for diagnosis and
introduced approaches for testing new technology and incorporate local
knowledge systems.
6. Most NGOs are more accountable to external funding agencies than to the
clientele they claim to serve.
 Management of NGOs:
1. Organizational profile
2. Knowledge of the community
3. Planning
4. Human resource management
5. Managing community workers
6. Management information systems
7. Commodity logistics management
8. Financial management
9. Health facilities
10. Increasing a culture of transparency
11. Developing management skills, and
12. Promotion of leadership skills
 Social Movement Politics and
Organization:
• Social movements are a type of group action. They are large
informal groupings of individuals or organizations that focus on
specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out,
resist or undo a social change.
• A social movement is a form of collective behavior in which large
numbers of people are organized or alerted to support and bring
about, or to resist, social change.
• A social movement is an organized activity that encourages or
discourages social change.
• Social movements are among the most important types of collective
behavior because they often have lasting effects on our society.
• Social movements are common in the modern world, but this was
not always the case
• Preindustrial societies are tightly bound by tradition, making social movements extremely
rare.
• However, the many subcultures and countercultures found in industrial and postindustrial
societies encourage social movements dealing with a wide range of public issues.
• In recent decades, for example, the gay rights movement has won legal changes in
numerous cities and several states, forbidding discrimination based on sexual orientation and
allowing formal domestic partnership and in some places even legal gay marriage. Like any
social movement that seeks change, the gay rights movement has prompted a
countermovement made up of traditionalists who want to limit the social acceptance of
homosexuality.
• In today’s society, almost every important public issue gives rise to a social movement
favoring change and an opposing countermovement resisting it.
Social Movements:
- Industrial Revolution
- Black Movement
- Feminist Movement
- Labor Movement
- Ethnic Movement
- Gay Movement
- Dalits Movement
- Madhesh Movement
- Regional Movement
 Types of Social Movements
• Alterative social movements are the least threatening to the status quo
because they seek limited change in only a part of the population. Their
aim is to help certain people alter their lives.
• Redemptive social movements also target specific people, but they seek
radical change. Their aim is to help certain people redeem their lives. For
example, Alcoholics Anonymous is an organization that helps people
with an alcohol addiction achieve a sober life.
• Reformative social movements aim for only limited social change but
target everyone. Multiculturalism, is an educational and political
movement that advocates working toward social equality for people of
all races and ethnicities. Reformative social movements generally work
inside the existing political system
• Revolutionary social movements are the most extreme of all, seeking
the transformation of an entire society. Sometimes pursuing specific
goals, sometimes spinning utopian dreams, these social movements
reject existing social institutions as flawed in favor of a radically new
alternative
 Business Relations
• Business refers to an occupation in which goods and services are produced
and sold in return of money. It is carried out on a regular basis with the prime
objective of making profit. Mining, manufacturing, trading, transporting,
storing, banking, and insurance are examples of business activities.
• According to Timms (2011) “business is a commercial enterprise or
establishment that trades in goods or services.” The connections that exit
between entities involved in the business process.
• Business Relations: A strong network may range from customers and clients
to suppliers, buyers, outsourced service providers, the government, media or
even competitors

• For example, one company's business relations may include a long list of
customers, vendors, sales leads, potential customers, banks, stockbrokers and
any municipal, state and federal governmental agencies. Essentially, business
relations are all of the entities with which a business is connected or expects to
have a connection.
Types of business relationships
1. Business to business (B2B)
2. Business to customer (B2C)

Nurturing business relationships

1. Networking
2. Settling disputes
Importance of Business Relations
1. Relationships Create Loyalty:
By developing a strong relationship with your clientele, your business transforms
from being “just another company” into a brand they know and trust.
2. Relationships Create an Image:
It’s hard to feel “warm and fuzzy” about a faceless corporate entity. Thankfully,
through fostering relationships, you can bring a human face to your
organization–one that customers can relate to and even come to love.
3. Relationships Create Great Word-of-Mouth:
people are quick to spread the word when they are displeased with a company–but
they are also eager to refer their friends and family members to a business that
they truly believe in. And people trust a word-of-mouth referral from their
nearest and dearest.
4. Relationships Create a excellent Team:
While it is important to create positive relationships outside of your organization, it
is also vital to nurture healthy and respectful relationships within your
company. By developing a strong working alliance with your employees–and
creating an atmosphere and culture conducive to developing a strong sense of
teamwork–you will be able to increase morale, productivity, and job
satisfaction
 Common Sociological Terminology

• Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the term anthropologists use to describe the

opinion that one’s own way of life is natural or correct. Some would simply
call it cultural ignorance. Ethnocentrism means that one may see his/her own
culture as the correct way of living.
• Eurocentrism is generally defined as a cultural phenomenon that views the
histories and cultures of non-Western societies from a European or Western
perspective
• Ethnography is a research method central to knowing the world from the
standpoint of its social relations. It is a qualitative research method
predicated on the diversity of culture at home (wherever that may be) and
abroad.
• Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is the idea that a person’s beliefs,
values, and practices should be understood based on that person’s own
culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another.
• Enculturation: It is the process by which people learn the dynamics of their
surrounding culture and acquire values and norms appropriate in the culture
and worldviews. It related to socialization process.
• Acculturation: It is a process in which members of one cultural
group adopts beliefs and behaviors of another group.
• Assimilation: It is the process whereby a minority group
gradually adapts to the customs and attitudes of the prevailing
culture and customs.
• Etic and Emic Perspective:
• The emic perspective investigates how local people think. How
they perceive and categorize the world, their rules for behavior.
• The etic perspective :shifts the focus from local observation
and interpretations to those of the anthropologists