JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS

ISSN- 2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 19, 2020

VARIATION OF ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS AND DEPENDENT

NATURE OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN INDIA DURING THE
LOCKDOWN PERIOD.
Alok Sagar Gautam1, Abhishek Joshi2*, Sanjeev Kumar3*, Mahesh Shinde4*, Karan Singh5, Annpurna
Nautiyal6
1,2,3,5
Department of Physics, Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal – 246174,
Uttarakhand, India.
4
Willis Towers Watson Global Delivery Solutions, Thane - 400606, Maharashtra, India. 6
3
Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal – 246174, Uttarakhand India.

E-mail - sk8190179@gmail.com , mashinde05@gmail.com, abhijmuki28@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: To understand the meteorological parameters dependent nature of COVID-19, a study was
planned based on the satellite driven temperature and humidity and COVID-19 infections in selected 22 states
and 3 union territories of India. After 30 March 2020, the exponential growth of COVID-19 infection has been
reported in Maharashtra (9841 cases) with Gujrat (4053 cases), Delhi (3410 cases), Rajasthan (2410 cases),
Madhya Pradesh (2654 cases), and Uttara Pradesh (2172 cases). Whereas Jharkhand (107 cases), Uttarakhand
(52 cases), Assam (42 cases), Himachal Pradesh (38), Andaman & Nicobar Island (33 cases), and Goa were
weakly impacted during the 24 March 2020 to 30 April 2020. The 91% of total new COVID-19 cases were
found in the average surface temperature range (2 m from ground level) between 28 ⁰ C to 34 ⁰C and only 9%
were reported below 24 ⁰ C. Similarly, 91% of new cases were reported in the average surface Humidity (1000
hPa pressure level from the ground) range between 35% to 80% as well as 8% reported below 35% humidity
range and only 1% cases are reported above 80% humidity range. To find the statistical significance relations
with meteorological parameters and the COVID-19 infections, Z-test and Pearson's correlation were applied.

KEYWORDS: COVID-19, Meteorological parameter, Correlations, Z-Test.

I. INTRODUCTION

The novel human Coronavirus was initially originated from Wuhan by late 2019 and spontaneously spread over
the globe currently approximately 5,590,358 people are infected and 347,907 were death in 209 countries and
territories till 26 April 2020 (https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/). An International Committee on
Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) term it as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) or
commonly known as COVID-19, which has human to human transmission capability (Gorbalenya et al. 2020;
Lu et al. 2020) and with zoonotic origin (species of bats). According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), it can be released in the atmosphere generally by sneezing or coughing by an infected person (WHO
2020). After emission, its droplets can deposit on aerosols/ dust and other nearest surfaces. Laboratory
experiments show that it can survive from a half-hour (air) to 1-5 days (plastic), depends upon the different
material of surface (Rabenau et al. 2005; Fehr and Stanley 2015). Whereas (Van Doremalen et al. 2020)
concludes the experimental outcomes of surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 the most closely
related human coronavirus.
SARS-CoV was able to survive for 24 hours outside of the body (Van Doremalen et al. 2020), so at this time
similar assumptions were used (Zucco et al. 2020) regarding the COVID-19. It reduced considerably on aerosols
within a period of 3 hours and it was found to be more stable on plastic and stainless steel (detected up to 72
hours). The spread of COVID-19 strongly depends upon geographical preference as well as background
meteorological parameters especially on temperature and humidity (Roy 2020).
(Bukhari and Jameel 2020) observed that 90% of the COVID19 cases have been recorded in the non-tropical
countries (30N and above such as some parts of China, European countries and the US) within a temperature
range of 3 to 17 °C. Several countries between 30N and 30S like Australia, UAE, Qatar, Singapore, Bahrain,
Qatar, and Taiwan have performed extensive testing per capita and have a lower number of cases per capita
compare to several non-tropical countries. A previous study (Cox 1989) suggests that various types of viruses
can change their properties due to temperature and humidity. Radiation, oxygen, ozone, and its reaction products
and various pollutants also decrease viability and infectivity through chemical, physical, and biological
modification.
(Cai et al. 2007) applied a univariate analysis method to establish a link between the spread of SARS-CoV-1
and some additional meteorological parameters such as daily average temperature (DAT), daily average air

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pressure (DAAP), and daily average relative humidity (DARH). The DAT, DAAP, and DARH were found
inversely associated with an attack rate of SARS-CoV-1 (P < 0.001); a significant positive association was also
observed for daily hours of sunshine (DHS) (P < 0.001).
Bu et al. (2020) found a suitable temperature range for the survival of COVID-19 is 13- 24 °C, among which at
19 °C it can survive about 60 days and most prominently conducive to the spread between the vector (fleas,
mosquitos, etc.) and humans. The favorable humidity range is 50%-80%, in which approximately 75% humidity
is most suitable for the survival of the COVID-19, and it was also reported that the precipitation range below 30
mm/ month is suitable during the recent pandemic over china. (Oliveiros et al. 2020) used the meteorological
parameters as an independent and number of several accumulated confirmed Cases as a dependent variable to
study the expansion of the COVID-19 outbreak by using an exponential model during January 23 and March 1,
2020, over china. (Wang et al. 2020) establish a linear regression framework with high temperature and high
humidity and the observed reduction in the transmission of COVID-19 infection.
In the current Indian context, (Kumar 2020) reported more than 18 thousand cases and more than 600 deaths
due to COVID-19 till April 20, 2020. Also investigate the positive association (Pearson’s) between temperature
and daily COVID-19 cases and a negative association of humidity (RH and AH) with daily COVID-19 Cases
(Person’s r = -0.62, -0.37 respectively) over India. In the presented manuscript, 22 state and 3 Union Territories
(UT) were selected to understand the link between the spread of COVID-19 and meteorological parameters such
as Temperature and Humidity, in different geographical and climatic conditions.

METHODOLOGY

India is the seventh-largest country by area (3,287,263 km2), the second (1,352,642,280 people) most
populated country in the world (Bloom 2012). India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south as well as
the Arabian Sea on the southwest direction, whereas the Bay of Bengal on the southeast direction and extended
in the latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E (Dutta et al. 2014). The Indian
climate system is strongly affected by the presence of the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Which directs the
economic and cultural essential summer and winter monsoons in India (Chang 1967).
For our study plan, we have selected 22 states and 3 Union Territories (UTs). In north India, Jammu and
Kashmir (J & K), Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh (H.P.) Uttarakhand (U.K.), Uttara Pradesh (U.P.), and
Chandigarh were considered. In the southern Indian states Tamilnadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh (A.P) Telangana
was are selected. In the western Indian state Rajasthan, Gujrat and Maharashtra considered. In the central and
central-west India Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) Chhattisgarh considered. In the Eastern Indian states West Bengal
(W.B.), Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Andaman Nicobar Island (ANI), whereas in the North-Eastern states, only
Assam was considered for observation and analysis (Table 1).

Epidemiological dataset
The epidemiological data of coronavirus cases in different states and UTs are collected from daily national
newspapers (Times of India, Economics Time, Amar Ujala, Dainik Jagran) and websites (Worldmeter.com &
www.covid19india.org) Tracker/India (https://www.covid19india.org/) (COVID/Tracker) during the study
period.

Meteorological Parameters
Hourly reanalysis data for meteorological parameters from 25th March to 30th April was extracted from the
European Environment Agency platform (ERA5). It is the fifth generation ECMWF atmospheric reanalysis of
the global climate. Reanalysis combines model data (Dee et al. 2011). Temperature data is available with
0.1°x0.1° resolution at 2 m vertical height on the other hand relative humidity data used is available with
0.25°x0.25° at 1000 hPa pressure level from the surface. Further, this data is masked out and averaged spatially
for each state and union territories.

(a) Surface temperature K: Temperature of air at 2m above the surface of land, sea, or
inland waters. The temperature is calculated by interpolating between the lowest model level and the Earth's
surface, taking account of the atmospheric conditions. Temperature measured in kelvin can be converted to
degrees Celsius (°C) by subtracting 273.15.
(b) Relative humidity %: This parameter is the water vapor pressure as a percentage of the value
at which the air becomes saturated (the point at which water vapor begins to condense into liquid water or
deposition into ice). For temperatures over 0°C (273.15 K), it is calculated for saturation over water. At
temperatures below -23°C, it is calculated for saturation over ice. Between -23°C and 0°C this parameter is
calculated by interpolating between the ice and water values using a quadratic function.

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Correlation analysis
To understand the statically significant relations of COVID-19 with the meteorological parameters z-test and
correlation analysis was performed by using the Hmsc (version 4.4) package for the evaluation of the correlation
matrix in R.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The spread of COVID-19 shows a distinct trend of variation in different states and UT. Maharashtra is highly
affected by the ongoing pandemic and shows an exponential growth after 30 March 2020 with 9841 COVID-19
cases (Figure 1a). The second-highest, 4053 COVID-19 cases with sudden increment were reported in the
Gujrat after 10 April 2020. Delhi ranks third, with 3410 cases and begins increasing after 1 April 2020. The
growth COVID-19 cases in the M.P.(2654 COVID-19 cases), Rajasthan (2410 cases) was almost similar and
start increasing 31 March 2020 onwards. In the case of U.P.(2172 Cases) and Tamilnadu (2153 Cases), the trend
of infection was observed very similarly and approximately equal to each other. The A.P.(1396 Cases) and
Telangana (980 Cases) have a higher number of infections as compared to states and UTs located in the
southern part of India such Karnataka (524 Cases), Kerala (429 Cases), Andaman & Nicobar Island (33 Cases)
and the lowest Goa (7 Cases) among all states. Only 37 cases were observed in the center east, Chhattisgarh
state of India.
In the case of Eastern states and a UT of India, the W.B. (751 Cases) and Bihar (401 Cases) were highly
affected as compare to Odisha (429 Cases), Jharkhand (107 Cases) and Andaman & Nicobar Island (33 Cases).
Whereas in the remaining north Indian states and UT like, J & K (581 Cases), Punjab (336 Cases), Uttarakhand
(52 Cases), and Chandigarh (50 Cases) and Himachal Pradesh (38 Cases) were reported. In the North-Eastern
states, only Assam was considered for observation and analysis with the 42 cases (Figure 1a). The total number
of infections also depends upon the Government mitigation strategies (Lockdown, Social Distancing, etc.), age
factor, social-economic status (Kumar 2020; Zhou et al. 2020) and also population.

Overview of Background Metrological Parameters: The background metrological parameters such as

temperature and humidity are also depicted in Figures 1b and 1c respectively, by using box plots (Braniš and
Větvička 2010). The mean, median, quartile range (QR) between 25 th and 75th for both parameters was
demonstrated in the box plot, whereas the whiskers were used to represent the maximum and minimum values
in both plots. The Figure 1b indicates that average temperature in the Telangana, Maharashtra and Gujrat, A.P.,
Tamilnadu, Rajasthan were reported relatively high in the range of 30 ⁰C to 34⁰C, as compare to W.B, Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, M.P., Bihar, U.P., Jharkhand, Delhi, Chandigarh, Punjab, ANI, and Assam in the range of 25 ⁰C to
30⁰C. the lowest average temperature was in the U.K., H. P. and J & K in the range of -6.13 ⁰C to 11.2 ⁰C. The
higher levels of average humidity were reported in the Goa, J & K, ANI, Kerala, H.P., and Assam U.K., in the
range of 62.27% to 78.27% as compared to, Odisha, U.P., Telangana A.P., Karnataka, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar,
Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujrat, M.P., Rajasthan in the range of 35.12 % to 56.06%
during analysis (Figure 1c). Furthermore, ideal zones of temperature and humidity in India are given further in
Figure 2.

Is COVID-19 have temperature and humidity dependent nature in India?

A statistical approach was adopted to formulate a relation between temperature and humidity with total and
daily new cases of COVID-19 by using Pearson's correlation (Kumar 2020; Wang et al. 2020) in 22 states and 3
UTs (Table 1). We observed that Maharashtra has a significant positive correlation (p-value < 0.05) with
Temperature-Total Cases (TTC, r = 0.66, p-values = 5.4E-6) and Temperature-Daily Cases (TDC, r = 0.69, p-
value = 1.3E-6) but it has also shows a significant negative correlation (p-value < 0.05) with Humidity- Total
Cases (HTC, r = - 0.70, p-value = 90.8E-7) and Humidity-Daily Cases (HDC, r = -0.71, p-value = 6.5E-7) but
has highest infection due to relatively high population and inappropriate mitigation polices (Kumar 2020).
Surprisingly, Gujrat has the second largest number of infection because three parameters TTC, TDC, and HTC
were significantly positively correlated as compare to Delhi, MP, Rajasthan, UP, Punjab, and Haryana even it
has a comparatively low population (table 1). However, UK, H.P., shows an only positive and significant
correlation with TTC and has low infections as compared to the other Himalayan states like J& K and Assam
due to a comparatively low population.
In the case of W.B. a significant and positive correlation with HTC (r = 0.85, p-value = 2.17E-11) and
HDC (r = 0.84, p values = 5.01E-11) as compare to neighbors states like Bihar, Odisha and Jharkhand (Table 1)
due to high population (Table 1). Now in the case of Tamilnadu, positive and significant relation with TTC (r =
0.52, p values = 7.4E-4), HTC (r = 0.59, p values = 1.0E-4) were observed thus has highest number infections
among the Karnataka, AP, Kerala and Telangana. Now the A.P. shows the high number of infections as
compared to the populous Karnataka because of the significate contribution of temperature and humidity in a

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similar environment condition (Table 1). The Goa has a minimum number of infections due to very less
population and better mitigation policies.

Weekly variation of COVID-19 with Temperature and Humidity: To understand the weekly variation
pattern of COVID-19 at different temperature and humidity range, Figure 2a-g & 2h-m were plotted for the
better visualization respectively. In Figure 2 (a) the shows a growth in the infection after 22 ⁰C to 30 ⁰C and
subsequently sudden drop in the infections were reported from 14 to 374 infection as well as 44 infections were
also observed below 0 ⁰C during the 24 March 2020 to 30 March 2020. In the second week (Figure 2b) most of
the cases were reported between 24 ⁰C to 32 ⁰C temperature range varies between 7 infections to 1242 infections
from 31 March 2020 to 6 April 2020. In the case of 3 rd week (7 April 2020 to 13 April 2020) the rapid growth in
the infection was reported from 26 ⁰C to 32 ⁰C (highest 1922 cases) and a further drop in the infection was
found. Week 4 (14 Aril 2020 to 20 April 2020) shows 1.6 times greater growth of infection as compared to
week 3 with the highest 3705 infections in the temperature range 34 ⁰ C. In the week 5 (21 April 2020 to 27 April
2020) the infections were reported more than double as compared to week 3 and 1.2 times greater than week 4
with the highest 4721 number of infections at 32 ⁰C. But week 6 (28 April 2020 to 30 April 2020 only) the
number of infections is relatively low may due to the previous week due to improvement in mitigation strategies
and policies. In the same manner, the maximum growth was reported in the humidity range between 40 % to 80
% and the highest 174 number of cases were found at 60 % in week 1 (Figure 2h). The infection in the week 2
exponentially increased in the range of 30% to 70% humidity with highest 640 infections at 50 % humidity. In
week 3rd, the 4th and 5th maximum number of infections were shifted towards the lower humidity between 25 %
to 50 % with the highest 1954 & 2355 and 4349 infections respectively (Figure 2i-m). Here in week 6 the rapid
fall 10500 total infections (week 5) to 5168 (week 4).
Approximately 91% of total new COVID-19 cases were reported within the average surface temperature range
between 28 ⁰C to 34 ⁰C and only 9% were observed below 24 ⁰C. Similarly, 91% of new cases were reported in
the average Humidity range between 35% to 80% as well as 8% reported below 35% humidity range and only
1% cases are reported above 80% humidity range during the observation period (Figure 2 g & 2n).

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PLANS

The COVID-19 is a new pathogen having zoonotic origin (species of bats) and spreading very fast during the
pre-monsoon season (March 2020 and April 2020). Due to a lack of epidemiological information, inadequate
method of treatment precautions, it has become more deadly in the current scenario. The background
meteorological factors also play a significant role in the coronavirus outbreak along with the various mode of
transmission. Based on the present stud following conclusions and plans may be suggested in this pandemic.

 Maharashtra shows a significant positive correlation (p-value < 0.05) with temperature and a significantly
negative correlation with Humidity but the local transmission of the virus is dominant because of the high
and dense population.
 Approximately 91% of total new COVID-19 cases were reported within the average surface temperature
range between 28 ⁰C to 34 ⁰C and the average Humidity range from 35% to 80% during the observation.
 The correlation and Z-test analysis validate the meteorological dependence nature of COVID -19 all the
selected states except Goa.
 This study can be further extended to investigate the dynamics of COVID-19 pandemic with migration and
the effect of other atmospheric/weather parameters such as radiation, aerosols, and wind. In the present
paper, we are limited to our study to the state-level only. It is interested to extend this study further to
investigate the relation between COVID-19 cases and variation in atmospheric/weather parameters at the
mesoscale/district level.
 Based on the hypothesis presented in this paper, it is proposed that this study can be utilized for model
projections and visualization on a larger scale for the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in India.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ASG and other authors are thankful to Department of Science and Technology, Government of India for funding
support under, Climate Change Programme (CCP), SPLICE Division, Department of Science & Technology,
Technology Bhavan, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi-110 016 (DST/CCP/Aerosol/83/2017(G). ASG thanks to
Vice-Chancellor, HNBGU Srinagar, Garhwal Uttarakhand, Head, Department of Physics, HNBGU Srinagar for
encouragement, and providing the necessary infrastructure facility for this study. Authors are thankful would
like Nidhi Gairola for providing help in data collection. Authors are thankful to the European Environment
Agency for providing the satellite data of temperature, and Relative humidity. We are also thankful to the
Tracker/India (https://www.covid19india.org/)/ Worldmeter.com & www.covid19india.org) for providing
COVID-19 data.

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Conflict of Interest
All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Legends
Figure 1: Statewide distribution of total COVID-19 cases (a), Surface Temperature (b) and Humidity (c) in
India (from 24 March 2020 to 30 April 2020). The median, 25th and 75th percentiles are given in the box plot.
Whiskers show the maximum and minimum values for both plots.
Figure 2: The combined weekly variation of total COVID-19 new cases in the different ranges of temperature
(a-g) and humidity (h-n) range.

Table1: Data Summary, P-value, and Correlations.

Figure 1: Statewide distribution of total COVID-19 cases (a), Surface Temperature (b) and Humidity (c) in
India (from 24 March 2020 to 30 April 2020). The median, 25th and 75th percentiles are given in the box plot.
Whiskers show the maximum and minimum values for both plots.

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Figure 2: The combined weekly variation of total COVID-19 new cases in the different ranges of temperature
(a-g) and humidity (h-n) range.

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P value Correlation
Tota Tem. Hum. Tem. Hum. Te Hu Tem. Hum.
State Tem. Humid l & & & & m. m. & &
(Populatio Rang ity CO Total Total Daily Daily & & Daily
n) e Range VID cases cases New New Tot Tot Dail New
(Low- (Low- 19 cases cases al al y cases
High) High) Case case case New
s s s cases

Maharash 27.99 31.48 9841 5.74E- 9.87E 1.32E- 6.55E- 0.66 - 0.69 -0.71
tra 32.95 57.96 06 -07 6 07 0.70
(112,374,3
33)
Delhi 20.81 31.86 3410 7.55E- 0.35 0.0123 0.52 0.66 - 0.40 -0.11
(16,787,94 30.63 80.99 06 6 0.15
1)
Gujarat 25.77 27.44 4053 6.62E- 0.041 2.37E- 0.3625 0.60 0.33 0.68 0.15
(60,439,69 33.79 60.32 5 6 06
2)
Rajasthan 21.18 19.82 2410 1.06E- 0.097 5.90E- 0.001 0.70 - 0.66 -0.50
(68,548,43 33.95 71.35 06 6 0.27
7)
Madhya 23.73 24.19 2654 6.90E- 0.532 4.76E- 0.0427 0.60 - 0.67 -0.33
Pradesh 32.72 67.66 05 0 06 0.10
(72,626,80
9)
Tamil 28.13 54.49 2153 0.0007 0.000 0.187 0.0733 0.52 0.59 0.22 0.29
Nadu 31.31 69.45 17 1
(72,147,03
0)
Uttar 22.91 32.52 2172 0.0416 0.003 0.0022 0.4927 0.33 0.46 0.48 0.11
Pradesh 31.45 70.36 5
(199,812,3
41)
Telangana 28.99 36.56 980 1.18E- 0.117 0.385 0.358 0.65 0.26 0.14 -0.15
(35,193,97 33.07 56.45 05
8)
Andhra 27.96 48.39 1396 0.0267 0.002 0.0265 0.0189 0.36 0.48 0.36 0.38
Pradesh 32.00 67.30 65

(49,386,79
9)

Karnataka 27.14 40.80 524 0.1145 0.004 0.1930 0.1233 0.26 0.45 0.22 0.25
(61,095,29 30.43 68.99 07
7)

Kerala 25.06 65.61 429 0.1044 0.001 0.397 0.091 - 0.51 0.14 -0.28
(33,406,06 29.74 83.54 89 0.27
1)
West 24.43 41.01 751 4.08E- 2.17E 6.46E- 5.01E- - 0.85 -0.60 0.84
Bengal 30.37 84.13 06 -1 05 11 0.67
(91,276,11
5)
Jammu -10.55 61.23 581 2.34E- 0.038 0.0041 0.0016 0.80 - 0.45 -0.49
and -1.76 86.75 09 6 31 62 0.34
Kashmir
(12,541,30 2452
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ISSN- 2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 19, 2020

2)

Haryana 20.26 27.66 284 6.76E- 0.011 0.6344 0.2512 0.75 - 0.08 -0.19
(25,351,46 31.81 81.60 08 81 0.40
2)

Punjab 18.75 38.24 336 1.77E- 0.001 0.0095 0.0623 0.77 - 0.41 -0.31
(27,743,33 30.62 87.34 08 0.50
8)

Bihar 25.06 28.19 401 0.085 1.55E 0.0024 3.07E- - 0.69 -0.48 0.62
(104,099,4 31.69 77.80 -6 05 0.28
52)
Odisha 25.69 45.45 126 0.007 7.89E 0.176 0.0301 - 0.70 -0.22 0.35
(41,974,21 30.79 82.23 -7 0.43
8)
Jharkhan 23.89 32.48 107 0.092 6.21E- 0.08 0.000 - 0.81 -0.29 0.52
d 30.74 81.76 0 8 0.28
(32,988,13
4)
Uttarakha 8.23 47.39 52 0.0002 0.154 0.112 0.232 0.56 0.24 -0.26 -0.20
nd 14.41 86.46
(10,086,29
2)
Himachal 0.09 51.61 38 4.92E- 0.926 0.674 0.229 0.79 0.02 -0.07 -0.20
Pradesh 8.40 87.18 09
(6,864,602)

Chhattisga 26.59 30.84 37 0.0014 0.000 0.105 0.0105 0.50 0.59 -0.13 -0.41
rh 32.14 77.80 56 1
(25,545,19
8)
Assam 20.74 45.61 42 0.0091 5.23E 0.538 0.3546 - 0.61 0.10 -0.15
(31,205,57 28.18 82.43 24 -5 0.42
6)
Chandigar 20.31 29.57 50 0.0002 0.163 0.561 0.438 0.56 0.10 0.10 0.13
h 31.31 73.47
(1,055,450)
Andaman 27.19 70.27 33 0.154 3.16E 0.395 0.9370 0.24 0.76 0.14 0.01
and 29.30 83.94 -8
Nicobar
Islands
(380,581)
Goa 23.18 68.88 7 0.282 0.118 0.908 0.634 0.18 - -0.02 0.08
(1,458,545) 30.37 84.23 0.26

Table 1: Data Summary, P-value and Correlations

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