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The Chemical Basis of Life

TOPIC 2
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Basic Chemistry

 Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass (solid, liquid, or gas)
 Mass: amount of matter in an object
 Weight: gravitational force acting on object
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Elements and Atoms

 Element:
• simplest form of matter
• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na,
Cl
 Atom:
• smallest particle of an element
• contains protons, electrons,
and neutrons
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Planetary Models of Atomic Structure
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Subatomic Particles

Proton: positive charged particle located

inside the nucleus
Neutron: neutral charged particle located
inside the nucleus
Electron: negative charged particle located
outside the nucleus
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Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

 Atomic number: the number of protons in each atom

 Mass number: the number of protons and neutrons in each atom
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Chemical Bonds

 Chemical bonds occur when outermost electrons (valence shell

electrons) are transferred or shared between atoms
 Types of chemical bonds
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen
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Ion and Ionic Bonding

 Ion: a charged atom formed

because of a donation or
gain of an electron(s)
• Example: Na+
 Ionic bonding occurs when
there is an attraction between
two oppositely charged ions
• Example: NaCl
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Covalent Bonding 1

 Covalent bonding occurs when atoms

share one or more pairs of electrons
• Example: hydrogen molecule
 Polar covalent bonds form when there is
an unequal sharing of electrons
• Example: water (H2O)
 Polar molecules have an asymmetrical
electrical charge
 Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical
electrical charge
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Hydrogen Bonding 1

 Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end and a negative end
 A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end of one polar molecule is
weakly attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule
 The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the ionic or covalent bonds
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Polar Covalent Bonds

 Polar covalent bonded

molecules, like water, have a
positive end and a negative
end
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Hydrogen Bonding 2

 A hydrogen bond forms when the

positive end of one polar molecule is
weakly attracted to the negative end
of another polar molecule
 The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond
than the ionic or covalent bonds
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Molecules and Compounds

 Molecule:
• 2 or more atoms chemically combine
• Example: water (H2O)
 Compound:
• chemical combination of 2 or more different types of atoms
• Example: NaCl
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Chemical Reactions

 Chemical reactions occur when there is a formation or breaking of

chemical bonds between atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds.
 Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction
 Products: substances that result from the reaction

A+B  C+D
Reactan Product
ts
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Types of Chemical Reactions

 Synthesis reaction:
• build a new molecule
• energy-requiring
• Example: ADP + P  ATP
 Decomposition reaction:
• break down molecule
• energy-releasing
• Example: ATP  ADP + P
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Energy and Chemical Reactions 1
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Energy and Chemical Reactions 2

 Exchange reaction:
• combination of synthesis and decomposition reactions
• Example: AB + CD  AC + BD
• Example: HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
 Reversible reactions occur when the reaction can run in the opposite
direction, so that the products are converted back to the original
reactants.
 CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
 Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation equals the rate of
reactant formation
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Energy

 Energy is the capacity to do work.

 Work is the moving of matter.
 Kinetic energy is energy in motion
 Potential energy is stored energy
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Chemical Energy

 Chemical energy is a form of potential energy stored in chemical bonds

 Food molecules such as glucose contain potential energy
 An example of a reaction that releases energy is the breakdown of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a
phosphate group
 ATP  ADP + P
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Rate of Chemical Reactions 1

 The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is influenced by several

factors:
• concentration of the reactants
• temperature
• Catalyst
 Concentration of the reactants: within limits the higher the concentration of
reactants the faster the rate
 Temperature: within limits, the higher the temperature the faster the rate
 Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without itself being permanently changed
or depleted.
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Acids and Bases

 Acid: a proton H+ donor

• pH below 7
• Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)
 Base: a proton H+ acceptor
• pH above 7
• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
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Inorganic Chemistry versus

Organic Chemistry
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Inorganic Chemistry versus Organic
Chemistry

 Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances that do not contain

carbon
 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing substances
 Exception: some carbon containing compounds are not organic in that
they do not also contain hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)
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Organic Molecules

 Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms makes it possible
the formation of large, diverse, complicated molecules for life.

 The four major groups of organic molecules essential to living organisms

are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
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Carbohydrates 1

 Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, O
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• Example: C6H12O6
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.
• Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
• Examples: glucose and fructose
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Carbohydrates 1

 Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
 Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen
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Functions of Carbohydrates

 Short-term energy storage

 Converted to glucose quickly
 Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
 Brain cells require glucose
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Characteristics of Lipids

 Contain C, H, O
 Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon than do carbohydrates
 Insoluble in water
 Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids
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Functions of Lipids

 Long term energy storage

 Insulates against heat loss
 Protective cushion for organs
 Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane structure
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Types of Lipids

 Saturated:
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs
 Unsaturated:
• one or more double covalent bonds between carbons
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil
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Triglycerides
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Fatty Acids
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Phospholipids
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Characteristics of Proteins

 Contains C, H, O, N
 Amino acids are the building blocks
 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
 Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and carboxyl group
 Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is required
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Amino Acid Structure and Bonding
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Linear Sequence of Amino Acids in
a Protein
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Protein Folding
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Functions of Proteins

 Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles

 Part of the hemoglobin molecule
 Act as enzymes
 Immune system functions
 Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
 Part of the cell membrane
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Enzymes

 Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the rate at which

biochemical reactions proceed without the enzyme being permanently
changed.
 Enzymes work by lowering the energy of activation.
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Protein Denaturation

 Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen bonds that maintain

shape of a protein are broken and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
 Factors that can cause denaturation are: high temperatures and/or
improper pH
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Nucleic Acids

 Composed of C, H, O, N, P
 Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 Nucleotides are the building blocks
 Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base, phosphate, and 5-carbon
sugar
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

 ATP is an especially important organic molecule found in all living

organisms.

 It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with the organic base adenine)
and three phosphate groups.

 ATP is often called the energy currency of cells because it is capable of

both storing and providing energy.
 Seeley’s 43
REFERENCE
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo