Uplink Department (AAJ TV)

Satellite Communication Basic

RECORDER TELEVISION NETWORK

TRAINING DOCUMENT

Prepared By:

Furqan Hashmi
Communication Engineer
Recorder Television Network

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
Satellites 2
Types of Satellites 2-3
Bus 3
Payload 3-5
Transponders 5
Footprint 5
Orbit 6-7
Power 7
Carriers 7
Conversion Table (Watt to dBm) 8
Radio Frequency 9
C-band 10
Ku-band 11
Ka-band 11
S-band 11
L-band 12
X-band 12
DBS-band 12
Local Oscillator 13
Polarization 14
Earth Station 14
Antenna 14
Types of Antenna 15
Dish Size 15-16
Antenna Gain 16-18
The Uplink 18-20
The Downlink 20-21
Diagram of Uplink & Downlink Chain 22

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SATELLITES
The satellite is a very complex communication device and continues to grow in
complexity. The following section will cover the very basic components of a
satellite and the basic operations of each. It should be noted that any figures
used are not a detailed representation but a basic diagram to complement the
text within this document.

Satellite Snap

Types of Satellite
(1) Geostationary Satellite
(2) Meostationary Satellite
(3) Leostationary Satellite

A Geostationary Satellite is any satellite which is placed in a geostationary

orbit. Satellites in geostationary orbit maintain a constant position relative to
the surface of the earth.
Geostationary satellites do this by orbiting the earth approximately 22,300
miles above the equator. This orbital path is called the Clarke Belt, in honor of
Arthur C. Clarke.
In other words, if a satellite in a geostationary orbit is in a certain place above
the earth, it will stay in that same spot above the earth. Its latitude stays at zero
and its longitude remains constant.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) refers to a satellite which orbits the earth at an
altitude below 22,300 miles (geostationary orbit) and above the altitude of Low
Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites.
Medium Earth Orbit represents a series of tradeoffs between geostationary orbit
(GEO) and Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
Medium Earth Orbit enables a satellite provider to cover the earth with fewer
satellites than Low Earth Orbit, but requires more satellites to do so that
geostationary orbit.

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Medium Earth Orbit terrestrial terminals can be of lower power and use smaller
antennas than the terrestrial terminals of geostationary orbit satellite systems.
However, they cannot be as low power or have as small antennas as Low Earth
Orbit terrestrial terminals

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) refers to a satellite which orbits the earth at altitudes
between (very roughly) 200 miles and 930 miles.
Low Earth Orbit satellites must travel very quickly to resist the pull of gravity
-- approximately 17,000 miles per hour. Because of this, Lowe Earth Orbit
satellites can orbit the planet in as little as 90 minutes.
Low Earth Orbit satellite systems require several dozen satellites to provide
coverage of the entire planet.
Low Earth Orbit satellites typically operate in polar orbits

Satellite Components
Satellite consists of many different parts, including some that are very specific
to its function; the following two components are common to all satellites:

 Bus (2) Payload

Bus
The bus is the platform that supports the payload from launch through the end
of lits life. The bus is made up of the frame and the bus subsystems which
include attitude control, power system, orbital control, thermal control and the
TT&C (Tracking, Telemetry and Command) system.

Bus Module Assembly

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Payload

The payload of a satellite is all the specialized equipment needed to perform its
designed function.

A communications payload, like the ones installed on satellites, act like a

communications repeater. RF signals to the satellite are received, converted,
amplified, and transmitted back to Earth.

The payload includes the antenna, wide-band receivers, input and output
multiplexers, programmable attenuation devices, and amplifiers. Satellites
designed with a single payload are only able to operate with a single band of
frequencies, either C or Ku. Satellites with dual payloads, also known as
Hybrid

Satellites are able to operate with both C and Ku bands (1 band per payload).
Each payload has a set of components that operates with a specific band of
frequencies. What follows is an overview of each component and how it affects
the RF signal.

Payload Module Assembly

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Major Components of a Typical Satellite Payload

1. Receive/Transmit Antenna
2. Wideband Receiver
3. Input Multiplexer
4. Programmable Attenuation Device (PAD)
5. Amplifiers
6. Output Multiplexer

Major Components of Typical Satellite Payload

Receive/Transmit Antenna. Satellites very often use the same antenna to

receive and transmit RF signals. This idea is practical because the satellite
receives the uplink signal at a higher frequency and generally sends it back out
on the opposite polarization at a lower frequency. When receiving a signal, the
antenna routes the 500MHz RF to the appropriate wideband receiver
determined by the band and polarization. When transmitting, the satellites
antenna feed horn determines the polarization of the signal and directs it onto
the antenna to be reflected back to earth.

Wideband Receiver: Receives the full 500MHz RF uplink signal of its assigned
band and polarization. The wideband receiver uses a local oscillator (also
known as a frequency down converter) to convert the signal to a downlink
frequency. The output signal is then sent to the input multiplexer (IMUX).
Typically there is a wide-band receiver for each polarization (horizontal and
vertical) on each payload (C and Ku).

Input Multiplexer: Takes the 500MHz set of frequencies and separates them
into individual channels (also known as transponders). These individual
transponder signals are then sent through a programmable attenuation device
(PAD) on its way to its assigned amplifier.

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Programmable Attenuation Device (PAD): Adjusts the power of the signal

prior to the amplifier. It is used to lower the amount of “noise” being
amplified by the spacecraft’s amplifier. Amplifiers with higher attenuation
require a stronger signal from the earth station in order to achieve the satellite
link.

Amplifiers: Increases the power of each signal sent to the satellite and routed
to an output multiplexer. Satellites use solid-state-power amplifiers (SSPA),
traveling-wave-tube amplifiers (TWTA), or linear- traveling-wave-tube
amplifiers (LTWTA). Each amplifier type has distinct advantages. For
example, although the SSPA has a longer life expectancy, the TWTA has a
simpler design and is more efficient at higher power levels.
Output Multiplexer: Recombines all transponders into a 500MHz wide-band
configuration and is then routed through a wave-guide to the transmitting
antenna’s feed horn.

As mentioned earlier, the satellite and all its components simply act as a
repeater situated in space. Although many satellites contain only a single
payload, some satellites carry dual payloads.

TRANSPONDER
The word “Transponder” is an actual contraction of “transmitter-responder.” It
is used to describe a single RF channel that is created at the input multiplexer
when it takes the 500MHz set of frequencies and separates them into individual
frequency channels. Each transponder is routed to an assigned PAD and
amplifier, and then recombined at the output multiplexer.

Satellite Provider coordination with the FCC and other satellite providers,
added an additional measure to ensure that interference between satellites is
minimized. Coordinating each satellite’s transponder frequency plan and the
orbital slot it will occupy helps reduce the amount of interference between
satellites.

Each transponder has 36MHz of usable bandwidth with 2MHz of guard band
filter on each side (guard band is an additional measure to minimize
interference between adjacent transponders), for a total of 40MHz from the
center frequency of one transponder to the center frequency of the adjacent
transponder. C-Band satellites have been coordinated to have 24 transponders
for each payload, 12 transponders on each polarization.

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Unfortunately, Ku-band satellites do not follow any standard. On Ku-Band

satellites, the number of transponders, assigned frequencies, and usable
bandwidth for each transponder may vary.

Block Diagram of Basic Transponder

 
Basic 24 channel C-band transponder frequency plan

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FOOTPRINT

The transmitting and receiving antennas on the satellite are designed to cover
specific regions of the earth’s surface. This is done for several reasons. First, it
concentrates the power radiated from the satellite into the desired region.
Second, it increases the sensitivity of its receiving antenna minimizing
interference with other adjacent satellite signals. The part of the earth’s surface
covered by a satellite is called the satellite’s footprint. The footprint may cover
one or more relatively localized regions of the earth or nearly a complete
hemisphere.

Foot Prints in Different Regions

LAUNCHING SATELLITE IN ORBITAL POSTION

Most communications satellites are in a geo-synchronous orbit. A satellite in
Geo-synchronous orbit must be positioned 22,300 miles above the equator. At
this distance, it takes the satellite 24 hours to circle the Earth, which is the same
amount of time it takes for the earth to rotate one time hence the Earth and
satellite are in sync.

Achieving and maintaining a correct orbital attitude requires ongoing

coordination between ground tracking and command functions and the

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satellite’s attitude control, telemetry, and orbital control subsystems.

The engineers at the Satellite Operations Control Center (OCC) are responsible
for guiding satellites to their orbital slots after launch and for keeping the
satellites within their orbital slot until the end of its life (usually about 12 to 14
years). As mentioned earlier, The ITU-R coordinates who will Occupy each
orbital slot. Each orbital slot corresponds to the longitudinal position directly
above the earth’s equator.

Once the satellite is in orbit, and throughout the satellite’s life span, periodic
adjustments must be made to keep the satellite within its assigned orbital
location, also known as “center of box”. These adjustments, or maneuvers, are
usually needed every two to three weeks. Some of the newer satellites calculate
their own position and fire thrusters numerous times each day. They are
considered to always be at “center of box”. Collectively, these adjustments are
called station keeping.

Because satellites have a limited amount of fuel, every maneuver must be

calculated precisely in terms of fuel consumption. A satellite’s life span depends
upon its fuel supply and its ability to be maneuvered. Once the fuel is almost
depleted, the satellite can no longer be maintained and must be taken out of orbit
by burning off the remaining fuel to push the satellite to a higher (super-sync)
orbit.

Types of Orbit

(1) Polar Orbit

(2) Retrograde Orbit

A polar orbit is an orbit where the satellite travels in a North to South

direction instead of the common West to East orbit.
Because the earth spins in an Easterly direction, a polar orbit will eventually
cover every possible combination of latitude and longitude.
This makes polar orbits very useful for satellites which monitor the earth, such
as weather satellites and geographical survey satellites.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites often utilize a polar orbit

A retrograde orbit is an orbit where the satellite travels in an East to West

direction instead of the common West to East orbit.
Retrograde orbits are very uncommon due to the much higher velocities
necessary for successful launch and the associated higher costs.

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Satellite Launching in correct Orbit

POWER

A communication satellite’s primary source of power is its solar array. Arrays

of solar cells convert sunlight to electrical energy. Batteries are used as back up
and during times of eclipse, which is when the satellite is in the earth’s shadow
and it is unable to utilize the sun for energy.

CARRIER
An RF signal centered on a specific frequency is called a carrier. The carrier
may be a continuous wave (CW), also known as a clean carrier, or it may
contain modulation. The two general forms of modulation are Analog and
Digital. The information, whether it is video, data or voice, is carried within the
modulation of the carrier. Depending on the amount of information, the rate and
type of modulation, and the quality desired would determine how much
bandwidth the carrier will utilize or occupy.

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Conversion Table Watt into dBm

100 Kilo Watts = 80 dBm
10 Kilo Watts = 70 dBm
1 Kilo Watts = 60 dBm

100 Watts = 50 dBm

50 Watts = 47 dBm
20 Watts = 43 dBm
10 Watts = 40 dBm
1 Watts = 30 dBm
0.1 Watts = 20 dBm
0.01 Watts = 10 dBm
0.001 Watts = 0 dBm

100 Micro Watts = -10 dBm

10 Micro Watts = -20 dBm
1 Micro Watts = -30 dBm

100 Nano Watts = -40 dBm

10 Nano Watts = -50 dBm
1 Nano Watts = -60 dBm

100 Pico Watts = -70 dBm

10 Pico Watts = -80 dBm
1 Pico Watts = -90 dBm

Formula

dBm = 10 log (1000 * P (W))

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RADIO FREQUENCY
Satellite communications utilizes electromagnetic waves to carry information
from the ground to space and back. An electromagnetic wave consists of an
electric field and a magnetic field that are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation

The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is defined as the number of times it

cycles in one second and is measured in Hertz (Hz).

Electromagnetic Wave

1 Hertz = 1Hz (one hertz)

1,000 Hertz = 1kHz (one kilohertz)

1,000,000 Hertz = 1MHz (one megahertz)

1,000,000,000 Hertz = 1GHz (one gigahertz)

The distance between two similar points on a given wave determines the
wavelength of an electromagnetic wave. It is proportional to its frequency and
is measured in meters. Every electromagnetic wave exhibits a unique frequency
and wavelength.

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Frequency And Wave Length

A particular range of frequencies is called a frequency band and the full range
of frequencies from zero to infinity is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The
radio frequency (RF) segment of the electromagnetic spectrum is the range
from 3kHz up to 300GHz and is used by several communications devices
including satellites.

Radio Frequency Spectrum

Radio Frequency bands are allocated for various purposes by the International
Telecommunication Union Radio communication sector (ITU-R), an agency
within the United Nations (UN). The Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) is a member of the ITU-R along with other similar agencies representing
their respective government. Their goal is to manage the finite resources of the
RF spectrum and satellite orbital positions. In doing so they have allocated sub
bands of the RF spectrum for use in Satellite Communications. For the purpose
of Communication some bands are used Like C-band, Ku-band, Ka-band, S-
band, L-band, X-band and DBS-band. “C” and “Ku” are the most commonly
used in commercial satellite communications.

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C-BAND

C Band is characterized by larger antennas and is preferred by a variety of full

time services providers. C Band (“Compromise” band) is a portion of
electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range of frequencies ranging from
4 to 6 GHz normally downlinks 3.7 – 4.2 GHz, uplink 5.9 – 6.4 GHz.
It is further divided into separate halves, one for ground-to-space links (Uplink)
and one for space-to-ground links (downlink) as shown:

The lower frequencies used by C Band perform better under adverse weather
conditions than the Ku band or Ka band frequencies

Variations in C-Band

Slight variations of C Band frequencies are approved for use in various parts of the
world.
Band TX Frequency RX Frequency

C Band 5.925 – 6.425 GHz 3.700 – 4.200 GHz

Full C Band 5.850 – 6.725 GHz 3.600 – 4.500 GHz
Extended C Band 5.850 - 6.425 GHz 3.625 – 4.200 GHz
Extended C Band (Lower) 5.725 - -5.925 GHz 3.400 – 3.700 GHz
Extended C Band (Upper) 6.425 – 7.075 GHz 4.500 – 4.800 GHz
Super Extended C-Band 5.850 - 6.725 GHz 3.400 – 4.200 GHz
INSAT C-Band 6.725 - 7.025 GHz 4.500 – 4.800 GHz
Palapa C-Band 6.425 - 6.725 GHz 3.400 – 3.700 GHz
Russian C-Band 5.975 - 6.475 GHz 3.650 – 4.150 GHz
LMI C-Band 5.725 - 6.025 GHz 3.700 – 4.000 GHz
Intel Sat 5.850 – 6.425 GHz
Gorizont 5.725 – 6.275 GHz
JC Sat 6.225 – 6.485 GHz

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KU-BAND

KU band services generally use smaller antennas and have become more
common for home use. The KU band (“Kay-Yoo ” Kurz Under band)
frequencies ranging from 12 to 18 GHz.
The Ku band downlink frequencies are further subdivided according to their
assigned use one for ground-to-space links (Uplink) and one for space-to-
ground links (downlink) as shown:

Band TX Frequency RX Frequency

KU Band 12.75 – 14.25 GHz 10.7 – 13.25 GHz

Extended KU Band 12.75 – 14.5 GHz 10.7 – 12.75 GHz
Extended KU Band 13.75 – 14.5 GHz

Ka BAND
The Ka band frequencies represent the leading edge for advanced services. The Ka band
(“Kurz above Band”) frequencies ranging from 12 to 18 Ghz
Band TX Frequency RX Frequency

KA Band 27.0 – 31.0 GHz 18.3 – 22.20 GHz

Ka Band 27.5 – 29.5 GHz
Ka Band 27.5 – 30 GHz 18.2 – 20.2 GHZ
Ka Band 30.0 – 31.0 GHz 20.2 – 21.2 GHz

S BAND
S band is a frequency range from approximately 1.55 to 5.2GHz which is used
for Digital Audio Radio Satellite (DARS) satellite radio systems such as Sirius
Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio.
S band is also used by some weather and communications satellites.
Band TX Frequency RX Frequency

S Band 5.855 – 5.935 GHz 2.555 – 2.635 GHz

L BAND

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L band is a frequency range between 390MHz and 1.55GHz which is used for
satellite communications and for terrestrial communications between satellite
equipment.
An LNB is used to convert these higher frequency bands to L Band, which can
be transmitted over the IFL and processed by the IDU.
Some Satellite transmits on L Band, such as GPS satellite.
X BAND
The X band, ranging from 7.25 to 7.75, LOF 6300 GHz (uplink 7.9 to 8.4
GHz), is part of the microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum. The X
band is used by some communications satellites and for radars, primarily for
fire control, but also for longer-range ground and weather mapping. It is used
primarily, if not solely, by the military. The 3-cm radar spot-band ranges
roughly from 5.2 to 10.9 GHz
Band TX Frequency RX Frequency

X Band 7.9 – 8.4 GHz 7.25 – 77.5 GHz

DBS BAND
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS) is a term used to refer to satellite television
broadcasts intended for home reception, also referred to as direct-to-home
signals. It covers both analog and digital television and radio reception, and is
often extended to other services provided by modern digital television systems,
including video-on-demand and interactive features. A "DBS service" usually
refers to either a commercial service, or a group of free channels available from
one orbital position targeting one country
Band TX Frequency RX Frequency

DBS Band 17.3 – 18.1 GHz 10.7 – 12.75 GHz

DBS Band (Optional) 17.3 – 18.4 GHz

LOCAL OSCILLATOR

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The Local Oscillator (LO) is a section of the LNB and gets its name since it is
present locally or within the LNB. The local oscillator produces a fixed output
at a pre-determined frequency. The Local Oscillator (LO) frequencies have
been standardized by LNB manufacturers worldwide for S, C, Ku and even Ka
band frequencies. The LO frequencies have been selected to yield an output in
the IF (950 MHz to 2150 MHz) range, for all types of LNBs. As a result,
universal satellite receivers can be designed for reception of C and KU Band
signals through the same satellite receiver.

Examples of input frequency band, LNB local oscillator frequency and output frequency
band are shown below.
Input frequency
band from Local Oscillator Output L band into
Input band GHz
satellite (LO) frequency cable.
waveguide
C band 3.4-4.2 5.15 950-1750
  3.625-4.2 5.15 950-1525
  4.5-4.8 5.76 950-1260
  4.5-4.8 5.95 1150-1450
       
Ku band 10.7-11.7 9.75 950-1950
  10.95-11.7 10 950-1700
  11.45-11.95 10.5 950-1450
  11.2-11.7 10.25 950-1450
  11.7-12.2 10.75 950-2000
  12.25-12.75 11.3 950-1450
  11.7-12.75 10.6 1100-2150
       
Ka band 19.2-19.7 18.25 950-1450
  19.7-20.2 18.75 950-1450
  20.2-20.7 19.25 950-1450
  20.7-21.2 19.75 950-1450

S band 2.5 – 2.7 3.65 950 - 1150

       

All the above illustrate a simple LNB, with one LNA and one LO frequency.

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POLARIZATION
Polarization is another property of electromagnetic waves. It can be
manipulated into two types of polarization: Linear (Vertical and Horizontal)
and Circular (Right-Hand and Left-Hand) polarizations. Linear polarization is
commonly used on satellites.
The most important application of polarization is in frequency reuse. This is
where two electromagnetic waves, one traveling on the vertical plane and the
other in the horizontal plane, are using the same frequency without impacting
one another. This gives the ability to essentially double the amount of
frequencies available for use.

Polarization

EARTH STATION

Earth Station is the internationally accepted term that includes satellite

communications stations located on the ground. They can be configured and
utilized in a number of ways but in order for an earth station to transmit or
receive a signal it will require uplink and/or downlink equipment.

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ANTENNA

An antenna is a "transducer" between electromagnetic waves in space and

voltages or currents in a transmission line. When transmitting, the antenna
converts electrical signals into radio waves; a receiving antenna reverses the
process and transforms radio waves back into electrical signals. Most antennas
are passive, simply metal structures that launch or collect radio waves.

All passive antennas can transmit and receive, and a principle called
"reciprocity" allows a passive antenna's transmitting properties to be derived
from its receiving characteristics and vice versa. All antennas are directional,
transmitting more power in some directions than in others. The direction of
maximum transmission or reception is called the "bore sight direction." The
directional properties of an antenna are described by its radiation pattern, a
pictorial representation of relative radiated power versus direction. Radiation
patterns are three-dimensional. In practice, radiation patterns are usually drawn
to show relative radiated power in two orthogonal planes, a horizontal plane
containing the antenna (the azimuth plane) and a vertical plane passing through
the antenna (the elevation plane). Figure 2.1 is an example.

Radiation patterns exhibit a lobe structure in which the largest lobe in three-
dimensional space constitutes the beam through which the antenna radiates
and/or receives most of its power. In this context, the locus of half-power
points surrounding its peak is taken to be the perimeter of the main beam. The
intersection of the main beam with the ground constitutes the "footprint" of an
antenna on a satellite.

The tendency of the antenna to concentrate its radiated power is called "gain."
The angular width of the main beam measured between the half-power points is
called the half power beamwidth (HPBW) or more colloquially, beamwidth of
the antenna. Beamwidth and gain vary inversely with each other; a high-gain
antenna has a narrow beamwidth and vice versa. Gain is proportional to the
physical area of an antenna expressed in square wavelengths. The size of an
antenna is often stated in terms of its "aperture," which can be taken to mean
either the physical area of the radiating part of the antenna or the diameter of a
circle having this area, depending on context.

Radiation pattern lobes other than the main beam are called "side lobes." The
higher the side lobe level, the more likely an antenna is to interfere with or be
interfered with by a receiver in the direction of the largest side lobe. For this

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reason, the side lobe envelopes of ground antennas used in the U.S. must meet
specifications set by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to insure
that an antenna pointed at one satellite does not have an unacceptably high side
lobe pointed at another satellite separated from the first satellite by 2 degrees or
more in the geostationary arc.

Electromagnetic waves are a vector quantity that is they are polarized. The
preferred (desired) polarization radiated by an antenna is termed co-
polarization; the orthogonal polarization is termed cross-polarization. If
polarization can be made pure enough, orthogonally polarized waves can travel
together without interference and be separated by properly designed receiving
antennas. The ability of antennas to discriminate in this manner is measured by
the cross-pole ratio, or polarization isolation.

An antenna has a "center frequency" or "operating frequency" -- the frequency

at which the antenna exhibits optimum performance -- and a bandwidth -- the
frequency range over which the antenna impedance and radiation pattern
remain within some required tolerance.

A good antenna design is one that achieves the required gain, side lobe level,
polarization isolation and bandwidth specifications in the smallest aperture size
consistent with mass limitations and ease of manufacture, all at an acceptable
price.

The antenna provides both the means to transmit the RF signal to the satellite
and receive a signal from the satellite. Its design helps minimize Radio
Frequency interference (RFI) by using its reflectors to focus the RF signal on to
a single satellite. Its feed, or feed horn, is used to isolate a single polarization
for reception or transmission. In order to isolate a single polarization, the
antenna and feed must be properly aligned with the satellite’s antenna. For

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example, a vertically polarized antenna will receive the signal transmitted on

the vertical polarization by the satellite. In the case where the antenna is rotated
90 degrees and is oriented horizontally, versus vertically, there will be very
little to no reception of the signal. This misalignment of the antenna in respect
to the polarization is called “Cross-polarization”.

Properly aligning your antenna to the appropriate satellite and polarization is

crucial to the completion of a satellite link. Satellite requires an antenna pattern
test, or the antenna manufacture’s pattern test, to ensure the antenna’s reflectors
will focus the RF energy appropriately and will not interfere with other satellite
signals during a transmission. Satellite has also required that all transmitting
earth stations contact the Network Operations Center (NOC) prior to
transmitting to a satellite to ensure the antenna will be aligned to the
appropriate polarization and satellite before transmitting.

Types of Antenna

There are two main types of Antenna

(1) Prime Focus Antenna (PFA)

(2) Off set Antenna

Prime Focus Antenna (PFA)

The Prime Focus Antenna (parabolic antenna) is a satellite antenna which is
perfectly round. It is absolutely symmetric built and has a parabolic shape. The
focal point is in the middle of the dish. That's why the LNB is mounted
centrally at the focus, where it can collect all incoming signals. Such a satellite
antenna is typically larger than 1.2 meters.

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Prime Focus Antenna

Offset Antenna
An offset dish antenna is a type of satellite dish. It is so called because the
antenna feed is offset to the side of the reflector, in contrast to a typical circular
parabolic antenna where the feed is in front of the center of the reflector.
The offset dish antenna still uses a parabolic dish with the driven element at the
focus of the parabola; however, the curve of the dish is taken from one side of
the parabola instead of the center.
Offset fed antennas are most commonly found on Ku Band DBS satellite dishes
or ‘mini-dishes’. The benefit of the offset configuration is that it positions the
feed horn away from the dish itself so that it does not cast a shadow on the dish.
Offset dishes are often referred to as ‘asymmetrical’.

Offset Antenna

Determining Dish Size

The antenna size limits the amount of data that you can carry over a circuit. It is
a complicated calculation based upon a client’s location relative to the satellite
power footprint.
In order to transmit a sufficiently powerful signals to the satellite you need a
combination of transmitter power (from BUC) measure in Watts plus a dish
size with enough gain. If there may be a tradeoff to be done if there is a

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possibility of a smaller dish and a high power amplifier or a larger dish and a
low power amplifier.

How to calculate what size dish you need for your location
You can use this chart to help find out what size dish you will need by looking
at the footprint of the satellite your trying to receive. Just look at the footprint
image for the satellite you’re wanting and find where you are on the map. Then
take the EIRP value for that area and look for it on the chart and see what the
recommended dish size is.
EIRP - Abbreviation for Effective-Isotropic-Radiated-Power

C-Band Ku-Band

KU
C Band C Band KU Dish
EIRP EIRP Dish
Dish Size Dish Size Size
(dBW) (dBW) Size
(meters) (Feet) (centimeter)
(inches)

39.0 1.9 6.2 50.0 55 21.65

38.0 2.1 6.8 49.0 60 23.62

37.0 2.3 7.5 48.0 65 25.59

36.0 2.6 8.5 47.0 72 28.35

35.0 2.8 9.1 46.0 77 30.31

34.0 3.1 10.1 44.0 95 37.40

33.0 3.5 11.4 42.0 115 45.28

32.0 3.9 12.8 40.0 138 54.33

31.0 4.3 14.1 38.0 175 68.90

Antenna Gain
The distances over which signals travel to some satellites is very large.
Geostationary ones are a particular case. This means that path losses are high
and accordingly signal levels are low. In addition to this the power levels that
can be transmitted by satellites are limited by the fact that all the power has be

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generated from solar panels. As a result the antennas that are used are often
high gain directional varieties. The parabolic reflector is one of the most
popular.
Antennas on Satellites
Although there is fundamentally no difference between the antennas on
satellites and those on the ground there are a number of different requirements
that need to be taken into account. In the first instance the environmental
conditions are very different. As conditions in space are particularly harsh the
antennas need to be built to withstand this. Temperatures vary considerably
between light and dark and this will cause expansion and contraction. The
materials that are sued in the conduction need to be carefully chosen.
The gain and directivity of the antenna need to be chosen to meet the needs of
the satellite. For most geostationary satellites the use of directional antennas
with gain is mandatory in view of the path losses incurred. These satellites are
more likely to cover a give area of the Earth, and as they remain in the same
position this is normally not a problem. However the attitude of the satellite and
its antenna must be carefully maintained to ensure the antenna is aligned in the
correct direction. The antennas on board the satellite are typically limited in
size to around 2 - 3 meters by the space that is available on the satellite
structure.
For satellites in low earth orbits, considerably less directive antennas are
normally used. Signals are likely to be received and transmitted over a much
wider angle, and these will change as the satellites move. Accordingly these
satellites seldom use parabolic reflector antennas.

Ground Antennas
Ground antennas used for receiving satellite signals and transmitting to the
satellites vary considerably according to their application. Again parabolic
reflectors are the most widely used, but Yagi antennas may be used on
occasions.
The size of the antennas may vary considerably. The parabolic reflectors used
for satellite television reception are very small. However those used for
professional applications are much larger and may range up to several tens of
meters in size.
The satellite antennas are carefully chosen by the system designer to match the
particular requirements. It is possible to calculate the exact specification for the
antenna, knowing the path loss, signal to noise ratio, transmitter power levels,
receiver sensitivities, etc. A small 70 centimeters antenna may be sufficient for
direct reception of satellite TV programmes but would not be suitable for

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transmitting programmes up to the satellite where a much higher signal level is

required to ensure the best possible picture is radiated back to Earth.

Satellite Television Antennas

It has already been mentioned that satellite television antennas use parabolic
reflector or "dish" antennas. They are also incorporate what is termed an LNB.
This is a Low Noise Block converter. The satellite transmits signals at
frequencies between 12.2 and 12.7 GHz. Signals at these frequencies would be
very quickly attenuated by any coaxial feeder that was used. As feeder lengths
may run into several meters or more in many installations, this would mean that
the signals that reached the television would be very weak. To overcome this
problem the LNB is installed at the feed point of the antenna. Its job is two
fold. It amplifies the signal, but more importantly it converts it down to a
frequency (usually 950 to 1450MHz) where the loss introduced by the coaxial
feeder is considerably less. The amplification provided by the LNB also
enables the loss introduced by the cable to be less critical. By performing these
two functions it means that domestic coaxial cable can be used satisfactorily,
while maintaining sufficiently high signal levels at the receiver.

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THE UPLINK

Uplink consists of three sections namely.

(1) In door Unit (IDU)

(2) Inter Facility Link (IFL)
(3) Outdoor Unit (ODU)

(1) In Door Unit (IDU)

Indoor unit consist Encoder and Modulator (Modem). The following is a brief
description of each.

Encoder
An encoder is a device used to change a signal (such as a bitstream) or data
into a code. The code may serve any of a number of purposes such as
compressing information for transmission or storage, encrypting or adding
redundancies to the input code, or translating from one code to another. This is
usually done by means of a programmed algorithm, especially if any part is
digital, while most analog encoding is done with analog circuitry.

Modulator (Modem)
A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator.

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Modulation is the process of varying a periodic waveform, i.e. a tone, in order

to use that signal to convey a message, in a similar fashion as a musician may
modulate the tone from a musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and
pitch. Normally a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal.
The three key parameters of a sine wave are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase
("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in
accordance with a low frequency information signal to obtain the modulated
signal
OR

Modem: Modulates a base band signal to an Intermediate Frequency (IF).

Usually 70MHz or 140MHz

(2) Inter Facility Link (IFL)

IFL (Inter-Facility Link) refers to a cable which runs between two facilities.
In satellite usage, the term IFL refers to the cable which connects the ODU
(Out-Door-Unit) with the IDU (In-Door-Unit).
IFL cable is often a shielded coaxial cable terminated with BNC connectors .

(3) Out Door Unit (ODU)

Outdoor unit consist Block Up Converter (BUC), High Power Amplifier
(HPA), and Satellite Dish. The following is a brief description of each

Block Up Converter (BUC)

A Block Up Converter (BUC) is used in the transmission (uplink) of satellite
signals. It converts a band (or "block") of frequencies from a lower frequency
to a higher frequency. Modern BUCs convert from the L band to Ku band, C
band and Ka band. Older BUCs convert from the 70 MHz band to Ku band or
C band.
Most BUCs use phase-locked local oscillators and require an external 10 MHz
reference frequency to maintain the correct transmit frequency.
BUC's are rated according to their output power. A low power Ka band BUC
can transmit with as little as 2 watts, while a high power C-band BUC can
transmit with as much as 200 watts.
The BUC is sometimes referred to as the TXB (Transmission Block).

High Power Amplifier (HPA)

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High Power Amplifier (HPA): Increases the power & amplifies the RF signal to
achieve satisfactory uplink operations.

Feed Horn

A feed horn (or feed horn) is a horn antenna used to convey radio waves
between the transceiver (transmitter and/or receiver) and the reflector.

The feed horn also selects the polarity of the waves to be received, which helps
to attenuate unwanted signals from adjacent channels and transponders, and
from other communications satellites at nearby orbital positions. This can be
either horizontal or vertical if the polarization is linear, or clockwise or
counterclockwise (also called left- and right-handed) if it is circular. Certain
devices can also allow a feed horn to accept both linear and circular, though
these cause a slight insertion loss to all incoming signals.

THE DOWNLINK

Down link consists of a low noise amplifier, down converter, and demodulator.
A low noise block down converter can be used in place of a low noise amplifier
and down converter. The following is a brief description of each.

Low Noise Block Converter (LNB):

Low Noise Block Converter (LNB) amplifies and converts the RF signal from the
satellite into IF. Essentially it is a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) and down
converter that have been incorporated into a single unit

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It is the device on the front of a satellite dish that receives the very low level
microwave signal from the satellite, amplifies it, changes the signals to a lower
frequency band and sends them down the cable to the indoor receiver.

The expression low noise refers the quality of the first stage input amplifier
transistor. The quality is measured in units called Noise Temperature, Noise
Figure or Noise Factor. Both Noise Figure and Noise Factor may be converted
into Noise Temperature. The lower the Noise Temperature the better. So an
LNB with Noise Temperature = 100K is twice as good as one with 200K.

The expression Block refers to the conversion of a block of microwave

frequencies as received from the satellite being down-converted to a lower
(block) range of frequencies in the cable to the receiver. Satellites broadcast
mainly in the range 4 to 12 to 21 GHz.

Low noise block down converter (LNB) diagram

Demodulator (Modem): Demodulates the IF signal and extracts the data for
use.

A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the information content

from the carrier wave of a signal.

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Diagram of Uplink and Downlink chain

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