Toaz - Info Alc BK Grammar PR

AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
ALC BK GRAMMAR
FROM 1 TO 24
1
SADRŽAJ:
BOOK 1....................................................................3
BOOK 2....................................................................6
BOOK 3....................................................................8
BOOK 4..................................................................10
BOOK 5..................................................................12
BOOK 6..................................................................15
BOOK 7..................................................................17
BOOK 8..................................................................18
BOOK 9..................................................................21
BOOK 10................................................................24
BOOK 11................................................................27
BOOK 12................................................................31
BOOK 13................................................................34
BOOK 14................................................................40
BOOK 15................................................................46
BOOK 16................................................................51
BOOK 17................................................................54
BOOK 18................................................................60
BOOK 19................................................................66
BOOK 20................................................................72
BOOK 21................................................................81
BOOK 22................................................................96
BOOK 23..............................................................105
BOOK 24..............................................................114
2
BOOK 1
IT’S A BOOK. THIS AND THAT
a book. a book.
That + is =
It is a pen. It + is = It’s This is a pencil.
that’s
a pencil. a door.
WHAT IS THIS? THIS IS MY PEN.
What is this? This is a book.
What + is =
What’s this? That is my chair.
What’s
It’s a book. That’s your pen.
WHAT’S THAT?
book. SINGULAR PLURAL
my pen.
These are
your pencil. This is a table.
This is tables.
Those are
her home. That is a chair.
chairs.
his chair.
I'M A STUDENT. YOU'RE A TEACHER. BILL'S A PILOT.

a student. a student.
I am a pilot. I'm a pilot.

a doctor. a doctor.
a teacher. a teacher.
You are a barber. You're a barber.

cook. cook.
Bill is a pilot. Bill's a pilot.
WHAT AM I? WHAT ARE YOU? WHAT'S BETTY?

I am a student. am I?
You are a teacher. What Are you?

Betty is a pilot. is Betty?
THEY'RE NOT DOCTOR. THEY'RE MECHANIC.

I'm not a pilot.
He's a doctor.
She's a barber.
Bill's a mechanic.
3
You're a student.
We're barbers.
Bill and I are not teachers.
They are students.
Mr. and Mrs.Jones doctors.
are
THEY AREN'T PILOTS

He He
is not student. isn't a student.
She She
You You
We are not students. We aren't students.
They They
ARE THEY STUDENTS?

It a desk.
This a doctor. Those desks.
That is a barber. are
She a techer. These doctors.
He a mechanic.
he doctor?
she pilot? barbers.
They these
Is this teacher? pilots.
that those techers?
book? Are
it they desks?
ARE YOU A STUDENT?

Am I a student? you a students?
Are you a mechanic? Are we a teachers?
he a pilot? they a mechanics?
she teacher?
Is
Bill a mechanic?
it a book?
IS THAT YOUR PENCIL? NO, IT ISN'T.

Are you a student? Yes, I am. Is he/she a Yes, he/she is.
No, I'm not. doctor? No, he/she isn't.
4
Is this a pen? Yes, it is. No he's/she's

not.
No it is not.
Are these Yes, they are.
pencils?
Is that a pen?
No, it's not. Are those No, they're not.
No, it isn't. pencils? No, they aren't.
there Yes they No the're No, they aren't.
are. not.
we Yes, we No, we're No, we aren't.
Are students?
are. not.
you Yes, you No, you're No you aren't.
are. not.
ARE YOU A STUDENT? YES, I'M A STUDENT.

Yes I'm
Are you a student? a student.
No, I'm not
Yes, she's
Is she a teacher? No, she's not a teacher.
No, she isn't
Yes, this is
Is this a pen? a pen.
No, this isn't
Yes, they're
Are they doctors? No, they're not doctors.
No, they aren't
ON / IN / UNDER
The box on the table
The clock is in the box
The book under the table
5
BOOK 2
Bill is tired. Is Bill tired? You are sick. Are you sick?
Sue is tired. Is Sue tired? We are sick. Are we sick?
The student is Is the student They are Are they sick?
tired. tired? sick.
The children are Are the children
sick. sick?
IS THE BOY VERY ANRGY?

he happy? he young?
she angry? she sad?
Is the boy very old? Is the boy very sick?
the man hot? the man well?
the child cold? the child tired?
WHERE'S YOUR FRIEND?

the map? under the desk.
Where is The map is
the student? on the chair.
the books? The books in the classroom.
are
Where are
the pilots? The pilots in the barracks.
are
THIS IS OUR CLASSROOM.

our classroom.
This is your lab.
their brother.
WHOSE MONEY IS THIS?

Whose sister is she? Whose money is this? Whose pens are
these?
She is his sister. This is our money. They are my pens.
THIS IS BETTY'S BOOK.

Whose book is Whose books are
that? those? That books belongs to
That is Betty's Those are Betty's boks. Betty.
book.
I am inside He You
You are She is outside They are inside
6
It We
THEY'RE LISTENING TO THE TEACHER.

(present progressive)
I am reading. I'm reading. reading.
You are writing. You're writing. You writing.
He Hi's He
is sitting. sitting. sitting.
She She's not She aren't
We We're We
You are going. You're going. You going.
They They're They
ARE YOU EATING?

I am eating breakfast now.
Am I eating breakfast now?
You are studing your lesson.
you
Are He studing your lesson?
She
he
Is listening to tapes?
she
You
We are watching TV.
They
you
Are we watching TV?
they
Question Yes No
Are you studing? Yes, I am. No, I'm not.
Is he studing? Yes, he is. No, he's not. No, he isn't.
Is she studing? Yes, she is. No, she's not. No, she isn't.
Are you studing? Yes, we are. No, we're not. or No, we aren't.
Are they studing? Yes, they No, they're not. No they
are. aren't.
7
BOOK 3
WE EAT BREAKFAST AT THE SNACK BAR
(present simple)
I eat
brekfast at the snack bar.
You eat
He eats
breakfast every day.
She eats
We eat
brekfast at the snack bar.
They eat
Tom and Bob do not at noon.

eat Do + not = Don't
They don't at midnight.
Tom does not gets up at 6 o'clock. Does + not =
He doesn't get up at 5 o'clock. Doesn't
The boys watch television. Do you get up early?

Do the boys watch television? Yes, I get up early.
Yes I do.
Bill eats breakfast every day. Does Tom get up late?
Does he eat breakfast every day? No, Tom doesn't get up
late.
No, he doesn't.
I HAVE A BOOK. SHE HAS A RADIO.

I a pen.
You an apple.
have
We an orange.
They a radio.
He a pencil
has
She a book.
WHAT DOES TOM STUDY?
8
studyes English.
Does Tom study English?
What does study?
goes to school at 7:30.
Does Mike go to school at 7:30?
What does do at 7:30?
HOW OFTEN DO YOU SPEAK ENGLISH?

WAS/WERE
I amam I
in the U.S. now. late?
How often
Mr. Brown is is he/she early?
I wasare in theyou/we/they
Spain last year here?
Mr. Brown wasdo I swim?
TheyHow often are in theyou/we/they
U.S. now. eat?
Jery and Sue does
were he/she
in the Spain last year study?
HE WANTS TO STUDY.
(Do) I study.
You eat.
(don't) want to
We go.
They read.
(Does) He write.
(doesn't) wants to
She speak.
WHO WAS IN THE NAVY LAST YEAR?

was in the Army.
Anthony Lucas
Was in the Army?
Who was in the Army?
was on the table.
The dictionary
Was on the
9 table?
What was on the table?
WHERE WERE YOU LAST NIGHT?

John was at the library last night.
They were at the snack bar last night.
Was John at the library last night?
Were they at the snack bar last night?
Where was John last nigth?
Where were they last night?
BOOK 4
SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST
We walk to class every day. We walked to class yesterday.
He walks to class every day. He walked to class yesterday.
Spelling : verb+ed = simple past

play + ed = played walk + ed = walked
close + ed = closed study + ed = studied
NEGATIVE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

He did not play tennis.
Jack played baseball yesterday.
He didn't play soccer.
SIMPLE PAST TENSE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
The show started at 8:00. Did the show started at 8:00?
Yes, it did. Yes, the show started at 8:00.
No, it didn't. No, the show didn't start at 8:00.
RANK + LAST NAME

Gen + last name
Col
Maj
Capt
10
Lt
Sgt
SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST

We drive to work every day. We drove to work yesterday.
He drives to work every day. He drove to work yesterday.
CAN
Can is used to express ability.
STATEMENT : The students can read well.
NEGATIVE : Marry can't speak Franch.
QUESTION : Can you fly an Yes, I can. No, I can't.
airplane?
Who can play soccer Bill can. Bill cannot.*
well?
What languages can you I can speak English and
speak? Spanish.
Cannot = can't. - Jedina negacija koja se piše bez odvajanja.
MUST
Must is used to express something is necessary
I have a test tomorrow. I must study tonight.
STATEMENT :
He's in the military He must wear his uniform.
MUST NOT
Must is used to express prohibition
We must not eat in the Don't eat in the
classroom. classroom.
Don't do this!
We must not open the It says,''Do not open the
door. door.''
MAY/CAN
May and can are used to express permission
Children you may have some fruit after
dinner.
STATEMENTS :
You can leave early
today.
QUESTIONS : May I sit Yes, you may. No, you may not.
here?
Can I write in my Yes, you No, you can't.
book? can.
11
HOW MUCH
do the shoes cost? did the shirt cost?
How
are the shoes? was the shirt?
much
are they? was it?
does the shirt cost? did the shoes cost?
How
is the shirt? were the shoes?
much
is it? were they?
THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE

NEAR NOT NEAR
SINGULAR this that
PLURAL these those
BOOK 5
WHICH BOOK DO YOU WANT?
book
Which do you want?
house
THERE IS / THERE ARE

There + be is used to say that something exist.
There is book on your desk. there + is = there’s
There are three pans under the table. there + are = there’re
Yes, there is.
Is there map on the wal?
No, there isn’t.
Are there desks in the Yes, there are.
classroom? No there aren’t.
SOME / ANY
STATEMANT : Bill has some money.
NEGATIVE : Bill doesn’t have any money.
QUESTION : Does Bill have some money?
12
CAN
Can is used to mean possibility.
STATEMANT : You can buy shoes at the shoe store.
NEGATIVE : You can’t buy a car at the BX.
: Can you get haircut on Yes, you can.
Saturday? No, you can’t.
QUESTION
: Where can we go this To Dallas.
weekend? We can go to Dallas.
I HAVE A LOT OF MONEY.

a lot of / lots of / some
a few a little
desks, pencils, students, tachers, salt, sugar, soup, shampoo,
toothpaste,
tables, chairs, stores, clothes, butter, soup, orange, milk, water, rice,
dollars,
apples, etc. money, fruit, ment, etc.
WILL
Will is used to express future time.
: John will work tomorrow night.
STATEMANT
: John will be here tomorrow.
: John will not work tomorrow night.
NEGATIVE
: John will not be here tomorrow.
I I’ll I I
We We’ll We We
You You’ll You You
He will He’ll He will He
= work. = won’t work.
She She’ll She not She
It It’ll It It
They They’l They They
l
AN / A / THE
1. Use an in front of noun that begins with a vowel sound.
It is used when the speaker is talking about a thing in gluesal.
an aunt an orange an egg
an uncle an I.D. card an hour
2. Use a in front of noun that begins with a consonant sound.
It is also used when the speaker is talking about a thing in gluesal.
13
a boy a girl a men a woman

3. Use the in front of noun that begins with any sound. It is used for a specific
things
when the speaker and the listener are thinking about the same personor
things.
the student the office the teachers the bananas
MANY / MUCH
Many is used with nouns you can count. It means “a lot of”.
He has many books.
Do they have many children?
We didn’t see many pilots there.
Much is used with nouns you cannot count. It also means “a lot of”.
It used in negative sentences and questions.
He didn’t drink much coffee.
Did he have much work last week?
HOW MANY …? HOW MUCH …?

How many is used with nouns you can count.
How many children you have? Five. I have five children.
How many books did he buy? Two. He bought two books.
How much is used with nouns you cannot count.
How much tea you drink every day? Three cups. I have five children.
How much fruit did she buy? Five pounds. I drink three cups of
tea a day.
WE HAVE TO GO TO THE LAB.

Have to is used to express something that is necessery. It is the same as
“must”
: We have to wear our new uniforms.
STATEMANT
: She has to be at the airport at 7:30.
QUESTION : Do we have to wear our caps outside?
Yes, we have to. No, we don’t have to.
: Does he have to buy a new coat?
Yes, he has to. No, he does’n have to.
: What time does she have to be there?
: When do you have to leave?
: Where do you have to go?
Do not have to is used to say that something is not necessery.
: We don’t have to go to the bank. We have money.
NEGATIVE
: She doesn’t have to wear a uniform. She’s a civilian.
14
BOOK 6
WE THINK YOU’RE NICE.
We think that you’re nice.
WHAT DID HE THINK?
Bob thought the game was good.
Who thougt the game was good?
Did Bob think the game was good?
What did Bob think? (about the game)
ED THINKS IT WILL COST LOTS OF MONEY.
15
Ed thinks the car will cost a lot of money.

How much money does Ed think the car will cost?
Ed thinks he can buy a car in Houston.
Where does Ed think he can buy a car?
Ed thinks he can buy a truck next month.
When does Ed think he can buy a truck?
ME, HIM, HER, THEM, US

SUBJECT PRONOUNS I you he she it we they
OBJECT PRONOUNS Me you him her it us them
WOULD LIKE (TO)
I want
I would like some chocolate ice cream.
I would like to have
I I'd
You You'd
He + would like (to) = He'd
like (to)…?
She …? She'd
We We'd
They They'd
I
How
You
What
He
Who Would like (to)…?
She
When
We
Where
They
SOMETHING, ANYTHING, NOTHING

Something and anything are used in afirmative statements.
EXAMPLES: Let's order something for dessert.
There's nothing in this suitcase.
Something and anything are used in questions.
EXAMPLES: Would you like something for drink?
Did the teacher say anything about the quit?
Anything is used in negative statements.
EXAMPLE : I didn't eat anything for breakfast.
INDIRECT OBJECT
16
DIRECT OBJECT INDIRECT OBJECT

to Tom.
Joh sent a postcard
to him.
for Ann.
Sally got a ticket
for her.
INDIRECT OBJECT DIRECT OBJECT

Tom
Joh sent a postcard.
him
Ann
Sally got a ticket.
her
ALSO = TOO
Bill is
a pilot.
Ted is also
Bill can
fly a plain
Ted can also
Bill flew
yesterdey.
Ted also flew
DO YOU ALSO SPEAK FRENCH?

Is a student? is.
Can he also speak French? Yes, he can.
Does speak English? does.
SIMILAR AND OPPOSITE

(statements)
AND BUT
I called Jan. We talked for an hour.
I called Jan, and we talked for an hour.
I also called Steve. He wasn't home.
I also called Steve, but he wasn't home.
BOOK 7
MAKING COMPARISONS ADJECTIVES
tall taller
clean cleaner
narrow narrower
(-er+than)
weak weaker
slow slower
long longer
wet +t(er) wetter
17
big +g(er) bigger

sad +d(er) sadder
hot +t(er) hotter
happy happier
heavy heavier
rainy rainier
+ier
windy windier
thirsty thirstier
hungry hungrier
nice nicer
large larger
little +r littler
late later
wide wider
blue bluer
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
big bigger the biggest
heavy heavier the heaviest
light lighter the lightest
new newer the newest
old older the oldest
wide wider the widest
How old are you? I'm twenty years old.

How old is Steve? He's ten years old.
How old are Mr. and Mrs. Clark? They're both thirty years old.
How old is their house? It's fifteen years old.
I
knife cutting meat
You
use
Sue and I drinking
cup
The boys caffee
for
a camera taking picture
Backy
uses
He
glass drinking milk
John
BOOK 8
BOB IS GOING TO ARRIVE AT 4:30
I am
He is (not) going to leave at 8:00
You are
WHAT ARE YOU GOIN TO DO?
18
Steve is run.
Is Steve going to run?
What is Steve do?
JOHN WANTS TO PLAY VOLLEYBALL
begins
forgets
learns
likes
John needs to speak English.
remembers
starts
tries
wants
RAY NEEDS TO BUY A NEW CAR
Do
they
Did
need to lock the door
Does
Sue
Did
need
they
needed
Yes, to lock the door
needs
Sue
needed
don't
they
didn't need to lock the
No,
doesn't door
Sue
didn't
THE SOFA IS HEAVIER THAN THE CHAIR

CHINESE IS MORE DIFFICULT THAN ENGLISH
*** big large sad -er than

cool late short
cold light sick
clean long small
19
clear low slow

fast new straight
hard hear strong
high nice tall
hot old weak
angry happy preaty

dirty healthy thirsty
*** early heavy ugly -er than
easy hungry windy
cloudy narrow nasty
more awful
*** than
less upset
beutiful
delicious
difficult
more different
exciting *** than
less expensive
important
interesting
terific
CHICAGO HAS THE TALLEST BUILDINGS
- est
big...
the ***
(kao u tabeli gore)
- est
20
most awful
***
east upset
the
most beautiful...
***
least (kao u tabeli gore)
WHEN ARE YOU GOIN TO SEE MAJOR WILLIAMS?

I MAY SEE HIM AT LUNCH.
I
You may
John
go to the movie.
Marie
Bob an Linda might
Steve and I
TELL LT JONES THAT I'LL SEE HIM AT THE LIBRARY
him
Tell
her that we'll go at 6:30.
Don't tell Steve
BOOK 9
THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE U FUNKCIJI FUTURA
will arrive
The plane is going to arrive at 9:00.
is arriving
21
AL'S TIRED BECAUSE HIS HAD A LONG TRIP
I spent it all yesterday.

I don't have any money because it's the end of the month.
I lost my wallet.
I spent it all yesterday.

Because it's the end of the month. I don't have any money
I lost my wallet.
THE BREAD SMELLS GOOD (linking verbs)
is
feels
looks
This good.
sounds
smells
tastes
ANNE WAS STUDYING IN THE LIBRARY (past progressive)
I was studying
Mark was studying last night.
Mark and All were studying
ASK CAPTAIN HENRY TO COME TO MY OFFICE
Ask to pay the bill.

Bob to write a chack.
Tell to go to the store.
DID YOU ASK THE WAITER TO BRING US COFFEE?

NO, I ASKED HIM TO BRING THE MENU.
Don't put your shoes on the bed. What did she tell you to do?
She told me not to put my shoes on the bed.
Please, tell Don (not) to to call before 6:00. What time did he ask Don to call?
He asked Don (not) to call before 6:00.
YOUR UNIFORM IS SIMALAR TO MINE
Bob's shirt is like Mike's. Their shirts are alike.

My name is the same as your name. Our names are the same.
Tim's car is similar to Allen's car. Their cars are similar.
22
Army uniforms are different from Navy uniforms.

Army and Navy uniforms are different.
I WANT TO TELL YOU SOMETHING
me
you a story
him
her a lie
Tell
them a secret
us the truth
someone
the time
Frank
PLEASE DON'T TELL ANYONE
Affirmative sentence - Elizabeth sow someone at the lab.

Negative sentence - Peter didn't see anyone at the lab.
Question - Did you see anyone/someone at the lab?
IS MIKE A CAREFUL DRIVER? YES HE DRIVES CAREFULY.
ADJECTIVE SUFFIX ADVERB

bad badly
careful carefully
careless carelessly
correct correctly
safe ly safely
slow slowly
busy busily
happy happily
easy easily
* Some adverbs have an irregular form

** Some have the same form for both the adjective and adverb
* good well
** fast fast
** hard hard
I THINK THIS MOVIE IS BORING
I forgot that we have test today.

I think that this movie is boring.
23
He hopes that you'll come to his party.

Did you remember that there's a test today?
Did he understand that the movie started at 7?
Did you realize that ve're leaving tomorrow?
forget guess hear realize

learn think hope remember
see read know understand
* After this verb indicating mental activity you use a that noun close as
direct object. Notice that is optinal.
ALEX IS GLAD THAT TIM AND BOB ARRIVED SAFELY
happy
pleased
glad
I'm that he went there.
angry
sorry
upset
After the verbs apologize, notice the use of/for +gerund (verb+ing).
BOOK 10
THERE'S NO MONEY FOR A NEW CAR
There's a lot of sugar in soda pop.
24
a little in juice.
no in a diet dink
a lot of in room A.
There's a few students in room B.
no in room C.
JIM KNOWS HOW TO PLAY TENNIS

found out
forgot
knew
learned
Bill remembered how to fix the car
showed
told me
taught
asked (me)
WHEN, WHIL, AFTER, BEFORE, UNTILL
Jerry listens to the radio while he studies.

Bonnie sow the new sofa when she come in.
Major Sims will write to us after he arriwes home.
James was waching TV before his brother called.
Fran can't buy a new car untill she saves some maney.
The students were studing when the teacher walked in.
When the tacher walked in, the students were studing.
IT'S THE SAME, BUT DIFFERENT
BE SUPOSED TO
I'm relax.
You're be on time for class.
supposed to
He's wear a seatbelt.
She's leave the house.
We're drink and drive.
They're not supposed to smoke in the
classroom.
Am I be in this bulding?
Is he go to the lab now?
Is she raport to the captain?
supposed to
Are you obey traffic low?
Are we go to the PX?
Are they play football?
IS EVERYONE GOING TO THE PARTY? YES, EVERYBODY IS GOING.
Does everyone/everybody like to go to the mall?
25
Yes everyone likes to go to the mall.

No (not), everybody likes to go to the mall.
CHARLES WASN'T AFRAID TO FLY THE HELICOPTER.
SUBJECT BE ADJECTIVE INFINITIVE

Ted isn't ready to leave the party.
Col Davis will be pleased to speak at graduation.
Calvin was upset to hear about the accident.
Janet was happy to be back in town.
Frank was glad to help Judy more.
Lt Brooks is sorry to say good-bye to his mem.
Is Linda afraid to leave alone.
TONY'S PLANE ARRIVES AT 3:05
Sometimes we use the simple present tense to express a future action.
will arrive
is going to arrive
The bus tomorrow.
is arriving
arrives
GERUNDS
The object of a verb is usually a noun or pronoun.
I like basketball.
(noun)
The object of a verb can also be a gerund. A gerund is the –ing form of a
verb.
It is used as a noun.
I like playing basketball.

(gerund phrase)
Mike starts moving next veek.

The boys enjoy playing soccer.
Does William mind stopping here?
Sgt Klime didn't begin exersing until 7 a.m.
Janet finished eating before Peter.
The Martins like driving along the ocean.
POLITE REQUESTS
26
We use could you and would you to make polite request (when we need
another person's help).
Yes of course I can.

Colud you please open the door?
No, I'm sorry, I can't.
Yes, I'll be happy to help you.
Would you help me with this box?
I'd like to, but I can't right now.
BE ABLE TO
Be able to is the word to express ability. It is the same as can.
John is able to speak three languages.

Present
John can speak languages.
I wasn't able to go last night.
Past
I couldn't go last night.
We'll be able to leave tomorrow.
Future
We can leave tomorrow.
weather
time
IMPERSONAL "IT"
distance
temperature
Active voice subject + verb + object
: It + is + o
35 F /cold/
27
BOOK 11
THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

has now.
John had a red car last year.
has had for six month.
is today.
Roby was in New York Thursday..
has been since Monday..
CONTRACTIONS
I have I’ve
You have You’ve
He has He’s Has Hasn’t
She has She’s + not =
=
It has It’s Have Haven’t
We have We’ve
You have You’ve
They have They’ve
THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

is used to refer to actions or events that began in the past and continue
into the
present. It is the closer to the present than the present perfect is.
It stresses that an action or event is not finished. It also suggest that it
will
continue in to the future.
EXAPLE : They’ve been talking on the phone for an hour.
: They’re talking now and may talk for another hour.
: Keith has been studing since 4:30.
: Ann and Bob have been studing since 4:30.
28
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Someone and somebody are used affirmative staements and questions.
EXAMPLES : Someone wonts to speak to you on the phone.
: Somebody forgot to put gas in the car.
: Can someone please take this book to the library?
: Has somebody been using my pen without asking me?
No one and nobody are used in affirmative statements.
EXAMLES : No one wants to leave before the general does.
: The weather was owful, nobody gat to work on time.
Anyone and anybody are usually used in negative statements and in
afirmative and
negative questions.They are sometimes used in afirmative statements.
EXAMLES: I didn’t know anyone at the party last night.
Can anyone give me a ride home after class? Doessn’t any one have a pencil?
Was anybody in the office when you got there? Anybody can learn another
language.
QUESTIONS WITH HOW LONG

The phrase how long is used to introduce questions about length of time.
EXAMPLES : How long did you stay at the party?
: How long will they be on vacation?
: How long is the flight to New York?
BECOME AND GET

Become and get are used as linking verbs to show a change in
state or conditions.
SUBJECT LINKING VERB SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
Most captains become majors. (noun)
become
The homework (or) get confusing. (adjective)
ADJECTIV CLAUSES
An adjective clauses is group of words that describes a noun or
pronoun.
Adjective clauses begin with who, which or that.
Who refers to people. Which refers to things. That refers to both people and
things.
Mr. Steves is the one who teaches Spanish.
Roper’s is the store which sells tires.
This is the watch that broke last week.
Mr. Dial is the man that fixet it for me.
29
TOO + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE + TO - INFINITIVE

One of the meanings of too is “more than enough”. Too followed by an adjective
and
a to – infinitive, means “more than necessary for a particular purpose”.
EXAMPLES : The test was too long for us to finish. (we couldn’t finish the test
because
it was longer than necessary).
: These shoes don’t fit well. They’re too tight. (these shoes are tighter
than
they should be in order to fit well).
TO+ADJECTIVE FOR+NOUN/PRONOUN INFINITIVE
Candy is too sweet to eat.
for me
Coffee is too bitter to drink.
Carol was too tired to drive.
It’ll be too early for the children to get up.
INFINITIVE PHRASE OF PURPOSE
An infinitive or infinitive phrase placed after a verb tells the reason for which
something is done.
EXAMPLES : Jim didn’t have any news. He just called to talk. (he only called
because
he wanted to talk).
: Beth stopped at store to buy some milk. (she stopped at the store
because she wanted to buy some milk).
INFINITIVE PHRASE OF PURPOSE
Ray moved to save a little money.
Lt Lee want to talk to the supervisor.
Don’t use a pen to mark the answer sheet.
Roger called to invite us to his party.
THE SUFFIX – Y
A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word.
When the suffix – y is added to a noun the noun becomes an adjective which
means
“like”, “full of”, or “characterized by” something. When the noun ends with “e”,
drop the “e” before adding “y”.
EXAMPLE : The weather was soapy. (the weather was full of soap)
cloud cloudy sun sunny
fun funny rain rainy
grease greasy salt salty
ice +y= icy snow +y= snowy
leak leaky soup soupy
noise noise storm stormy
oil oily water watery
COULD AS PAST ABILITY

COULD = WAS ABLE TO COULD + NOT = COULDN’T
30
INDIRECT SPEECH
TOLD INDIRECT OBJECT THAT PAST TENSE NOUN CLAUSE
Jan told Jim she was out of money.
Jim told her that he had some cash.
I told Jan I have some cash.
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
The following prepositions indicate time : at, in, on, before, after, from, with, till,
to, for and since.
At is used with time of day with an age, and with the words right, first, last,
beginning and end.
EXAMPLES : at noon, at midnight, at 7:30 a.m.
: at the age of twelve
: at right, at first, at last
: at the beginning, at the end
On is used with days and dates. It can also used parts of a certain day and the
words time and schedule.
EXAMPLES : on Monday, on your birthday
: on October 18
: on the evening of June 8
: on time, on schedule
In is used with quantities of time and with the words beginning and end.
EXAMPLES : in ten minutes, in an hour
: in week, in two years
: in the beginning, in the end
Before and after are used with time of day, with nouns that name events or
occurences. EXAMPLES : before noon, after 5:00 p.m.
: before December 31, after April 15
: before the gam, after dinner
After can also be used with a quantity of time.
EXAMPLE : after six month, after thirty years
From is used with to and till/until to indicate periods of time.

EXAMPLES : from 1985 to 1993
: from May 1 until June 15
: from 10:00 a.m. till 5:30 p.m.
Untill/till can also be used alone with days, dates, and times.
EXAMPLES : until next Friday, till next week
: until 1997, till August 2
: until 10:00 p.m., till midnight
For is used with periods of time.
EXAMPLES : for half an hour, for three weeks, for one year
Since is used with definite times.
EXAMPLES : Since Sunday, since 6:00 this morning, since 1988
31
BOOK 12
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
If clause Main clause
we drive
we are driving
If the weather’s good, to the beach.
we well drive
were going to drive
how will you tell me?
If you finish early, what will you do?
where are you going?
Main clause If clause
can / could
may / might
Tom should come if he doesn’t have to study.
must / has to
is able to
Can / could you
Will / would you read my paper if you have time.
Are you going to
PRESENT PERFECT
I I
We have we
You have Have you
not studied all studied all
They afternoon. they afternoon?
He has he
She has Has she
not
COMPARATION OF PAST TENSE AND PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

We use past tense to describe situations that happened at a definite time in the
past.
We use present perfect tense to describe situations that have happened at on
indefinite time (or times) in the past, or situations that have begin in the past
and
have continuited to the present.
ADVERBS : ALREADY, STILL, YET, ANYMORE, ANY LONGER, NO LONGER

We use already to say something happened before now, or before this time. It is
used in questions and affirmative statements.
EXAMPLES : Ed already has a high school diploma.
: Mr. Smith is already here.
: Are they already in elementary school?
We use still to say that a situation is continuing. It ussualy goes in the middle of
32
the
sentence with verb. It is used in questions and negative statements.
EXAMPLES : Ed still doesn’t have a college degree.

: It was worm yesterday and it’s still warm today.
: Are you still waiting?
We use yet to ask or talk about something that did not happen before now, but
might
in the future. It goes at end of the sentence. It is used in questions and negative
statements.
EXAMPLES : I’m very hungry. Is dinner ready yet?
: Can you wait ten minutes? John isn’t here yet.
Anymore and any longer are used in questions and negative statements.
They go at the end of the sentence.
EXAMPLES : Is he in high school anymore/any longer?
: She isn’t in the Army anymore/any longer.
No longer is used in afirmative statements. It goes in the middle of the sentence
with
the verb.
EXAMPLES : He is no longer a student.
: She no longer work at night.
I DON’T HAVE ANY MONEY, SO I NEED TO WRITE A CHECK.

We use the conjuction so to express result of a situation.
SITUATION RESULT
Because I don’t have any cash, so I’ll write a check.
I CAN PAY A CASH FOR THE GAS, OR I CAN GHARGE IT.
We use the conjuction or to express a choice.
We can charge the gas, we can pay cash for it.
or
We can charge the gas we can pay cash for it.
YOU COULD BE A WINNER OF A MILLION DOLLARS.
Could is used to express possibility.
could
The keys may be in the kitchen.
might
THE – ING AND ED ADJECTIVES

The –ing adjective describes the person/thing causing the feeling.
The –ed adjective describes the person experiencing/havin the feelings.
INDIRECT SPEECH
direct speech (present tense) indirect speech
(past tense)
33
What did Tom

say?
Tom : I know the answer Tom said (that)
he knew the
answer.
A noun clause is used to report what someone has said.
This is called indirect speech or reported speech.
The following charges are made :

1) The present tense verb in direct speech changes to the past tense in indirect
speech.
2) The pronouns are changed in indirect speech.
3) The conjuction that, is used to introduce the clause. It is sometimes omitted.
USED TO
We used to to say that somethin happened regularly or existed in the past but
no
longer happens or exists now.
EXAMPLES : I used to be a student at that college. Now I’m an instructor
there.
WOULD
We use wolud when we talk about things that often happened in the past.
EXAMPLES: When my sister and I were young, my family would go to the
mountains.
If the weather was good, we would get up early and go swimming in the cold
river.
Used to is also possible in these sentences.
COMPARATIVE OF ADVERBS
Use –er for the comparative form of early and adverbs that don’t edn in –ly.
EXAMPLE : John can run faster than his brother.
34
BOOK 13
DO YOU IMAGINE THEY’LL WIN THE GAME
We use so after some verbs as a substitute for a that-noun clause. The most
common verbs followed by so are think, believe, guess, hope, imagine, and
suppose.
Will Jack come to the party?

I think so. (I think that Jack will come.)
Has Bill finished his work?

I hope so. (I think that Bill has finished his work.)
The negative depends on the verb:
I think so. ------------------- I don’t think so.

I believe so. ------------------- I don’t believe so.
I imagine so. ------------------- I don’t imagine so.
I suppose so. ------------------- I don’t suppose so.
I guess so. ------------------- I guess not.

I hope so. ------------------- I hope not.
I’ M SURE YOU’LL UNDERSTAND THIS EXERCISE
We use a that-clause after the adjective certain, sure, and positive to express
an opinion about someone or something.
I’m certain that I can go this weekend.

He’s sure that he’ll pass the test.
We’re positive that we’ll have enough money for the car.
The conjunction “that” is many times omitted in conservatrion.
35
-ER AND –EST FORMS OF ADVERBS
The –er and –est forms are used with one syllable adverbs.
early* earlier (than) the earliest

far farther (than) the farthest
further (than) the furthest
fast faster (than) the fastest
hard harder (than) the hardest
high higher (than) the highest
late later (than) the latest
low lower (than) the lowest
near nearer (than) the nearest
slow slower (than) the slowest
soon sooner (than) the soonest
straight straight (than) the straightest
* early is an exception to the rule.
COUL AS PERMISSION
Could is frequently used to request permission. It is like may and can.
Could I borrow your book, please?

May I ask you a question?
Can I leave early today?
Can or can’t are usually used as responses to a request for permission with
could.
Could I borrow your book, please?

Yes, of course you can.
Could I leave early today?

I’m sorry. You can’t.
We have a meeting at 1500.
36
REVIEW OF MODALS
May, might, and could are used to express possibility.
Where’s Joe?
He may be in his office.
He might be eating lunch.
He could be at home.
Can and is, am, are able to are used to express ability in the present or future.
Coul and was, were able to are used for the past.
She can speak three languages.

They are able to speak French and Spanish.
I couldn’t swim when I was young.

My grand father was able to speak Russian.
May, can and could are used to request permission.
May I come in?

Can I swim here?
Could I use your phone?
NOUN ADJUNCTS
Adjectives usually modify or describe nouns.
a nice day
a cold winter
Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts.
A store that sells shoes is a shoe store.
When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun is stressed.
a can opener
a wedding ring
some paint brushes
37
PHRASAL VERBS
The term phrasal verb refers to a verb and an adverb that are together. This
verb and adverb have a special meaning.
He put on his hat.

She wrote down the telephone number.
They threw away the old newspapers.
Many times a phrasal verb will have an object. There are two possible
positions for the object.
If the object is noun, it can come before the adverb or after it.
He turned on the radio.

He turned the radio on.
She’ll look up the word in the dictionary.

She’ll look the word up in the dictionary.
If the object of phrasal verb is pronoun (me, you, him, her, etc.), the pronoun
must be between the verb and the adverb.
I like the hat. Try it on.

I’ll give you the money, but you must pay it back.
She’s sleeping. Don’t wake her up.
Phrasal verbs are very common in conversation.
MODAL IN REPORTED SPEECH
When a modal is used in the direct speech, it is frequently changed in reported

speech.
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

(present tense) (past tense)
may might
might might
can could
could could
am/is/are able to was/were able to
38
SUFFIX –ER AND -OR
The suffix –er and –or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to express
the meaning of “one who”.
He teaches students to read.

He’s a teacher.
She collects stamps.

She’s a stamp collector.
* Collector, visitor, educator, and instructor are spelled with –or.
HOW + ADJECTIVE
The questions word how has many uses. It is often used with adjectives to ask
questions.
How long asks about length.

How high asks about height.
How tall* asks about height.
How far asks about distance.
How wide asks about width.
How deep asks about depth.
How old asks about age.
How heavy asks about weight.
Hoe hot/cold asks about temperature.
A question with what can be for a question with how.
How long is it?

What is its length?
 tall is used to refer to someone or something from the ground up;

high is used when talking about something at a point above the
ground.
39
IF CLAUSES
Certain if – conditional sentences express something that is true. The simple

present tense can be used in the if – clause and the imperative or present
tense in the main clause.
If – clause Main clause

(condition) (result)
If the TV doesn’t work, push this button.

If I get up at 0600, I get to work on time.
If I don’t eat lunch, I become hungry by 2:00 p.m.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
LARGE QUANTITIES
Many is used to refer to count nouns.

Much is used to refer to noncount nouns. It’s usually used in negative
sentences.
A lot is used to refer to both count and noncount nouns.
SMALL QUANTITIES
A few is used to refer to count nouns.

A little is used to refer to noncount nouns.
GENERAL QUANTITIES
Some, any and none are used to refer to both count and noncount nouns.
Use some in an affirmative statement and question.
Use any in negative statement and a question.
Use none in an affirmative statement only.
40
BOOK 14
PLURAL COUNT NOUNS

Count nouns are nouns that may be preceded by a or an in the singular.
a book a man
an apple a fish
Count nouns can be made plural.
Regular plurals are formed by adding:
- es to words - es, changing -s, to words Irregular plurals
ending in these the y to i, to ending in a have different
letters : s, z, x, ch, words ending in a vowel + y and forms
and sh; consonant + y; other words
boxes families books fish
sendwiches duties chairs deer
dresses cities tables children
inches libraries words feet
wishes boys teeth
faces men
pages women
knives
The – es or – s that is added to count nouns to form the plural has three
different pronunciations.
/Iz/ /s/ /z/
boxes books tables
dresses suits sons
sandwiches cooks words
dishes boots windows
pages crops boys
quizzes recruits duties
horses ranks jobs
chances basics times
classes caves
services eggs
JUST/SOON
Just and soon are adverbs of time.
Just is used to indicate recent completion in the past.
Soon is used to indicate expected completion in the near future.
John just arrived from New York.
41
His brother will arrive from Los Angeles soon.
AS …. AS COMPARISONS
We use an as …. as construction with adjectives and adverbs to make

comparisons. Look at the examples.
1. Jack is twenty years old.

Bill is twenty years old.
Jack is as old as Bill.
(= They are the same age.)
2. Fred is rich.
He is richer than his brother John.
John isn’t as rich as his brother Fred.
(=Fred is rich.)
3. Linda finished her work in two hours.

Betty finished in the same time.
Betty worked as fast as Linda worked.
(=Betty and Linda worked at the same speed.)
4. Bob studies hard every night.

Mary sometimes studies.
Mary doesn’t study as hard as Bob does.
(=Bob studies harder than Mary.)
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
The future progressive is formed with

Will + be + Verb – ing
It is used to express an action that will be in progress at or up to a
particular time in the future.
We’ll be leaving at noon on Friday.
Tom won’t be leaving until midnight tonight.
ADVERBS OF DEGREE
We can use certain adverbs before adjectives and other adverbs to make
the meaning stronger. These adverbs have the general meaning of very.
For example:
Extremely cheap (adverb + adjective)
Really interesting (adverb + adjective)
Rather good (adverb + adjective)
Terribly noisy (adverb + adjective)
42
Quite fast (adverb + adverb)

So well (adverb + adverb)
Very quickly (adverb + adverb)
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH WHERE AND WHEN
Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place. It comes right after the
place.
We found a restaurant.
The food was good (at the restaurant).
We found a restaurant where the food was good.

(Where refers to restaurant, a place)
When is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time. It comes right

after the noun.
The summer was hot.

We went to San Francisco (during the summer).
The summer when we went to San Francisco was hot.
(When refers to summer, a noun of time)
IF – CONDITIONAL
Certain if – conditional sentences express something that true. The present

progressive or the present perfect can be used in the if – clause, and the
future, a modal, or the imperative can be used in the main clause.
IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
(Condition) (Result)
Present Progressive Future/Modal/Imperative
If you’re looking for Bill, you’ll find him in the library.
you can find him in the library.
go to the library.
Present Perfect Future/Modal/Imperative
If you haven’t been to the park, we’re going to go this Sunday.
you should go this Sunday.
go this Sunday.
43
GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS OF PREPOPSITIONS
A gerund is the – ing form of a verb.
Example: eating, playing, sleeping
A gerund is used as a noun. The most common noun function of a gerund is

the object of a verb. The gerund plus the words that go with it is called a
gerund phrase.
He enjoys teaching English.

We finished working about an hour ago.
A gerund or gerund phrases can also be used as the subject of a sentence.
Driving on wet roads can be dangerous.

Learning a second language is fun.
A gerund of gerund phrase can be used as the object of a proposition.
You can turn off the radio by pushing this button.

Are you interested in learning German?
He apologized for being late.
The following is list of common proposition combinations with verbs and

adjectives that gerunds can follow:
Verb + preposition
apologize for look forward to

believe in plan on
decide on talk about
finish with thank someone for
think of
adjective + preposition
afraid of nervous about

bored with proud of
excited about scared of
fond of tired of
frightened of worried about
happy about
interested in
MUST AS PROBABILITY
44
Must is used with the simple present tense or the present progressive to
expres probability.
Steve is smiling. He must be happy.
I smell smoke. Something must be burning.
Must not is used for the negative.
Johan’s lights are off. He must not be at home.

Betty isn’t eating. She must not be hungry.
MEAKING DEDUCTIONS AND CONCLUSINS
We use the modals must, may, might, and could to make deductions and
conclusions from the information that we receive.
Must is used when we are very sure or very certain about something. May,
might, and could are used when we are less sure or certain.
Must very sure

May |
Might |
Could less sure
REVIEW OF MODALS
Must and have/has to both express necessity and obligation.
You must have money to buy a car.

I can’t go. I have to study for a test.
Must not is used to express prohibition.
You must not smoke in the building.

(Don’t smoke in the building.)
You must not drive through a red light.
(Don’t drive through a red light.)
Not have/has to is used to express lack of necessity.
Tomorrow is Saturday. We don’t have to go to class.

We have a lot of time. We don’t have to study.
Will and be going to are both used to express future time.
Frank will finish packing tonight.

He is going to finish packing tonight.
Could and would are used to make requests.
45
Would you close the window, please?

Could you please hand me the sugar?
OUGHT TO AS ADVICE
Should and ought to are both used to give advice?
You don’t look good. You should see a doctor.

You don’t look good. You ought to se a doctor.
INDIRECT/REPORT SPEECH
When a modal is used in direct speech, it is frequently changed in reported

speech.
(present tense) (past tense)
will Would
present – BE going to past – BE going to
must (necessity) had to*

have/has to had to
not have to didn’t have to
must not (prohibition) must not

*Notice that had to is used instead of must in past tense reported speech when
must means necessity
IREGULAR ADVERBS
Some adverbs have irregular comparison.
ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
well better than the best

badly worse than the worst
The comparative form is used when referring to two people or things.
The superlative form is used when referring to three or more people or things.
46
BOOK 15
NEVER EVER SELDOM ALWAYS USUALLY
OFTEN FREQUENTLY OCCASIONALLY SOMETIMES
There are some adverbs that are called

adverbs of frequency.
Notice where they are in the sentences. The most common position is before
the verb, but after BE. They can also come at the beginning or end of the
sentence.
She is seldom on time.

Is she usually on time?
She never comes here.
Does she always come here?
MORE AND MOST

More and most are used with adverbs of 2 or more syllables for the
comparative and superlative from.
ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

slowly more slowly than the most slowly
carefully more carefully than the most carefully
frequently more frequently than the most frequently
These are some examples of adverbs formed by adding – ly to adjectives.

*Note the spelling changes.
correct correctly careful carefully
beautiful beautifully cautious cautiously
natural naturally slow slowly
soft softly nervous nervously
quiet quietly quick quickly
*easy easily *angry angrily

*reasonable reasonably
PROMOTET ---- PROMOTION
The suffix – ion may be added to some verbs to form nouns. Note the spelling
changes.
47
collect – collection
educate – education
locate – location
operate – operation
confuse – confusion
instruct – instruction
select – selection
promote – promotion
WILL and WOULD
We use will and would to say what we want or want to do.
Can I help you please?

Yes, I’d like a cheese sandwich.
(= I want a cheese sandwich.)
We’re having a party next weekend. Can you come? Yes, I’d love to.
(= Yes, I want to come.)
That box looks heavy. I’ll help you with it.

(= I want to help you with it.)
Should, ought to, and be supposed to have the same meaning. They are
used to give advice.
You should study more.

You ought to do better.
We’re supposed to take off our hats inside.
Used to is used to express an activity, situation, or a habit that existed in the

past but which no longer exists.
I used to smoke ten years ago, but I don’t any longer.
Would is used to express an action that was repeated regularly in the past.
Used to can also be used this way.
When I was a boy, my father would play basketball with us.

When I was a boy, my father used to play basketball with us.
Must is used to express deduction and probability.
John’s not in class. He must be sick today.
Can is used to say that something is possible.

We can se the lake from the living room.
You can walk to that pool. It’s very close.
Flying in an airplane can be dangerous.
48
LET’S GO SOMETHING
To express an indefinite place or location we use the adverbs something,

anywhere, and nowhere.
This is how they are used:

Somewhere in affirmative question/statements,
Anywhere in affirmative question/negative statements,
Nowhere in short answers, (nowhere means not anywhere.)
Are you going somewhere?

Are you going anywhere?
Yes, I’m going somewhere.

No, I’m not going anywhere.
Where are you going?

Nowhere.
WAS/WERE GOING TO
Was/were going to is used to say what someone intended to do in the paste,

but didn’t.
Johan was going to flay to Paris, but he changed his mind.

My sister was going to meet me for dinner, but she forgot.
ELSE
The word else is used with adverb and pronoun compounds of some -, any -,
no-, and every-:
Someone else/somebody else = some other person

Anyone else/any body else = some other person
No one else/nobody else = some other person
Everyone else/everybody else = some other person
Something else = some other thing

Anything else = some other thing
Nothing else = no other thing
Everything else = every other thing
Somewhere else = in/at/to some other place

Anywhere else = in/at/to some other place
Nowhere else = in/at/to some other place
Everywhere else = in/at/to some other place
49
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
When a modal is used in direct speech, it is sometimes changed in reported

speech. Notice will/would. *
(present tens) (past tense)
Ought to (advice) Ought to
Should (advice) Should
Used to/would (past routine) Used to/would
Used to (discontinued past habit) Used to
Must (deduction) Must
Must not (deduction) Must not
Was/were going to Was/were going to
Would like to (desire) Would like to
Will*/would (willingness) Would*
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
The following words are reflexive pronouns:
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself themselves
herself
itself
A reflexive pronoun is used as an object and refers to the subject of the
sentence or clouse.
He looked at himself in the mirror.

She injured herself during the game.
The children went to the movie by themselves.
Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis.

I know the door was locked. I myself locked it.
I locked it myself.
LINKING VERBS
We use adjectives after certain verbs called linking verbs. When an adjective is
used after verbs. When an adjective is used after a linking verb, the adjective
modifies the subject of the sentence.
The most common linking verbs are:

appear get smell
be keep sound
become remain stay
feel seem taste
50
Examples:
Your friend is very nice.
The coffee tastes strong.
Tom appeared calm during the storm.
The food will remain cold on the ice.
Bill seems nervous about his operation.
SUFFIX – LY
The suffix – ly can be added to nouns of time to make adjectives and adverbs.
The most common nouns are:
Day + - ly daily
Hour + - ly hourly
Month + - ly monthly
Night + - ly nightly
Week + - ly weekly
Year + - ly yearly
The – ly words above can be used as both adjectives and adverbs.
51
BOOK 16
It’s a good plan to save money every month.
It’s expensive to take a taxi.
It’s not healthy to skip meals.
It’s fun to swim.
HAD BETTER
Had better means should. Had better not means shouldn’t.
You had better pay the rent today.

You’d better get to class on time.
You’d better stop at the red light.
You had better not forget to pay the rent.

You’d better not be late for class.
You’d better not run the red light.
WHY DON’T and WHY NOT

Use the infinitive of the verb (without to) after “why don’t you” and “why not”.
I ask for a drink?

Why don’t you call him?
Why don’t we watch the news?
Why not open it now?
THE PAST PERFECT TENSE
The past perfect tense expresses an activity that was completed before
another activity occurred in the past.
He started the car after they’d fastened their seat belts.

I hadn’t met him before he came to our class.
She had gone inside by the time he thought to ask her.
The past perfect tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the
verb. It is used when you are talking about two things that have already
happened.
PASSIVE VOICE: BE – PASSIVE

SUBJEKT VERB OBJECT AGENT
The secretary types the letters.
The letters are typed (by the secretary).
To form the Be – passive:
Add be + - ed (past participle) to the verb.
52
Move the object of the sentence to the subject position.

Add by to the original subject and move it to the agent position. The agent may
be omitted.
MUST, HAVE TO, AND HAVE GOT TO
I must cash a check.

I have to cash a check.
I have got to cash a check.
The soldiers had been marching for hours before dinner.

The tourist had been moping during the rain storm.
Ted and Bon hadn’t been watching TV while I was shopping.
WHICH DO YOU PREFER?
I prefer meat to chicken.

You prefer boating to skiing.
She prefers tea rather than coffee.
We prefer to ride rather than walk.
BE UNABLE TO
am
I
was
Sue is
He was unable to fix it.
You
are
Bill and I
were
They
isn’t able to
Sue is unable to install the battery
can’t
wasn’t able to
Frank was unable to be here last night
couldn’t
ENOUGH
I’ m dirty enough to take a shower.

Jim couldn’t jog fast enough to catch Bill.
Do you swim regularly enough to keep fit?
53
MANY and MUCH
Count nouns are thing that can be Noncount nouns are thing that can’t
counted be counted
lessons information
showers rain
dollars money
spoons sugar
cups coffee
glasses water
minutes time
people news
Too many is used to express “more Too mach also means “more than
than enough”. Use too many with enough”. Use too much with
count nouns. noncount nouns.
apply application
cancel cancellation
continue continuation
examine examination
+ ation
imagine imagination
invite invitation
prepare preparation
recommend recommendation
54
BOOK 17
LINKING VERBS
The linking verbs in the list are used to express a state of condition. They also
reflect a point of view.
To be often follows the verbs appear and seem in this pattern.
John is his father.
tastes the cake we had in

sounds Paris.
looks a good idea.
(to me*) like
It smells a nice place to stay.
feels smoke in this room.
seems another cold evening.
appears the right thing to do.
angry.
seems a nice person.
He to be*
appears (to me*) in a hurry.
interested in books.
* This can be also placed at the beginning or at the end of sentence.

* To be often follows the verbs appear and seem in this pattern.
INDIRECT SPEECH : YES / NO QUESTIONS

Direct John: Can we go to Europe?
speech
Indirect John asked whether if the could go fishing.
speech (Sam)
Direct Jack: Do you go to Europe?
speech want
Indirect Jack asked whether if I wanted to go to
speech (me) Europe.
Note that the present tense verbs change to past tense, the order of the verb
and
the subject changes, and the pronouns and possessive adjectives change
from one
person to another.
55
VERB – NOUN (-tion/sion)

The act of The result of The act of The result of
condition condition
decide decision intend intention
destroy destruction introduce introduction
divide division prescribe prescription
reduce reduction solve solution
base -tion/-sion (suffix) Stress shift to the
right
EMBEDDED YES/NO QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSE (statements)

Is supposed to rain?
I don’t know
I wonder
I can’t remember if
it’s supposed to rain (or not).
I’ve forgotten whether
I’m not sure
I have no idea
When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to
introduce the clause.
EMBEDDED YES/NO QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSE (questions)

Is Major Simms in?
Do you know
Can you tell me
Could you tell me
if
Could you please tell me Major Simms is in (or not).
whether
Do you have any idea
Do you by any chance
know
EMBEDDED QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSE

(statements)
Where is the library?
When will he leave?
Who can help me?
I wander where the library is?
I don’t know when he will leave?
I can’t remember who can help me?
I’ve forgotten
56
I’m not sure

I have no idea
EMBEDDED QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSE

(questions)
When does the library open?
What time is it?
Do you know
Can you tell me
Could you tell me
when the library opens?
Could you please tell me
what time it is?
Do you have any idea
Do you by any chance
know
When a question-word questions is changed a noun clause, the same
question
word is used to introduce the clause.
JANET PREFERS HER HAIR LONG.

SUBJECT VERB DIRECT ADJECTIVE
OBJECT COMPLEMENT
hot.
prefer
I my coffee black.
like
strong
Note that in this type of sentence, the noun or pronoun comes before the
adjective.
57
PASSIVE VOICE WITH MODALS

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT
will
must
ought to
put on shoes.
ACTIVE should
wear hats.
VOICE They can
remove gloves.
may
take off
could
have to
don’t have to
SUBJECT VERB AGENT
will
must
ought to
should put on
PASSIVE Shoes
can worn (by then).
VOICE Hats be
may removed
Gloves
could taken off
have to
don’t have
to
RELATIVE PRONOUNS/ADJ/ADV + INFINITIVES

decide
find out
forget
know
learn
remember when to leave.
which to buy.
how to cook.
I didn’t
who to ask.
where to go.
show (her) what to do.
tell (him)
teach (them)
ask (you)
MANY PEOPLE DRIVE 65 MPH EVEN THOUGH THE SPEED LIMIT IS 55.
Although my apartment is quite small, I like it a lot.
I like my apartment a lot although it is quite small.
58
Though that restaurant is very expensive, it’s always full.

That restaurant is always full though it is very expensive.
Even though the parade was long, many people stayed.
Many people stayed even though the parade was long.
HIS DEATH SEDDENED THEM ALL.
The fire soft
I weak
the pots.
You black
the dishes.
hard
dark
short
- en (s) the pool.
wide
- ened the lake.
We deep
The workers
Bill tight
sharp the screw.
loose
The death sad the children.
WE HAVE TO READ THESE DIALOGS, DON’T WE?

TAG QUESTIONS
doesn’t study every day, does
He hasn’t written his family, has he?
isn’t leaving tomorrow, is
should do homework, shouldn’t
You have a large family, don’t you?
are student here, aren’t
↑ rising -tag Qs = ask for information
intonation
↓ falling -tag Qs = ask for agreement
intonation
QUESTIONS – intonation
YES/NO questions
↑ rising intonation TAG questions (informative)
Listing
Imperative
W/H questions
↓ falling intonation
TAG questions (agreement)
Statements
HE LOVES THIS BOOK, AND SO I.

He went downtown. I went downtown.
I did too. ← positive additions
He went downtown, and
so did I.
59
She doesn’t like fish. They don’t like fish.

neither do they. ← negative additions
She doesn’t like fish, and
they don’t either.
WRITING SKILLS
The six step writing process :
1. Understand your task and conditions
2. Gather an organize your ideas
3. Write a complete draft
4. Edit your draft (ruthlessly)
5. Fight for feedback
6. Go final (finalize your draft) and proofread (careful)
Seven rules of the writing stile :

1. Use mostly short, conversational words
2. Write short sentences
3. Prefer active voice
4. Write short paragraphs
5. Write short papers
6. Put the main idea up front
7. Be correct*, credible, and complete (*spelling, punctuation, grammar, word
usage)
15-15-1-2 rule – effective writing

30 second rule – “what’s important and why”*
* ask somebody to read your text, and ask him for opinion
60
BOOK 18
PAST PASSIVE VOICE WITH BE
SUBJECT VERB DIRECT AGENT

OBJECT
ACTIVE Lt Hill flew the plane.
VOICE
PASSIVE The plane was flown by Lt Hill.
VOICE
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join nouns, adjectives, adverbs,

verbs, phrases, and clauses.
Both … and and not only … but also indicate addition.
Either … or indicates choice/alternative.
Neither … nor indicates negative choice/addition.
Each conjunction should be placed immediately in front of the word, phrase, or

clause it connects.
EXAMPLE: Both Janet and her sister arrived last night.

You can either go with me or stay here.
He’s not only intelligent but also wealthy.
Roy drives neither carelessly nor fast.
When the compound subjects of a sentence are joined by either … or/neither

…nor, the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the
number of the noun phrase closest to it.
EXAMPLE: Either Mr. Reynolds or his sons always attend the company’s
annual meeting.
Neither the passengers nor the bus driver was injured in the
accident.
INDIRECT SPEECH
61
When a question is reported in indirect speech, the question word or words

remain the same. However, some of the other words in the original question do
not.
1. Present tense verbs change to the past tense.

2. Pronouns and possessive adjectives change from first or second person
to third person (unless someone is reporting his own words).
DIRECT SPEEACH Ann: What is the matter, Tom?

(present tense) Why Are you so late?
Ann asked (Tom) What the matter was.
INDIRECT SPEEACH
Why He was so late.
ANTICIPATORY IT
In some sentences the pronoun it comes before, or anticipates, the subject of

a sentence. It does not refer to a particular person or thing; it only takes the
position before the verb usually filled by the subject. An anticipatory it is often
used in the pattern below.
IT BE - VERB ADJECTIVE THAT NOUN CLAUSE

is possible someone made a
It (that) mistake.
was clear the party was over.
IF – CLAUSES
(UNREAL PRESENT CONDITIONAL)
If – clauses that refer to an unreal, or hypothetical, situation* in the present use

verbs in the subjunctive mood. Their forms are the same as those of the past
tense, except for the verb be. Where, not was, is used with singular nouns
and I, he, she, and it.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE (CAUSE) MAIN CLAUSE (EFECT)

If he exercised regularly, he would probably feel better.
If you called Steve now, you might be able to reach him.
If we left earlier, we could get home before dark.
If I were you, I’d follow the doctor’s advice.
The if- clause can also follow the main clause. In this pattern, there is no
comma between the clauses.
MAIN CLAUSE (EFECT) CONDITIONAL CLAUSE (CAUSE)

Sam wouldn’t get so confused if he followed instructions.
You could get your money back if you had your sales slip.
62
I might understand her better if she spoke more slowly.

This would be a better movie if it weren’t so long.
*Such a situation is often also called a condition contrary to fact.
WISH + THAT NOUN CLAUSE

(PRESENT UNREAL SITUATION)
When we’d like to be able to change the present situation, we often use the
pattern below to express the way that we feel. Since the situation presented in
the noun clause is not real, past subjunctive verb forms are used in it.
WISH THAT NOUN CLAUSE

The student wish they graduated sooner.
My instructor wishes she could retire next year.
Captain Wilson wishes (that) he were a four – star general.
The trainees often wish they weren’t in the service.
Jim often wishes he were living in Europe.
BE USED TO / ACCUSTOMED TO VERSUS USED TO
Used to can indicate a discontinued past habit – something that was once
done regularly but is not anymore. When it is used in this way, it is followed by
an infinitive without to (that simple form of the verb).
USED TO INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO

Harry work In an office downtown.
Janet used to teach Classes at the university.
They ride To work together every day.
Used to can also express the same meaning as accustomed to. Than, like
accustomed to, it is followed by a noun or a gerund.
BE USED TO / BE ACCUSTUMED NOUN / GERUND

TO
They are used to beef and potatoes for dinner.
Jean isn’t used to eating supper at six o’clock.
We were accustomed to dry weather in Arizona.
I wasn’t accustomed to carrying an umbrella everywhere.
VERB + DIRECT OBJECT + TO – INFINITIVE
SUBJECT VERB DIRECT TO – INFINITIVE

OBJECT
63
I advise you to make a reservation.

We expect everyone to leave the meeting.
They require their customer to pay in advance.
These are some of the verb which can appear in this pattern:
ask instruct teach
advice invited tell
allow need want
cause order warn
convince permit would like
expect require
help select
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
Negative questions are formed by adding the word not after the verb or modal.
EXAMPLE: Were you not at the meeting?

Did the secretary not notify you?
Why was everyone not told about it?
However, a contraction of not and the verb or modal is almost always used in
informal speech and writing.
EXAMPLE: Weren’t you at the meeting?

Didn’t the secretary notify you?
Why wasn’t everyone told about it?
The use of a negative yes – no question indicates that the speaker thinks he
already knows the answer. He hopes for or expects an affirmative response
from the listener, even though he does not always receive one.
EXAMPLE: Wasn’t the game postponed?

Yes, it was put off until next weekend.
Haven’t we met somewhere before?
No, I don’t believe so.
A negative question that begins with a question – word is simply a request for
information.
EXAMPLE: Why wasn’t the game held today?

The coach had to be out of town.
Who hasn’t met the new commander yet?
64
No one in our office has.
TAG QUESTIONS
STATEMENT TAG
You’re a pilot, aren’t you?
They study a lot, don’t they?
We can leave now, can’t we?
He’s not a pilot, is he?
They don’t study a lot, do they?
We can’t leave now can we?
Tag questions are statements with a short question attached. The short
question, or tag, asks the listener to agree with or confirm the speaker’s
statement.
If the verb in the statement is affirmative, the verb in the tag is negative.
EXAMPE: You were there, weren’t you?
If the verb in the statement is negative, the verb in the tag is affirmative.
EXAMPLE: The captain wasn’t there, was she?
The contracted forms of negative verbs are almost always used in both the
statement and the tag.
CAN’T / COULDN’T AS LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY
Can’t and couldn’t are often used to mean “It’s not possible that” or “It’s
impossible that…”
EXAMPLE: It’s not possible for the car to be out of gas.

It’s impossible for the car to be out of gas.
The car can’t/couldn’t be out of gas.
HAVE, MAKE, AND GET

(CAUSATIVE)
Have, make, and get are often used to indicate that one person has the power
to force another to do something.
65
EXAMPLE: If the major can’t attend the meeting, he’ll have the captain
go instead.
When the Jackson’s work in their house or yard, they
make their children help.
I’ve been calling the store for an hour, but I can’t get
anyone there to answer the phone
Get is followed by a noun or pronoun and a to – infinitive. Have and make are
followed by a noun or pronoun and infinitive without to.
had
fix
He made the mechanic the car.
got to fix
PERFECT MODALS
Modals in the perfect tense have the following meanings:
May have, might have, and could have express possibility about a past action
or condition.
EXAMPLES: The secretary may have gone to lunch.

They might have taken a different flight.
You could have cashed a check at the BX.
Must have indicates that a deduction is being made about a past action or
condition.
EXAMPLE: They’re not hungry. They must have already eaten.
Should have and ought to have indicate that a past obligation wasn’t fulfilled.
They also express the idea that a sensible action was not taken.
EXAMPLES: We should have asked Ted to eat dinner with us.

I ought to have studied more for the test.
Should not have is used to indicate that a past action or

condition was not wise.
EXAMPLE: He shouldn’t have changed lanes without signaling.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
MAIN CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

She’s a person (whom) I’d like to meet.
Is that the book (which) the teacher gave you?
Here’s the money (that) I borrowed from you.
66
Adjective clauses, like adjectives, describe nouns, pronouns, or words serving

as noun. They are often introduced by the relative pronouns who or whom,
which, and that. When these pronouns are the objects of verbs or propositions,
they can be omitted.
EXAMPLES: The book which I wanted was not available.

The book I wanted was not available.
That is the man whom* I was talking about.

That is the man I was talking about.
There is the car that I want to buy.
There is the car I want to buy.
*Many Americans use “WHO” instead of “WHOM”
THE SUFFIX – MENT
VERB SUFFIX NOUN

advertise advertisement
agree + - ment = agreement
appoint appointment
The suffix – ment can be added to certain verbs to form a noun that means
“the act or result of” something.
EXAMPLES: retirement = the act or result of retiring

enlistment = the act or result of enlisting
government = the act or result of governing
67
BOOK 19
POSSESSIVE NOUNS
To show that people own possess something, we add an apostrophe and –s

(‘s) to a singular noun or irregular plural noun. The pronunciation is the same
as with plural nouns.
When the final sound is voiced (word that and with the letters m, n, b, v, l, r, g,
or vowel), we pronounce ‘s as /z/.
EXAMPLES: Sally rent this apartment.

This is Sally’s apartment.
The restroom for men is next to the elevator.

The men’s restroom is next to the elevator.
The women own that car.

The women’s car.
When the final sound is voiceless (word that and with the letters s, t, p, f, k),
we pronounce ‘s as /s/
EXAMPLES: The report the lieutenant made was long.

The lieutenant’s report was long.
When the final sound ends in the letters s, sh, ch, ge, x, or z, we pronounce ‘s
as /z/
EXAMPLES: This book belongs to Les.

This is Les’s book.
When we have a plural noun, we add only the apostrophe (‘) after the final –s.
The pronunciation doesn’t change.
EXAMPLES: The students have books.

Those are the students’ books.
The lunchroom for the employees is closed.

The employees’ lunchroom is closed.
SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS
68
SUBJECT
I you he she it we they
PRONOUNS
OBJECT
me you him her it us them
PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

my mine
your yours
his his
her hers
its its*
our ours
their theirs
Possessive adjectives are used before nouns.
This is my pen.
That’s your book.
These are her papers.
Possessive pronouns are used alone without nouns.

This pen is mine.
That book is yours.
These papers are here.
*The pronoun its is not commonly used.
INSEPERABLE PHRASAL VERBS AND PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL

VERBS
Many phrasal verbs and phrasal propositional verbs are inseparable. That is,
they cannot separated by an object. Some, however, can be either separable
or inseparable – they often have one meaning when they are separable and a
different one when they are inseparable. These verbs are included in the list
and are marked with an asterisk (*).
be back = to return
be up for = to be eligible for
blow out* = to burst or explode
check in = to register; to report your arrival
check out* = to leave; to report your departure
clear up* = to become clear, speaking of the weather
come back = to return
come in = to arrive as expected
come over = to make a short informal visit
cut down on = to reduce in quantity or amount
69
drop by = to visit unexpectedly or informally

drop in = to pay a visit informally
drop off* = to fall asleep
drop over = to visit unexpectedly or informally
end up = to finish in a certain place/way
fall in = to line up in formation
get along with = to be in agreement
get in = to arrive
get off = to leave a vehicle, to leave work
get on = to enter a vehicle
get rid of = to free oneself form, to throw away, to give away something
get up = to rise from a sitting or lying position
go back = to return
go out = to leave the house, especially for fun, to stop burning/shooting
go over = to review, to make a short, informal visit
hold on = to wait, to wait on the phone
look forward to = to anticipate pleasurably
look out (for) = to take care/be careful of
put up with = to tolerate without complaining
run into = to encounter, collide with
run out of = to use the entire supply
sign in/out* = to write one’s name on roll for record-keeping purposes
sit down = to take a seat/occupy a chair
stand up = to rise to upright position on your feet
take care of = to assume responsibility for
take part in = to participate in
take off = to depart
watch out for = to take care/be careful
work out = to repair
work out* = to exercise
FEW / LITTLE VS. A FEW / A LITTLE

Few / a few and little / a little can be used as adjectives and as pronouns.
When we use them as adjectives, we use a few/few with count nouns and a
little/little
with noncount nouns.
EXAMPLES: Jan likes a little sugar in her coffee.
Jan likes little sugar in her coffee. (coffee cannot be counted.)
Michelle has a few friends. Michelle has few friends. (friends can be counted.)
A few and a little express, in a positive way, the presence of something even
though
in a small quantity.
EXAMPLES: A few people attended the concert. (Several people were there.)
John knows a little about computers. (He knows some things.)
Few and little express, in a negative way, the absence of nearly all quantity.
EXAMPLES: Few people attended the meeting. (Not many people want.)
Larry knows little about physics. (He knows almost nothing about it.)
70
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES: PAST UNREAL CONDITION OR SITUATION

Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause.
One type of conditional sentence is used to show a past unreal condition or
situation.
If tells what could, would, or might happened in the past if a certain condition or
situation had been true. The if- clause has the past perfect tense, and the main
clause uses could have/might have/would have + a past participle. Note that
if-clause may come before or after the main clause.
IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

could
If we had left earlier, we might have been on time.
would
could
If you had had had more
what might you have done?
money,
would
MAIN CLAUSE IF CLAUSE

Could
Might you have gone if you had finished your work?
Would
could
Ed might have passed if he had studied harder.
would
WISH: PAST UNREAL SITUATION

We use wish + THAT noun clause (containing a past perfect verb) to express
regret
about a past situation. The word “that” is optional.
EXAMPLES: I wish I had become a doctor instead of a teacher.
Amy wishes (that) she hadn’t bought that dress last week because it’s on sale
now.
Do you wish (that) you had gone to college instead of getting married?
SUFFIXES: - ABLE / - IBLE

The suffixes –able and –ible are added to certain nouns and verbs to make
adjectives. These adjectives have the meaning of “capable of” or
“showing/having”.
EXAMPLES: We can refund your money. Your money is refundable.
Smoking isn’t permitted here. It’s not permissible here.
Here is a partial list of some nouns and verbs to which –able and –iable can be
added:
accept/acceptable love/loveable
adjust/adjustable manage/manageable
advise/advisable measure/measurable
71
afford/affordable mistake/mistakable
agree/agreeable move/moveable
believe/believable notice/noticeable
break/breakable obtain/obtainable
change/changeable permit/permissible
collect/collectible/collectable prefer/preferable
comfort/comfortable prevent/preventable
compare/comparable profit/profitable
control/controllable question/questionable
depend/dependable reason/reasonable
disagree/disagreeable refund/refundable
enjoy/enjoyable rely/reliable
honor/honorable respect/respectable
inflate/inflatable sense/sensible
knowledge/knowledgeable tax/taxable
like/ likable wash/washable
TOO AND VERY

Very is used to express “to a great degree”. It means a lot or much.
EXAMPLES: This box is very heavy, but Ray can pick it up.
My coffee’s very hot – just the way I like it.
Too is used to express excessiveness; it means more than enough.
The use of too implies a negative result.
EXAMPLES: This box is too heavy. Ray can’t pick it up.
My coffee’s too hot to drink. I’ll wait until it cools off.
Both too and very are placed before adjectives or adverbs.
PASSIVE TO – INFINITIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT

A passive to – infinitive (to+be+past participle) can be used as a direct object
of
certain verbs such as expect, hope, like, need, prefer, and want.
EXAMPLES: Mike expect to be observed on his job.
Lt Wynn hopes to be considered for that assignment.
The general would like to be served immediately.
The colonel needs to be answered honestly.
Mr. Smith prefers not to be disturbed before 9:00.
The women want to be given respect.
INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

A present progressive tense in direct speech should be changed to the past
progressive in indirect speech.
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
Ann: I’m going to the coast this Ann said that she was going to the
72
coast
weekend. this weekend.
Ed: Al, are you taking the bus to Ed asked me if/whether I was
work taking
tomorrow? the bus to work tomorrow.
Lee: Sid, when are you planning to Lee asked Sid when he was
go planning
hunting? to go to hunting.
BOOK 20
REVIEW OF INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE QUANTIFIERS
Some adjective quantifiers are used only with nouns which name things that
can be counted. Others are used only with nouns naming things which cannot
be counted. Many, however, can be used with both types of nouns.
ADJECTIVE QUANTIFIERS
USED WITH
COUNT NOUNCOUNT NOUNS BOTH COUNT AND
NOUNS NOUNCOUNT NOUNS
many much some a good
several a little deal of
a few little any a great
few deal of
more a lot of
most lots of
enough plenty of
all
REVIEW OF HOW MUCH/HOW MANY AND UNIT NOUNS WITH OF
To inquire about the amount or quantity of something, we use a question

beginning with how much or how many. How much is used with noncount
nouns and how many with count nouns.
EXAMPLES: How much gas does this tank hold?

How many gallons of gas did you buy?
To express quantity or amount, we use the pattern below:
UNIT NOUN + OF + COUNT/NONCOUNT NOUN
EXAMPLES: The recipe calls for a pint of cream.

There were only two cans of soup left.
73
OF WITH PRONOUN QUANTIFIERS
To express quantity or amount, we often use a pronoun that indicates “how

much” or “how many”, followed by of.
PRONOUN QUANTIFIERS + OF
much of all of either of few of one of
many of most of neither of a few of two of
some of half of both of little of three of
any of none of more of a little of
ENRICHMENT
Who vs. Whom in Formal and Informal English
Whom is normally used in formal English.
With whom are you speaking?

I’m speaking with my sister.
About whom are you reading?

I’m reading about Abraham Lincoln.
In formal English, the preposition usually comes before whom when a

question is asked:
To whom are you giving book?

My teacher.
From whom did you get a letter?

My cousin.
In formal American English, who is often used instead of whom. The

preposition is then placed at the end of the question:
Who are you speaking?

Who are you reading about?
Who did you get a letter from?
IDIOMS AND EXPRESSIONS
Let the cat out of the bag

Meaning:
To “let the cat out of the bag” means to tell information that was supposed to
remain secret.
EXAMPLE: Maj. Miller didn’t want to tell everyone about his new assignments
until it was official, but he did tell his family. His children soon let the cat out of
the bag by telling all of their friends.
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PRESENT PROGRESIVE PASSIVE
The present progressive tense is used to refer to an activity or event which is

currently in progress.
EXAMPLES: The mechanic is repairing my car.

They are offering courses in Spanish.
The passive form is used when the agent either is not known or is not
considered as important as the action or event.
EXAMPLES: My car is being repaired (by the mechanic).
Courses in Spanish are being offered.
Passive form of the present progressive tense:
am
is + being + past participle
are
PAST PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE
The past progressive tense refers to actions or events which are no longer in
progress.
EXAMPLES: Someone was painting their house yesterday.

The doctor was treating the patients.
The use of the passive form emphasizes the receiver of the past action rather
than its agent. It can also indicate that the agent is not known.
EXAMPLES: Their house was being painted yesterday.

The patients were being treated (by the doctor).
Passive form of the past progressive:
was
were + being + past participle
ELSE
Notice these sentences that contain word pairs with “else”. They are question
– words, pronouns, and adverbs. They mean a different or another person,
thing, time, place, reason, or manner.
Question – words
Who else will be at the party?
Whom should we ask to the party?
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What can I do
Where can I look for my keys?
When do you have time?
else
How can I get there?
Why would he do it?
Pronouns:
He doesn’t who else was there.
remember whom else she spoke to.
Do you know what else he said.
Can you tell me
Adverbs:
She doesn’t where else she should look.
known when else to have the party.
how else I can do it?
Can you tell me why else he would say that?
ENRICHMENT
A or an
In definite “a” appears before a singular count noun that begins with a
consonant sound:
a book a candle a diamond a fence a a guard
“An” another from of “a” is used before a singular count noun that begins with
a vowel sound:
an example an actress an inch an onion an hour
“A” and “an” are not used before plural count nouns.
actress horses jackets keys letters magazines
On the tip of one’s tongue
Meaning:
To be “on the tip of one’s tongue” means to be about to remember a word,

name, or anything else.
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EXAMPLE: I’m sure I can tell you Mike’s last name in just a second.
It’s on the tip of my tongue.
Wait! Don’t tell me the answer. It’s on the tip of my tongue.
DIRECT OBJECT + PASSIVE INFINITIVE/PAST PARTICIPLE
When we have someone else perform a job for us, we often use a verb of
volition (like, want, need, or expect), followed by a direct object and either a
passive infinitive or a past participle.
Like, want, need, and expect can be followed by either a past participle or a
passive infinitive.
EXAMPLES: I’d like the oil changed this morning.

Pete wants his brakes checked before his trip.
He needs the wheels aligned as soon as possible.
The librarian wants the books to be returned in good
condition.
We’d like the pictures to be taken by a professional
photographer.
Expect is usually followed by a passive infinitive.
EXAMPLES: The boss expects this job to be done today.

Maj. Garza doesn’t expect his orders to be changed.
CAUSATIVE HAVE AND GET
When we cause someone to do something, we use have and get as causative

verbs to express the idea. If what is done is more important than person who is
doing it, or if the agent is unknown, we use the passive causative.
Active voice: I had Mr. James repair my roof last weak.

(have someone do something)
I got the pharmacist to fill my prescription.
(have someone do something)
Passive voice: I had my roof repaired.

(have something doing)
I got my prescription filed.
(have something done)
Have and get are followed by a direct object and a past participle. The
sentences below show the pattern.
Joe had his prescription filled.

Linda got her letter approved.
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I have to get my transmission checked.

Did you get your laundry done?
How often do you have your hair cut?
Why doesn’t she have her car painted?
When was the last
had the oil in your car changed?
time you
INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED SIMPLE PAST TENSE
When a statement or question in the past tense is reported, two changes

occur:
1. The tense of the verb changes from simple past to past perfect.
EXAMPLE: Jane said, “Jim joined the Army.”

Jane said Jim had joined the Army.
“Did Anne attend the meeting?” Al asked.

Al asked if Anne had attended the meeting.
2. First and second person pronouns change to the third person (unless
someone is reporting his own words).
EXAMPLES: Jim said, “I joined the Army.”

Jim said that he had joined the Army.
Al asked, “Did you attend the meeting, Ann?”

Al asked Ann whether she had attended the meeting.
Al asked Ann if she had attended the meeting.
Ann said, “Yes, I went to the meeting, Al.”

Ann: I told Al that I had gone the meeting.
Verb in the sentence originally Verb the sentence that tells what
spoken: was said:
was/were had been
spent had spent
saw had seen
received had received
- IVE/-TIVE/-ATIVE SUFFIX
Sometimes we can add suffixes –ive, -tive, or –ative to a verb od noun to make
an adjective. Adjectives formed in this way indicate a certain tendency,
character, or quality.
EXAMPLES: Linda talks all the time. She’s very talkative.
78
This watch has a defect. It’s defective watch.

Our farm produces large crops. The land is very
productive.
A change in the spelling of the verb or noun is required in some cases. When
either –ive or –tive is added to a word that ends with the letter e, that letter
omitted.
EXAMPLES: communicate/communicative
create/creative
defense/defensive
produce/productive
In other cases. Letters in the stem are changed.
EXAMPLES: destroy/destructive
persuade/persuasive
ENRICHMENT
For and Since
A time expression that begins with for tells us how long an action or event has
lasted.
Col. Roberts has been in the military for twenty-five years.

My sin has been talking on the phone for a long time.
A time expression that begins with since tells the time when the action or event
began. Since means from an exact time in the past up to the present. After
since, you can use a single word, a phrase, or a clause (sentence).
Mary has worked here since 1984.
Uncle Fred worked hasn’t visited us since last summer.
ALL SHOOK UP
Meaning:
A person who has been very disturbed or upset by something is “all shook up”
He almost had a car accident this morning. He’s all shook up.
Don’t get all shook up. The news might not be as bad as you think.
She gets all shook up when the children don’t come home on time.
QUANTITZ AND AMOUNT
1. We use much and little with noncount (mass) nouns to state quantity and
amount:
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much water much time little power little money
2. We use many and few with plural count nouns also to state quantity and
amount:
many people many houses few friends few books
3. We use more and the most with both noncount (mass) nouns and plural
count nouns:
more coffee more pencils the most energy the most pens
4. Much is primarily used in question and negative sentences:
George didn’t say much.

Pam doesn’t put much sugar in her tea.
Has Ed saved much money?
5. Sometimes too and so are used with much in affirmative sentences:
We’re spending too much money.

He eats too much.
She spends so much time in the kitchen.
6. Little and few usually have a negative idea. Sometimes we use very with
them.
She has little time and money to waste. (not much time and money)
They eat very little.
Few of us can speak German as well as Frank can. (not many of us)
There were very few children there.
7. Comparatives and superlatives:
COMPARISONS OF QUANTIFIERS: LITTLE, FEW, MUCH, MANY
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

little less (than) the least
few fewer (than) the fewest
much more (than) the most
many more (than) the most
The comparative of little is less; the superlative is the least.
The comparative of few is fewer; the superlative is the fewest.
The comparative of much and many is more; the superlative is the most.
80
SO (THAT)
The conjunction so (that) is used to introduce clauses that state the purpose
for which something is done.
Mary takes vitamins so (that) she won’t get sick.

He hurried so (that) he wouldn’t be late.
She’s studying more so (that) she can graduate on time.
Phil moved to Rome so (that) he could learn Italian.
AS MUCH/MANY AS
To express the idea of equality or the lack of it, we can use as mach as or as
many as in the following pattern:
AS MUCH/MANY (+ noun) + AS + noun/pronoun (verb)
EXAMPLES: Rita knows as many people as Sarah does.

Ed doesn’t earn as much money as Bob.
As many as is used with count nouns.
EXAMPLES: We took as many pictures as we could.
As much as is used with noncount (mess) nouns.
EXAMPLES: I don’t get as much mail as you do.
ADVERB COMPARISONS
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

much more (than) the most
a little less (than) the least
ENRICHMENT
Omitting “to” before the words “home” and “downtown”
The words home and downtown are used without the preposition to when
they are used with verbs of motion or direction.
Roger is driving me home after work.

The children ran home to see if their grandfather was there.
He left home when he was a child.
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That bus will take you downtown.

Mr. Nelson walks downtown almost every day.
Bon and Sally went downtown last night.
Hold your horses
Meaning:
“Hold your horses” means “Be patient”, or “Wait a minute.”
Examples sentences:
1. Hold your horses! We haven’t finished fixing the brakes.

2. Hold your horses! Let me explain firs.
3. Hold your horses! The food will be ready in a few minutes.
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BOOK 21
We use the comparative from of adjectives and adverbs when we compare or
imply comparison of two persons, thing, etc. We use the superlative from when
we compare or imply comparison of three or more persons, things, etc.
For most adjectives and adverbs of one syllable or those of two syllables that
end in er, le, ow, ure, or y, add – er to the adjective or adverb to from the
comparative. To form the superlative, add the – est.
Comparative: - er
Superlative: The – est
Adjective
old older the oldest
young younger the youngest
pretty prettier* the prettiest
Adverbs
late later the latest
fast faster the fastest
early earlier* the earliest
We use the word than after the adjective or adverb when those that are being
compared are mentioned. In this structure, subject pronouns, he, she, we, you,
they, follow the word than.
We will arrive earlier than they (will).

John runs faster than he (does).
*NOTE: change y to i and add er.
With most adjectives and adverbs of two or more syllables, (except those
mentioned above) put more or less before the adjective or adverb to form the
comparative. To form the superlative, put the most or the least.
Comparative: More/Less
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Adjective
careful more careful less careful
beautiful more beautiful less beautiful
Adverbs
often more often less often
beautifully more beautifully less beautifully
softly* more softly less softly
Superlative: The Most/The Least
Adjective
careful the most careful the least careful
beautiful the most the least beautiful
beautiful
Adverbs
often the most often the least often
beautifully the most the least
softly* beautifully beautifully
the most softly the least softly
*NOTE: There are exceptions.
Irregular Forms of Adjectives and Adverbs
bad worse the worst

badly worse the worst
far *farther/further the farthest/furthest
good better the best
well better the best
*Farther/further is generally used to indicate physical distances and further is

used to mean “additional” or describe mental distances.
Paul ran farther than Harry.

Money is the furthest thing from my mind.
TOO + ADVERB + TO INFINITIVE
Besides meaning “more than enough or more than is necessary for a particular
purpose*, the word too also indicates a problem or difficulty. Look at too
followed by an adverb and for + object and/or the to-infinitive.
for me.
This city grows too rapidly
(for me) to keep up with it.
84
REPORTED PAST PROGRESIVE SPEECH
The past progressive is used to describe an action in the past which was
happening when another action occurred.
Statement with Past Progressive
1st Action 2nd Action

(main clause) (time clause)
Ben was eating dinner when Tom called
In reporting what was said in a past progressive statement or a question,

change the past progressive to the past perfect progressive. The verb in
the time clause remains the same.
Questions
say?
What did Al
tell you?
Reported Speech with Past Perfect Progressive
Al said Ben had been when Tom

(that)
Al told me eating called
Yes/No question with Past Progressive
Was Ben eating when Tom called?
Questions
say?
What did Al
ask you?
if Ben had been

Al asked (me) when Tom called
whether eating
********
Question – Word Questions with Past Progressive
Where was Ben

when Tom called?
What eating
85
Questions
say?
What did Al
ask you?
where Ben had been

Al asked (me) when Tom called
what eating
Enrichment
Elder/eldest are used as replacements of older/oldest, but they can only be

used to imply seniority within a family or social group.
His eldest son came to visit him.

The eldest son is only five years old.
Frank is may elder brother.
Elder cannot be placed before than, so older must be used in this comparison.
Frank is older than I am.
PAINT SOMEONE A PICTURE
Meaning
“Paint someone a picture” is used to express anger or impatience when you
have explained something very clearly to someone and that person does not
understand what you are talking about.
Example Sentences
1. I’ve told you how to complete this assignment at least three times
already. What do you want me to do, paint you a picture?
2. Sgt Olsen already explained to the airmen where they need to
report. They still don’t seem to understand. Does he need to paint
them a picture?
3. The recruits still don’t know what to do. I guess the DI had better
paint them a picture.
SO … (THAT)/SUCH … (THAT)
So … (that) is used with adjectives, adverbs, or noun phrases. (The phrases
86
may have “much” or “many” in them.)

Such … (that) is only used with noun phrases. (The phrases never have
“much” or “many” before the noun.)
SITUATION RESULT
so tall
Jim is (that) he has to bend to enter.
such a tall man
SHOWING EFECT OR RESULT
Note the placement and punctuation of connectives which show effect or

result.
as a result,
thus, he can’t buy a new
Mr. Green lost his job
therefore, car.
consequently,
As a result,
Thus, he can’t buy a new
Mr. Green lost his job
Therefore, car.
Consequently,
ASKING ABOUT DEGREE WITH HOW + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB
How tall is he?

How well does he play the guitar?
REVIEW OF BE – PASSIVE
In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive
verb. The passive is formed with the verb BE + the past participle. The agent may
or may not appear in passive voice sentences.
SUBJECT VERB OBJECT AGENT
Capt Lee helps Lt Reed.
They wash the car
ACTIVE VOICE
Capt Lee helped Lt Reed.
They washed the car
Lt Reed. is helped
by Capt Lee.
The car are washed
PASSIVE VOICE
Lt Reed. was helped
by Capt Lee.
The car were washed
PRESENT PERFECT BE – PASSIVE
87
The present perfect passive is used to indicate an indefinite past action or event.
SUBJECT VERB OBJECT AGENT
ACTIVE VOICE Capt Lee has helped Lt Reed.
They have washed the car
PASSIVE VOICE Lt Reed. has been helped by Capt
The car have been washed. Lee.
CHANGING TO NOUNS
Complete the chart. Add the suffixes – y, - ty, - ity, or – ility to the adjectives to
form abstract nouns. Notice the stress (/) while you repeat the words.
-Y
ADJECTIVE NOUN
/ /
honest honesty
- ty
JECTIVE NOUN
/
certain
/
entire
/
special
/
uncertain
/
loyal
/
safe
- ity
ADJECTIVE NOUN
/
electric
/
formal
/
real
/
personal
/
regular
/
national
88
/
public
/
neutral
/
fatal
/
stupid
/
elastic
/
rigid
/
humid
/
technical
/
senior
/
popular
- ity (silent vowel dropped)

ADJECTIVE NOUN
/
secure
/
creative
/
clear*
/
active
/
severe
/
generous*
- ility (l + silent vowel dropped)
ADJECTIVE NOUN
/
responsible
/
eligible
/
visible
/
able
89
/
sensible
/
flexible
/
probable
/
dependable
/
reliable
/
capable
/
possible
*irregular spelling change
Enrichment
Count Noun vs. Noun – count Noun
Some words can be count nouns or noun – count nouns. When the word
refers to a substance, material, or happening in general, it is considered a
noun – count noun. When it refers to a kind of substance, material, or
happening, or a particular unit made up of that substance, material, or
happening, it is considered a count noun.
non – count noun count noun

There was much activity They planned many activities.
going on.
Some plants need more light Do you have a light?

than others.
Agreement was prevalent We had an agreement.

among the visitors.
Other words which can be used either way include:
art bone brick cake

decision duty fire hair
history honor hope injustice
justice kindness language pain
pleasure science sound space
stone success time thought
virtue war worry
90
UPTIGHT
Meaning
Very anxious, worried, or nervous
Example sentences:
1. I’m really uptight about the English test.
2. Alex was uptight about getting married.
3. Relax. Don’t get so uptight about meeting your girlfriend’s family.
RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
A restrictive adjective clause modifies a noun by describing or giving additional

information about that noun. It always directly follows the noun to which it
relates. Since it follows so closely, this clause frequently separates the noun
from the verb.
Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns that/which/who

and relate to the subject of the clause. In this type of structure, the clause is
linked to part or all of the main clause.
S V
The book is on the table. It is interesting.
The book that is on the table is interesting.
S V
The movie was on TV yesterday. It made me cry.
The movie which was on TV yesterday made me cry.
S V
The man is my neighbor. He is very tall.
The man who is my neighbor is very tall.
MORE RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns who(m)/

which/that and relate to the object of the clause. The relative pronouns may be
omitted.
S V O
The woman was beautiful. I met her in the library.
The woman (who(m)* I met in the library was beautiful.
S V O
The course is very difficult. I am takingit this semester.
91
The course (which) I’m taking this semester is very difficult.
S V O
The wallet belongs to Larry. Mark found it in the
lab.
The wallet (that) Mark found in the lab belongs to Larry.
*NOTE: In informal English, who is often used as an object pronoun.
WHERE/WHEN USED AS RELATIVE ADVERBS
Some adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverb where/when

and relate to the place or time.
I prefer the French restaurant. We ate there last week.

I prefer the French restaurant where we ate last week.
Do you remember the night? We ran out of gas.

Do you remember the night when we ran out of gas?
WHOSE IN RESTRECTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Another restrictive adjective clause is introduced by the relative adjective

whose. It is used to show possession and replaces the possessive adjectives
in combined sentences. It comes directly after the noun to which it relates and
almost always refers to people.
Last night, we met a man. His wife was born in Australia.

Last night, we met a man whose wife was born in Australia.
The people are being transferred. We’re buying their house.

The people whose house we’re buying are being transferred.
PAST PERFECT BE – PASSIVE

The past perfect passive is used to indicate an action or event which occurred
before another action or event un the past.* Note that passive voice changes
occur only in the main clause of the statement.
MAIN CLAUSE TIME
VOICE SUBJECT VERB OBJECT EXPRESSION
ACTIVE John had
PASSIVE The report finished
the report. before Al left
had been
finished.
*
3:00 4:00 6:00
The report was finished. Al left the office. now.
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ANTICIPATORY IT + GERUND
A gerund is frequently used as the subject of a sentence.
Traveling to Europe this summer will be exciting.

Not buying a new car was a big mistake.
Sometimes the gerund is used in a sentence with an anticipatory it

construction. The it and the gerund phrase mean the same thing.
It’ll be exciting traveling to Europe this summer.

It was a big mistake not buying a new car.
The pattern used in these sentences is:
It + Be + noun/adjective + gerund phrase
NONREFERENTIAL THERE + GERUND
There + Be means something exists. It can sometimes be followed by a

gerund phrase.
There was yelling and screaming at the football game.

There will be celebrating after the graduation.
There is no smoking in this building.
Enrichment
Fixed propositional phrases
There are several propositional phrases which are fixed. Below are some
which relate to places or institutions and the purposes for attending these.
1. go to/come to bed = to sleep

The children have a already gone to bed.
2. be in/stay in bed = for rest

Doctor: If you want to feel better, you need to stay in bed until your fever
is gone.
3. get out of bed = after resting/sleeping

I don’t like getting out of bed in the winter.
4. go to/come to school = to study

Henry is going to school.
5. be at breakfast/at dinner/at the table = having a meal
They’re at breakfast.
6. be in class = attending or teaching a class
93
Mr. Edwards is in class.
7. go to/be at church = for worship

Many people go to church on Sunday.
8. be at/go home = in one’s own house

We’re going home.
9. go into/be in the hospital = for medical treatment

She’s going into the hospital tomorrow.
10. go to/be at the university = for study

He’ll be at the university until May 30.
DO JUSTICE TO
Meaning
To “do justice to” means to treat someone justly, or to appreciate something

properly.
Example sentences
1. Jim certainly does justice to his wife’s excellent coking.

2. This picture looks exactly like you. It really does you justice.
3. John’s test grade doesn’t do him justice. He knows much more than the
score indicates.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE REDUCED TO TO – INFINITIVE PHRASE
Restrictive adjective clauses can be reduced to to – infinitive phrases. For +

noun or pronoun sometimes comes before the to – infinitive phrase.
Roger has a lot (that) he must learn.

Roger has a lot to learn.
Mr. Kent is the man (whom) you should talk to about your taxes. Mr. Kent is
the man to talk to about your taxes.
I bought some snacks (that) we can eat later.

I bought some snacks for us to eat later.
Relative clauses introduced by when and where can also be reduced to to –

infinitive phrases.
Do you know a place (where) I can buy batteries?
94
Do you know a place to buy batteries?

Saturday’s the only day (when) I can do the laundry.
Saturday’s the only day to do the laundry.
I know of a good place (where) you can meet me.

I know of a good place for you to meet me.
GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AFTER BE
The to – infinitive and gerund forms can be used as subject complements after
the verb BE. There are differences in the usage of the two. Subjects which
express duty, advice, purpose, etc., are often followed by infinitives.
Jim’s goal is to learn Russian.

Her purpose in life is to be a good teacher.
His advice was not to fly in this weather.
His favorite sport is swimming.
Her biggest problem is doing her homework.
NOUN CLAUSES AFTER CERTAIN VERBS
A noun clause can be used after certain verbs that express necessity and
requesting. Some of the more common verb are:
advice recommend insist

ask (= request) request order
command suggest urge
“That” can be used to introduce these clauses. It can also be omitted in this
structure. When a noun clause follows one of these verbs, the verb in the
clause has no – s for third person singular and no – ed for past tense. Be is
used instead of is, am, are. We say that the verb is a subjective form.
His mother insisted (that) he be home at eight.

I suggested to John (that) he study for the test.
Mr. Former recommended (that) we not leave today.
Enrichment
Among and Between
Among is used to talk about more than people or things.

We shared the quart of ice cream among the four of us.
Don’t worry about not knowing anyone at the party; you’ll be among friends.
Between is used to talk about only two people or things.

Between the two of us, John and I were able to fix the TV.
Lloyd couldn’t decide between the blue shirt and the white one, so he bought
both of them.
95
Between is also used with two pairs of items.

For lunch, we had a choice between chicken and rice, and soup and salad.
And not or is used between the two items.
Don had to choose between studying and going to a movie.
In informal English, between is sometimes used to talk about more than two
items.
IT’S BEYOND ME
Meaning
When we say that something is “beyond us” we mean that we’re not capable
of understanding it - - it’s beyond our ability to understand.
Example sentences
1. I’m afraid I can’t help you with that math problem. Higher mathematics is
beyond me.
2. Why Harold insists on driving to Florida when he could fly is beyond me.
3. Tina and Ted are always arguing. How they can remain friends is beyond
me.
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BOOK 22
PRESENT PROGRESIVE VS. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
PRESENT PROGRESIVE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Use the present progressive to talk Use the simple present tense to talk
about something that is happening about something that happens all the
now. time.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
1. Look! It’s snowing! 1. It usually snows here in that
2. Excuse me, what are you doing? winter.
3. John and his cousin are jogging 2. What do you do after class
around the block. most of the time?
4. Can you please talk lower? I’m 3. Do you ever jog? Yes, I jog
listening to the radio. every morning.
5. She’s boiling water so she can 4. He often listens to the radio
make tea. after class.
6. Where’s Jack? 5. Water boils at 100 degrees
He’s visiting his mother. Centigrade.
6. Jack visits his mother every
Friday.
REWIEW OF YES/NO QUESTIONS
STATEMENT YES/NO QUESTION

A statement gives some kind of A yes/no question is a simple
information. question which elicits a yes or no
answer. It can begin with forms of do,
forms of be, has/have/had, or modals.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
1. They live in New York. He rides 1. Do they live in New York? Does
a bicycle to work. he ride a bicycle to work?
2. She’s studying French at night. 2. Is she studying French at night?
3. They’ll leave tomorrow. 3. Will they leave tomorrow?
97
4. Linda lost her keys. 4. Did Linda lose her keys? Didn’t
5. They were studying when the she lose her keys?
lights went out. 5. Were they studying when the
6. You should eat. Jack’s made lights went out?
soup. 6. Should we eat? Has Jack made
7. The girls had already eaten soup?
before they got home. 7. Had the girls already eaten
before they got home? Hadn’t
the girls already eaten before
they got home?
PREFIX RE –
The prefix RE – has the meaning of again.
AS IF / AS THOUGH
The conjunctions as if and as though are preferred in formal speech to
introduce an adverb of manner which expresses how someone or something
looks, sounds, smells, feels, or seems. Informally, however, we se “like.”
as if
It smells as though something is burning.
like*
We can also use as if or as though to show how someone does something.
EXAMPLE: Helen speaks as though she knows that subject very well.
Bob always acts as if he’s mad.
Rita reads that story as though she’s written it.
*colloquial or informal speech
SUFFIX – NESS
We can the suffix – ness to some adjectives to make nouns which then
express “the quality or state of being”.
EXAMPLE:
dark/darkness great/greatness
*dizzy/dizziness *happy/happiness
*empty/emptiness ill/illness
eager/eagerness *lazy/laziness
*ready/readiness quick/quickness
*friendly/friendliness sick/sickness
*Note the spelling; change y to i.
Enrichment
98
Subject/verb Agreement with either ….. or / neither ….. nor
When we use the conjunctions either …. or / neither ….nor, the verb of the
sentence agrees with the subject that is closest to it.
Look at the following sentences:
Either my sister or my brother is going to visit him.

Either my brother or my sister are going to help him move.
Neither you nor your friend was helpful.

Neither John nor his friends were there.
A BITTER PILL TO SWALLOW
Meaning
“A bitter pill to swallow” means something that is very difficult or something
that you don’t like to do – like medicine that doesn’t test good, but that you
must take.
Example sentences:
1. He wrecked his friend’s car end had to pay for the repairs. That was a
bitter pill to swallow.
2. He failed his test and didn’t graduate with his friends. That was a bitter pill
to swallow.
NOUN AS OBJECT COMPLEMENT AFTER VERBS OF CHOOISING
In sentences that contain verbs of choosing, considering, and thinking, two

nouns can follow the verb. These two nouns refer to the same person or the
same thing. These sentences may be written different ways.
EXAMPLE:
The players elected Jim as their leader.

The players elected Jim to be their leader.
The players elected Jim their leader.
(Jim = leader)
The commander has declared next Monday as a holiday.

The commander has declared next Monday to be a holiday.
The commander has declared next Monday a holiday.
(next Monday = a holiday)
NOTE: In same sentences, either as or to be can be used, but not both.
99
REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASES
Sentences that contain adjective clauses can be shortened by changing the

adjective clauses to adjective phrases. Either the present or past participle is
used in the phrase.
EXAMPLE:
Cars that are parked on the grass must be moved.

Cars parked on the grass must be moved.
No one who is taking the test may leave the room.
No one taking the test may leave the room.
The meal that is being planned is a special one.
The meal being planned is a special one.
REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO PROPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Sentences that contain adjective clauses with a subject pronoun and the verb
be followed by a propositional phrase or the verb have and a direct object can
be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to propositional phrases.
Adjective clauses that contain have/don’t have are reduced to propositional
phrases containing “with” or “without”.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Subject Prepositional
SUBJECT PREDICATE
pronoun + Phrase
Be/Have
The pay phone that’s on the wall doesn’t work.
The pay phone ----------- on the wall doesn’t work.

The cap that has a star on it is the general’s.
The cap ----------- with a star on it is the general’s.
SEQUENCING MODIFIERS BEFORE NOUNS

Study the columns below. They show the kinds of words that can be used to
describe something and the order in which the words are usually placed.
Determiner Adjective Adjective Noun used Noun head
that tells that gives a that gives a as an - word
which or general physical adjective
how many description description
an exciting soccer match
Mom’s delicious hot apple pie
dangerous narrow mountain roads
their heavy combat boots
the clear blue sky
no major health problems
two interesting new TV programs
eager young college students
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several small state colleges

a dozen cheap white paper plates
Enrichment
Lay/Lie
Lay is verb that means “to place” or “to put”. It is often incorrectly used instead
of lie, which means “to rest” or “to remain in a certain position”.
Use lay when something is happening to a person or a thing.
EXAMPLE:
Please lay the books on the floor.
Ed is laying new carpets in his house.
Stan laid his hand on his son’s shoulder.
Is the new carpet being laid on top of the old one?
Use lie when there is no person or thing receiving the action of the verb.
EXAMPLE:
Why don’t you lie down and take a nap.
The newspaper was lying on the front porch.
The patient lay in his hospital bed for two weeks.
Sue soon realized that she’d lain in the sun too long.
A TIGHT SPOT
Meaning:
“A tight spot” means a difficult situation.
Example Sentences:
1. After Tom finished eating an expensive dinner in the restaurant, he
discovered that he didn’t have enough money to pay for it. He was in a
tight spot.
2. Ann is in a tight spot because her parents don’t like the man she planes
to marry.
3. Sgt Smith found himself in a tight spot when his car ran out of gas in the
middle of the desert.
VERB + THAT – NOUN CLUSE
A clause is a group of words that a subject and a verb and is used as part of a
sentence. There are certain verbs that are followed by that (optional) + noun
clause.
NOUN CLAUSE
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I think (that) I’ll leave tomorrow.
Did you forget (that) John isn’t here today?

The following verbs can be used with noun clauses beginning with “that”:
agree figure out imagine observe
remember
believe find out indicate predicate
say
decide forget know read
tell
discover guess learn realize
think
doubt hear notice regret
understand
feel hope
EMPHATIC DO
When we want to stress or emphasizes an action, we can use do, does,

or did before the verb.
EXAMPLE:
Do you want to play soccer with us this

afternoon?
I don’t play soccer, but I do play tennis.
Does Andy have a class tonight?
Not tonight, but he does have one Monday.
Did you meet my niece last night?
No, but I did meat your nephew.
NOTE: Use the emphatic do sparingly.
SUFFIXES – FUL AND – LESS
We can add the suffixes – ful and – less to some nouns to make
adjectives. The suffixes – ful and less have opposite meanings: - ful
means “ful of or having”; and – less means “without” or “not having”
EXAMPLES: power The general is a very powerful man.

He has a lot of power and authority.
I couldn’t do anything. I felt powerless.
I didn’t have the power to do anything.
car Kay always obeys the traffic laws.

She’s a careful driver.
Gary doesn’t follow traffic laws. She’s
a careless driver.
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We cannot add these suffixes to all nouns to make words with opposite
meanings.
EXAMPLE: friend He’s friendless.

He doesn’t have a friend.
We can’t add – full to “friend.”
Enrichment
Take
We say take when we mean “get,” “have,” “use,” or “do.”
Take a bath or shower.

Take the bus or cab, taxi, train, plane.
Take your medicine.
The nurse will take your temperature with a thermometer.
Take a picture with a camera.
Take a look at this.
Take a seat (Please sit down.)
Take your time. (Don’t hurry; do your work correctly.)
We say take when we mean “tray.”

I’ll take a chance,
We use take for an amount of time or location.

It takes fifteen minutes to drive from here to the airport.
The briefing will take place at 3:00 p.m. in room 308.
We use take when we write something down for the record.

The hotel clerk will take your name and address when you check in to the
hotel.
We use take when we mean “hold” or “accept.”

The gas tank will take more than 15 gallons. (hold)
I won’t take less than $2,000 for this used car. (accept)
This vending machine only takes quarters. (accept)
We say “takes after” when we mean “looks like” or “ acts like.”

Our son takes after his father.
We use take in both polite invitations and angry responses.

Let’s take a walk. (Polite invitation to go walking.)
Take a walk! (Angry response. Go away; you’re bothering me.)
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HIT THE NAIL ON THE HEAD
Meaning
We use the expression “hit the nail on the head” when a person does or
says the correct thing or is exactly right.
Example Sentences
1. You hit the nail on the head when you said the food here was both
delicious and inexpensive.
2. Mr. Jones said I hit the nail on the head when I told him it would rain
today.
3. Captain Smith hit the nail on the head when he said the computer would
save us a lot of time and money.
MODAL REVIEW: CAN/WAS OR WERE GOING TO/BE UNABLE TO/

HAD BETTER
Can is used to show possibility.

Example: You can see the whole city from this tower.
Mark can jog tonight if he finishes work early.
Was/were going to is used to show past intention.
Examples: I was going to call you, but I didn’t have time.
We were going to go to the beach, but it started to rain.
Be unable to is used to show inability or incapability.
Examples: Ed has lost his watch and is unable to find it.
The sound was too low, so we were unable to hear the tape clearly.
Had better is used to give advice.
Examples: We had better call off the soccer game tonight.
It’s starting to rain. You’d better take your umbrella.
GET – PASSIVE
Get – passive is used to refer to an action that happens to something or

someone.
Examples: The house will get finished eventually.

John and Sue got married last Saturday.
Rome didn’t get built in a day.
Larry has gotten accepted by Smith University.
IDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PERFECT
A present perfect tense in direct speech should be changed to the past

perfect in indirect speech.
EXAMPLES:
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Have you ever been to Paris, Paul?

No, I’ve never been there.
(later)
What did Pam ask you?
She asked if I had ever been to Paris.
I haven’t finished this report?

Has Kirk finished his report?
No, he said he didn’t finished it yet.
Haw many times have you seen this movie?
I’ve seen it four times. I really like it.
(later)
Rick, what did Lee ask you?
He asked how many times I’d seen the movie.
Enrichment
Accept/Except
Accept and except have different meaning but are sometimes confused with
one another because they sound almost alike.
Accept means “to take” or “to receive.”
Please accept my congratulations.

Roger can either accept the assignment or retire.
The waiter gladly accepted George’s generous tip.
Except may be used in two ways. It can have the meaning “to leave out,” or it
can mean “but” or “excluding*.”
The TI won’t except us from taking the test.

Has the judge excepted anyone from jury duty?
The military excepts women from serving in combat.
Everyone except Edgar voted for Edward.

Ed ate everything on his plate except the eggs.
Except for a brief storm, the weather was beautiful.
*excluding = not including

BITE THE BULLET
Meaning:
105
“Bite the bullet” means to accept with courage the prospect of an unpleasant
or difficult situation.
Example Sentences:
1. I borrowed my Dad’s car, and I had a small accident. He’s going to be

mad. I guess I’ll just bite the bullet and tell him.
2. We’re going to have to cut down on spending. In fact, we’re going to have
to eat out less often. You may to bite the bullet an look for job.
3. Sgt Leno doesn’t want to go through combat training again. However, it’s
required, so she’ll have to bite the bullet and do it.
BOOK 23
PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES AS NOUN MODIFIERS
A participle is a verb form which can be used either in a verb phrases or as an

adjective. The present participle ends in – ing. The past participle ends in – ed,
-d, -t, -n or –en.
EXAMPLES: The water which is boiling produces steam.

(present participle used in a verb phrase)
Boiling water produces steam.
(present participle used as an adjective)
He opened the envelope which had better sealed. (past

participle used in a verb phrase)
He opened the sealed envelope. (past participle used as

an adjective)
In a participle –noun combination, the noun receives the primary stress (/), and
the participle receives the secondary stress (^).
^ /
EXAMPLES: We walked for a mile in the pouring RAIN.
^ /
The bank will return your cancelled CHECKS.
REVIEW OF QUESTION – WORD QUESTION
Question – word questions are used to ask for specific information, such as a
time, a name, a location, or a reason. They begin with one of the “question
words”: who, whom, which, what, where, why, and how.
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EXAMPLES: Where’s the party?

Who’s invited?
How many people will be there?
What time does the entertainment start?
When are you going?
PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES AS OBJECTIVE COMPLIMENTS
A present or past participle can be used after a direct object to modify the
direct object. The direct object and participle will follow the verb catch,
discover, find, keep, or leave. (Note: The verb catch does not ordinarily take a
past participle as a compliment.)
A present participle is used when the direct object performs an action. A past
participle is used when the direct object receives the action.
SUBJECT VERB DIRECT PARTICIPLE

OBJECT
We found the other quests waiting for us.
He kept his fear or hidden.
heights
Enrichment
Get
We use get every day in many common expressions.
1. Could you get some coffee? (bring)

2. I got a package from today. (received)
3. Can you get Europe on your shortwave radio? (receive)
4. She’s getting sick; I think she has a fever. (becoming)
5. When will we get to New York? (arrive)
6. I got Fred to help me move the refrigerator. (influenced)
7. He’s nice when you get to know him. (succeed in)
8. Come on, Dad; we never get to go to the movies! (permission)
9. We’ll have to get our own lunch; Mom’s sick. (prepare)
10. He didn’t get what I meant. (understand)
11. Her loud gum chewing really gets to me! (annoys)
12. I got a bull’s-eye! (I hit the center of the target!)
13. She has to get her car fixed. (have something done)
14. Maybe you can get a blanket from Joe. (borrow)
15. He got his leg broken in the accident. (experienced)
16. Get off my back! (angry response: Don’t bother me anymore!)
17. Get lost! Get out here! (angry response: Go away!)
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FULL STEAM AHEAD
Meaning:
“Full steam ahead” means to proceed using a lot of force and energy.
Example Sentences:
1. Jack couldn’t wait any longer and proceeded full steam ahead with his
plan to open a new store.
2. Sometimes, people go full steam ahead on a project and then have to
slow down.
3. Are you slow and cautious, or do you like to do things full steam ahead?
REVIEW OF THE IMPERATIVE FORM

The second person imperative is used to give commands, instructions, and
directions. The simple form of the verb (the bare infinitive) is used. The
negative imperative is formed with do not or don’t.
ANSWER THE PHONE

Answer the phone, please.
Don’t move the victim.
(You)
Go two blocks straight
ahead.
ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME
Adverb clauses of time show the chronological relationship of one action to

another. They usually modify the verb of the main clause but can also modify
the whole sentence. Most follow the main clause and are not separated from it
by a comma.
EXAMPLE: Please lock the door when you leave.

Other precede the main clause and are followed by a comma.
EXAMPLE: When you leave, please lock the door.

Adverb clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: as, after,
before, now that, until, when, while, whenever, since, and as soon as.
As you read these examples, notice the tenses of the verbs in the main and
adverb clauses.
Time Expressed Verb in Main Clause Verb in Time Clause
1. present: simple present/imperative simple present

We select the candy we want before we pull the handle.
108
Don’t stop this procedure until the doctor comes.
2. present: simple present/imperative present progressive

Make some tea now that the water is boiling.
They can read their letters now that the children are sleeping
3. future: future/future equivalent simple present

She’ll read a magazine after she washes her clothes.
We’ll eat as soon as John arrives.
I plan to eat lunch after I wash the car.
4. past: past progressive simple past

He was waiting at the corner when the light turned green.
They were playing soccer when I come home.
5. past: simple past past progressive

It rained for about an hour while (when) we were fishing.
He played the guitar while she was dancing.
6. past: past progressive past progressive

John was singing as (while) he was driving to work.
We were thinking of home as (while) we were looking at the pictures.
7. past: simple past simple past

Last winter, Linda caught a cold whenever anyone sneezed in her
direction.
Tom jumped whenever (when) the drill sergeant yelled at him.
8. past: present perfect/past perfect simple past

I haven’t talked to him since he came home.
I had forgotten Ellen until I ran into her at the mall.
He had refused to believe it until (before) he saw it on TV.
THE GERUND AS A NOUN MODIFIER
A gerund is a verbal noun ending in –ing. It can be used before another noun
to describe that noun’s purpose.
EXAMPLE: a fishing boat = a boat for fishing
In gerund – noun combination, the gerund receives the primary stress (/); the
other noun receives a weaker stress called third stress (\).
/ \
EXAMPLE: typing paper = paper for typing
Enrichment
These verbs are always followed by gerunds.
admit consider deny risk finish
109
avoid appreciate mind enjoy dislike

stop*
*except when “stop” is followed by an infinitive or purpose
A gerund is a verb with an “-ing” ending which is used as a noun.
EXAMPLE: Ed likes swimming.
A gerund is also sometimes used in noun compounds.
EXAMPLE: He goes to the swimming pool when he can’t get to the beach.
eating fish at Tony’s Seafood Restaurant.

going to the movies every Friday night.
She enjoys dancing at the Officers Club.
speaking American English.
listening to any kind of music.
watching the news on TV.
riding her horse in the country.
opening the window for me, please?

closing the door when you leave?
answering the phone when I’m at lunch?
Do you mind not smoking? This is the nonsmoking area.
holding the baby for a few minutes?
doing the dishes?
Carrying the groceries upstairs?
STEADY AS A ROCK
Meaning:
This phrase means that a person is very dependable and reliable or that
something doesn’t move because it is heavy and solid.
Example sentences:
1. You can depend on Tom to do the job. He’s as study as a rock.

2. That table is as steady as a rock.
3. When he fired the pistol, his hand was steady as a rock..
PROPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION
110
Propositions which indicate place or location:
at beside near over

above between next to throughout
among in on under
behind in back of on top of underneath
below in front of opposite
beneath inside
Propositions which indicate direction of movement:
around from on through

as far as in onto to
away from into out (of) toward(s)
down off past up
THE SUFFIX –WARD
The suffix –ward(s) is used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate a
direction in time or space.
EXAMPLE: northward, southward, eastward, westward, upward(s),

downward(s), backward(s)
THE SUFFIX –ERN
The suffix –ern indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a certain

direction. It is added to nouns to form adjectives.
EXAMPLES: northern, southern, eastern, western
INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
When a statement or question in the present perfect progressive tense is

reported, two changes occur:
1. The tense of the verb changes from the present perfect progressive to the
past perfect progressive.
EXAMPLES: Jim said, “Ann has been teaching French.”

Jim said that Ann had been teaching French.
Jan asked, ”Have you been working here long, Ed?”

Jan asked Ed if he had been working here long.
111
2. First and second person pronouns change to the third person (unless
someone is reporting his own words).
EXAMPLES: Ken said, “I’ve been trying to lose weight.”

Ken told me that he had been trying to lose weight.
Kay said, “I’ve been trying to reach you, Jan.”

I told Jan I had been trying to reach her.
Verb in the sentence originally Verb in the sentence that tells what
spoken: was said:
have/has been _________ ing had been __________ ing
hasn’t/haven’t been ______ing hadn’t been ________ ing
Enrichment
Fewer and Less
Use fewer before plural count nouns.

Use less before noncount nouns.
There are fewer women then men in the marines.

This week we have lees time for studying.
There are fewer bicycles on the highway today.
I’m trying to use less sugar in my coffee.
TO KEEP ONE’S FINGERS CROSSED
Meaning:
To “keep one’s fingers crossed” means to wish for good luck.
Example sentences:
1. Keep your fingers crossed that I’ll pass the test.
2. I’m keeping my fingers crossed that I’ll get the job.
3. Cross your fingers that I win the race.
THE PREFIX PRE-
The prefix pre- indicates an action or condition which happens or comes

before another action or condition. When a word begins with the same letters
as the prefix, a hyphen is usually placed before the word.
USING SHOULD, OUGHT TO, AND SHOULD HAVE TO EXPRESS

EXPECTANCY
Should and ought to are used to express what we suppose is happening now
or will probably happen in the future.
112
EXAMPLES: I mailed the package yesterday.

You should get it tomorrow.
We ordered dinner 20 minute ago.

The waiter ought to be bring our food soon.
Should have is used to express expectations about actions or conditions in the

past.
EXAMPLE: The flight left Miami on schedule.

It should have already landed in New York.
REVIEW OF ADVERBS OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree are used to emphasize or limit adjectives or other adverbs.

The following adverbs or degree are placed in front of the word they modify.
a little entirely much scarcely

absolutely extremely nearly so
almost fairly only somewhat
awfully far quite such a(n)
barely hardly rather too
completely just really very
On adverb of degree differs from these: Enough follows the adjective or adverb
it modifies.
EXAMPLES: I though the test was fairly easy.

Al found the exam extremely difficult.
He must not have studied hard enough.
The students did rather well on their tests this morning.
SUFIXES – ANCE/-ENCE
The suffixes –ance and –ence can be added to verbs to form nouns which
name an act, condition, or quality.
EXAMPLE: accept + -ance = acceptance
(the act of accepting)
exist + -ence = existence

(the condition of existing)
Enrichment
No, nothing, none
The words no, nothing, and none should not be used in a sentence that has
another negative word.
113
Correct: I didn’t have time to finish the test.

Incorrect: I didn’t have no time to finish the test.
Correct: I wasn’t doing anything when you called.

Incorrect: I wasn’t doing nothing when you called.
Correct: I don’t have any.

Incorrect: I don’t have none.
IDIOME AND EXPRESSIONS
ON/OF TARGET
Meaning
“On target” means correct. This expression is used when talking about
problems or ideas.
“Off target” means wrong or away from the main idea.
EXAMPLES:
1. The colonel’s briefing on changing strategies was really on target. We
have to change strategies if we want to succeed.
2. My answer was really off target. I thought he was talking about an
electrical conductor, not a musical conductor.
114
BOOK 24
THE GERUND AS DIRECT OBJECT
Some verbs in English are followed by a gerund or a gerund phrase. The

gerund is the verb form which ends in –ing. The gerund is used as a noun.
TYPE OF
SUBJECT VERB GERUND (PHRASE)
SENTENCE
Affirmative I put off studying until today.
She practices speaking English every
They considered day.
inviting Mary.
Negative I don’t like
He doesn’t miss wearing glasses.
They don’t mind being with his family.
helping the police.
I like
She regrets not wearing glasses.
They deny not being with her family.
not helping the police.
Interrogative Do you like
Did he continue playing the guitar?
Can they begin studying French?
working on the report
now?
This is a partial list of verbs which can be following by a gerund.
allow enjoy postpone resist
anticipate escape practice start
appreciate finish put off stop
begin imagine quit suggest
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can’t help keep recall tolerate

consider like recommend
understand
continue mind regret
deny miss remember
discuss permit report
THE SUFFIX –FY/-IFY

The suffix –fy or –ify is added to some nouns and adjectives to make verbs.
The suffix expresses the meaning of “to make or become”. *Note the spelling
changes.
EXAMPLES:
*beauty/beautify *glory/glorify *pure/purify

class/classify just/justify *simple/simplify
*clear/clarify *liquid/liquefy solid/solidify
*electric/electrify person/personify *terror/terrify
*false/falsify
REDUCING AN ADVERB CLAUSE OF TIME TO A MODIFING PHRASE
An adverb clause of time is introduced by conjunctions such as after, before,

since, until, when, whenever, and while. It can be reducing to a modifying
phrase if the subject of the main clause and the subject of the adverb clause of
time are the same. This is done by omitting the subject of the adverb clause
and by changing the verb in the adverb clause to the –ing form. If the verb BE
is present in the adverb clause, it’s also omitted (*).
EXAMPLES:
I feel sleepy whenever I study after dinner.
I feel sleepy whenever studying after dinner.
Before we opened the door, we heard a loud noise.

Before opening the door, we heard a loud noise.
Could you walk after you fell off the horse?

Could you walk after falling off the horse?
While you were* in Germany, did you hear the news?

While in Germany, did you hear the news?
ENRICHMENT
LITTLE/FEW
Little can mean small in amount (not much). It modifies only mass nouns.
EXAMPLES: I have little time to spend in Chicago.
116
There is little traffic on the road this morning.

She has little money in the bank.
There is little work left to do.
Few means small in number (not many). It modifies only count nouns.
EXAMPLES: There are few people who have climbed that mountain.
She has few friends in this city.
There are few pilots stationed at this base.
We have few doctors available for duty right now.
HAVE ONE’S HANDS FULL
Meaning
To “have one’s hands full” means being extremely busy or having too many
jobs and/or responsibilities.
Examples sentences:
1. Mary just accepted her fifth assignment to be turned in on Monday.

She really has her hands full.
2. There were many injuries from that train crash. The doctors and
nurses had their hands full.
3. Joan went on an unexpected business trip and had to leave her
husband in change of the house and their six children. He certainly
had his hands full.
THE PREFIX CO-
Co- prefix which has meaning of “joint” and “together with”. Sometimes co-
appears as com-, con-, or cool- like in the words compress, contain, and
collect.
ONE USE OF THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear
before the verb. It can be made negative by placing the word not before the
gerund. If there’s a subject of the gerund, it must be in the possessive* form.
EXAMPLES:
Eating too much candy is bad for your teeth.
Not getting enough sleep will make you feel tired at work.
Johnny’s* fast driving caused him to lose his license.
ANOTHER USE OF THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear
after the verb in an anticipatory-it construction.
EXAMPLES:
117
It’s been a pleasure meeting you.

(means the same as)
Meeting you has been a pleasure.
It hasn’t been fun climbing this mountain.

(means the same as)
Climbing this mountain hasn’t been fun.
ONE MORE USE OT THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase may by as the object of a preposition. It can be
made negative by placing the word not before the gerund. If there’s a subject
of the gerund, it must be in the possessive* form.
EXAMPLES:
Thank you for being friend.
We were happy about not having homework.
When he spoke to the soldiers, the colonel insisted on their* standing at
attention.
TAG QUESTION
Tag question are short question which are attached to statements. Affirmative
statements have negative tag questions. Negative statements have affirmative
tag questions.
Tag questions can have a rising intonation or a falling intonation. Each kind of
intonation expresses something different. Tag questions with a rising intonation
are used to seek confirmation – the speaker is not certain about the
information. Tag questions with a falling intonation are used to seek agreement
– the speaker is certain about the information and wants you to agree with
him.
SUBJUNCTIVE THAT NOUN CLAUSE AFTER ANTICIPATORY –IT
A noun clauses which follows an anticipatory –it construction has the verb in
the subjunctive mood.
Anticipatory -it Subjunctive noun clause
It’s Adjective (that) I be on time
advisable you do the work.
best he not fail the exam.
better she remain in class.
compulsory the book be studied.
critical we report to the chief.
essential they go to the meeting.
important
mandatory
necessary
required
118
urgent
ENRICHMENT
Expressions Preceding –ING Verbs
The following expressions always precede –ING verbs:
Be busy
Be worth
Be no use
Have fun
Have trouble
Have difficulty
Have a hard time
Have a good time
Have a difficult time
Spend + expression of time
Stand + expression of place
Sit + expression of place
Lie + expression of place
EXAMPLES:
We are busy studying the lesson.
It’s not worth talking to him. He doesn’t want to listen.
There’s no use turning on the lights. The power is off.
John had fun playing tennis.
Major Keel has trouble speaking English.
Jeff had difficulty in finding a place to live.
They had a hard time opening the window.
Ron and Roy had a good time watching the movie.
I’m having a difficult time pronouncing the words correctly.
Ken spent 2 hours practicing football.
We stood in the line waiting for the food.
Wally sat at the table reading a book.
Debbie is lying on the floor watching TV.
IDOMS AND EXPRESIONS
GO FLY A KITE
Meaning
To “go fly a kit” means to go away or leave. You say this when someone is
bothering you, and you want his or her to leave.
Examples:
1. She bothered me with her continues talking, so I finally told her to go
fly a kit.
119
2. The salesman bothered Ted so much that he finally told him to go fly
a kit.
3. When I asked her for a date, she told me to go fly a kit.
TENSES INDICATING FUTURE
A future action or condition is expressed with will or be going to. When there’s
certainty about a future action, the simple present tense or the present
progressive may also be used. Time expressions often accompany these last
tenses to clarify time.
will depart
The train is going to depart at 2:30 p.m.
departs
is departing
TO – INFINITIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT
An infinitive is the word to + the simple form of a verb. An infinitive may be

used as a noun. In the pattern illustrated below, an infinitive or an infinitive
phrases is used as a direct object. Note the negative form of the phrase.
Direct Object
Subject Verb
Infinitive Phrase
Mr. Crane likes to go to the movies.
Jerry is planning to cook dinner tonight.
The students will need to do their homework.
Louise has decided not to watch TV.
Monty promised not to spend all his
The men agreed money.
not to fight.
This is partial list of verbs which are followed by an infinitive. The verbs with an
asterisk (*) may also be followed by a gerund or gerund phrase.
afford choose hesitate offer seem

agree continue* hope plan* start*
aim decide intend* prefer* tend
appear demand learn prepare threaten
arrange determine like* proceed try*
ask expect love* promise volunteer
attempt* fail manage refuse wait
begin* forget* mean* regret* want
bother happen need* remember* wish
care hate* neglect* request
120
PASTE PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IN INDIRECT

SPEECH
When direct speech with a past perfect or past perfect progressive tense is
changed to indirect speech,
1) The tense doesn’t change
2) “that” may be added (it’s optional)
3) personal pronouns and progressive adjectives change, for example, “you”
may be changed to “me”, “your” to “my”
4) in questions, the word order changes from question to statement
(verb/subject order)
5) in yes/no questions, add “if” or “whether”
DIRECT Ed: I’d worked in a bank before I came to this job.
Ann: I’d been swimming before Sam called.

SPEECH
Ron: Where had Kim studied English before she came here?
Pam: Had you met Mr. Wong before?

INDIRECT Ed said (that) he’d worked in bank before he came to this job.
Ann said she’d been swimming before Sam called.

SPEECH
Ron asked where Kim had studied English before she came
here.
Pam asked me if/whether I had met Mr. Wong before.
ENRICHMENT
Advice/Advise
Advice and advise are sometimes confused with one another because they
look and sound almost alike.
Advice is a noun which means a “recommendation” or a “opinion” given by one

person to another person on how to act or behave.
EXAMPLES: I asked the teacher for his advice on improving my

pronunciation.
The advice he gave me was very helpful.
My mother gave me advice about raising children.
Advise is a verb which means “to given advice” to someone.
EXAMPLES: Can you advise me where to buy a good used car?

The doctor advised me to stop smoking.
We were advised to study hard for the test.
121
STAND OUT IN A CROWD
Meaning
To “stand out in a crowd” means to call attention to oneself.
Example Sentences:
1. At the military graduation ceremony, the graduate out of uniform stood out
in a crowd.
2. Because of his extreme height, my roommate stands out in any crowd.
3. Linda is so beautiful that she stands out in a crowd.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: SOME-, ANY- AND NO- COMPOUNDS
The indefinite pronouns something, someone, somebody, anything, anyone,

and anybody can be used in questions.
EXAMPLES:
Did Al put something in his car?
Did you see someone/somebody in the lab?
Would you like anything to drink?
Did you speak to anyone/anybody about your problem?
The indefinite pronouns something, someone, somebody, anything, anyone,

anybody, nothing, no one, and nobody can be used in affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLES:
Ed put something in his desk.
I saw someone/somebody in the library.
You may choose anything you want from the men.
Anyone/anybody in that office can help you.
Nothing you say will change my mind.
No one/nobody wants to do the assignment.
The indefinite pronouns anything, anyone, and anybody can be used in

negative sentences.
EXAMPLES:
Joe didn’t bring anything to wear for cold weather.
I don’t want anyone/anybody to know I’m leaving.
INDEFINITE ADVERBS: SOME-, ANY-, AND NO- COMPOUNDS
The indefinite adverbs someplace, somewhere, anyplace, and anywhere can

be used in questions.
EXAMPLES:
Would you like to go someplace/somewhere after dinner?
122
Are you going anyplace/anywhere this weekend?
The indefinite adverbs someplace, somewhere, anyplace, anywhere, no place,

and nowhere can be used in affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLES:
John went someplace/somewhere this morning.
Sit down anyplace/anywhere when the show begins.
Ed’s going no place/nowhere during his vacation.
The indefinite adverbs anyplace and anywhere can be used in negative

sentences.
EXAMPLES:
I feel ill, so I won’t go anyplace/anywhere tonight.
VERBS OF PERCEPTION + BARE INFINITIVE OR PRESENT PARTICIPLES
Certain verbs of perception and their objects are followed by the bare infinitive
(the simple verb form without “to”) or the present participle (the –ing form of
the verb). The bare infinitive is used to emphasize completion of the action.
The present participle is used to emphasize the duration of the action.
These verbs follow the pattern:
feel look at observe *smell

hear notice see watch
listen to
*The verb smell can be used only with the present participle form.
EXAMPLES:
We saw him run/running across the field.
I didn’t hear Bill knock/knocking at the door.
Did you notice the doctor go/going into the room?
Can’t you smell the cookies baking in the kitchen?
THE SUFFIXES –ENT/-ANT
We can be add the suffixes –ent/-ant to some verbs to make adjectives. They
express “that has, shows, or does.”
EXAMPLES:
-ent -ent
absorb/absorbent assist/assistant
*converge/convergent *observe/observant
depend/dependent *please/pleasant
differ/different *rely/reliant
*excel/excellent resist/resistant
123
insist/insistent *tolerate/tolerant
*neglect/negligent
*NOTE the spelling change.

ENRICHMENT
A few/A little vs. Few/Little
A few and a little focus on the presence of something – even if it’s only in a
small amount. Few and little focus on the absence of something – they’re
equivalent to: not many and not much.
EXAMPLES:
They offered us a little help. (some)

They offered us little help (not much)
There are a few seats left. (several, maybe 5 or 6)

There are few seats left (not many, maybe 2 or 3)
A few/ a little show a positive view:
Few/little show a negative view:
OVER ONE’S HEAD
Meaning
“Over one’s head” means beyond someone’s understanding or too difficult.
Example Sentences
1. Max shouldn’t have taken physics in his firs year of school. The subject is
over his head.
2. While the teacher explained. Lee stood there confused. It went over his
head.
3. The little boy was bored at the opera because it was over his head.
124

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AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

I'M A STUDENT. YOU'RE A TEACHER. BILL'S A PILOT.

I am a pilot. I'm a pilot.

You are a barber. You're a barber.

WHAT AM I? WHAT ARE YOU? WHAT'S BETTY?

You are a teacher. What Are you?

THEY'RE NOT DOCTOR. THEY'RE MECHANIC.

THEY AREN'T PILOTS

ARE THEY STUDENTS?

ARE YOU A STUDENT?

IS THAT YOUR PENCIL? NO, IT ISN'T.

Is this a pen? Yes, it is. No he's/she's

ARE YOU A STUDENT? YES, I'M A STUDENT.

IS THE BOY VERY ANRGY?

WHERE'S YOUR FRIEND?

THIS IS OUR CLASSROOM.

WHOSE MONEY IS THIS?

THIS IS BETTY'S BOOK.

THEY'RE LISTENING TO THE TEACHER.

ARE YOU EATING?

Tom and Bob do not at noon.

The boys watch television. Do you get up early?

I HAVE A BOOK. SHE HAS A RADIO.

WHAT DOES TOM STUDY?

HOW OFTEN DO YOU SPEAK ENGLISH?

WHO WAS IN THE NAVY LAST YEAR?

WHERE WERE YOU LAST NIGHT?

Spelling : verb+ed = simple past

NEGATIVE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

RANK + LAST NAME

SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE

THERE IS / THERE ARE

I HAVE A LOT OF MONEY.

a boy a girl a men a woman

HOW MANY …? HOW MUCH …?

WE HAVE TO GO TO THE LAB.

ED THINKS IT WILL COST LOTS OF MONEY.

Ed thinks the car will cost a lot of money.

ME, HIM, HER, THEM, US

SOMETHING, ANYTHING, NOTHING

DIRECT OBJECT INDIRECT OBJECT

INDIRECT OBJECT DIRECT OBJECT

DO YOU ALSO SPEAK FRENCH?

SIMILAR AND OPPOSITE

big +g(er) bigger

How old are you? I'm twenty years old.

BOB IS GOING TO ARRIVE AT 4:30

WHAT ARE YOU GOIN TO DO?

JOHN WANTS TO PLAY VOLLEYBALL

RAY NEEDS TO BUY A NEW CAR

THE SOFA IS HEAVIER THAN THE CHAIR

*** big large sad -er than

clear low slow

angry happy preaty

CHICAGO HAS THE TALLEST BUILDINGS

WHEN ARE YOU GOIN TO SEE MAJOR WILLIAMS?

TELL LT JONES THAT I'LL SEE HIM AT THE LIBRARY

AL'S TIRED BECAUSE HIS HAD A LONG TRIP

I spent it all yesterday.

I spent it all yesterday.

THE BREAD SMELLS GOOD (linking verbs)