THE GRAMMAR ENGLISH PHASE OF THE ALC CONSISTS OF FIVE PROGRESSIVE

LEVELS PROFICIENCY TRAINING FOR BOOKS 1-30, RECOMMENDED FOR

STUDENTS THAT WHERE FINISHED THE ALC OR OTHERS ENGLISH COURSES.

BOOK ONE-GRAMMAR

1. IT’ S A BOOK

a book
It Is a pen
a pencil

It + is = It’s
a book
It’s a pen
a pencil

2. WHAT IS THIS ?

What is this ?

What + is = what’s

What’s this? It’s a book

3. WHAT IS THIS? WHAT IS THAT?

this? (when the object is near your position,

What’s even you can touch it )

that? (the object is far from your position).

4. THIS IS A TABLE THESE ARE TABLES (near)

THAT IS A CHAIR THOSE ARE CHAIRS (far)

5. I’M A STUDENT YOU’RE ATEACHER BILL’S A PILOT

a student
I am a pilot
a doctor

I + am = I’m
a student
I’m a pilot
a doctor

a teacher
You are a barber
a cook

1
 You + are = you’re

a teacher
You’re a barber
a cook

Bill is pilot

Bill + is = Bill’s

Bill’s a pilot.

6. WHAT ARE YOU? WHAT AM I? WHAT’S BETTY?

I am a teacher am I?
You are a student what are You ?
Betty is a mechanic is Betty ?

7. HE IS A TEACHER. SHE IS A DOCTOR.

Bill + is Bill’s
He + is -- He’s a pilot
Betty + is Betty’s
She + is-- She’s a doctor

THEY’RE DOCTORS.

She is a doctor
He is a doctor
They are doctors.

doctors.
They + are---- They’re pilots.
barbers.

WE’RE STUDENTS.

She is A student
I am a student.
We Are Students.

doctors
We + are----- We’ re pilots
barbers

YOU’RE MECHANICS.

She is a mechanic.
You are a mechanic.
You are mechanics.

doctors
You + are----- You’ re pilots
barbers

2
8. THEY’RE NOT DOCTORS. THEY’RE MECHANICS.

I’m
He’s pilot
She’s Not a doctor.
Bill’s student.
You’re

We’re
Bill and I are doctors.
They’re not teachers.
Mr. and Mrs. Jones are students.
You’re

9. THEY AREN’T PILOTS.

He
She Is not--- isn’t a barber
You
We Are not-- aren’t barbers.
They

10. ARE THEY TEACHERS?

It
This a desk
That is a doctor .
She a pilot
He
He
She a barber
Is This a teacher ?
That a book
It
Those desks
These are doctors .
They pilots
These teachers
Are Those barbers ?
They desks

11. ARE YOU A STUDENT?

Am I a student ?
He a pilot ?
Is She a mechanic ?
Bill a teacher ?
It
a book ?
You a mechanic ?
Are You students ?
We pilots ?
they mechanics?

12. IS THAT YOUR PENCIL? NO, IT ISN’T.

IS THIS/THAT A PEN? Yes, It is / No, isn’t/it’s not..

3
 IS HE/SHE A DOCTOR? Yes, he/she is/..No, he/she isn’t ..or. No,
he’s/she’s not.

ARE YOU A STUDENT? Yes, I am/No, I’m not.

ARE THESE/THOSE PENCILS? Yes, they are/No, they’re not..or..No, they

aren’t.

ARE THEY/WE/YOU STUDENTS? Yes, they/we/you are/No,

they’re/we’re/you’re not..or.No,they/we/you aren’t..

13. ARE YOU A STUDENT? Yes, I’m a student./ no, I’m not a student.

Question Long Answer

IS SHE A TEACHER? Yes, she’s a teacher/ no, she’s not.or..she isn’t a

teacher.
IS THIS A PEN? Yes, this is a pen/no, this isn’t a pen.
ARE THEY DOCTORS? Yes, they’re not..or..no, they aren’t doctors.

14. ON/IN/UNDER.

THE TELEPHONE IS ON THE DESK/ THE BREAD IS IN THE BASKET. THE BOX
IS UNDER THE BASKET
BOOK 2 – GRAMMAR

1. FIVE CHILDREN (IRREGULAR PLURAL)

A man------ eight men

A child------ five children
A box ------- ten boxes
A penny---- five pennies
A family---- two families
A woman--- three women

2. HIS BROTHER ISN’T YOUNG.

cold.
Mr. Wilson hot.
He/She old.
The child happy.
My father Is tired.
Her sister Is not (very) well.
His brother Isn’t sad.
Mrs. Wilson young.

4
 Miss Adams angry.
Ms. Bates sick

3. IS BILL TIRED ?

Bill
Sue Is Tired.
The student
Bill
Is The student Tired?
Sue
You
The children are Sick.
They
We
You
Are The children Sick?
They
we

4. IS THE BOY VERY ANGRY ?

Happy?
Angry?
He/she Old?
The boy Hot?
Is The woman (very) Cold?
The man Young?
The child Sad?
Sick?
Well?
Tired?

5. BETTY AND TED ARE TEACHERS. BILL AND BOB ARE TIRED.

 Bob is a student. Susan is a student, too ------ Bob and Susan are
students.
 Mary is sick. I’m sick, too. ------ Mary and
I are sick.
 Betty is a pilot. Ted is a pilot, too. ------ Betty and
Ted are pilots.
 Linda is very young. John is very young, too. ------ Linda and John
are very young.
 Bill is hot. Joe is hot, too. ------ Bill and
Joe are hot.

6. JOHN IS A PILOT AND KEN IS A MECHANIC.

 You are a student. I’m a teacher. What are you and I? ---- I’m
a student and you’re a teacher.
 He’s a cook. She’s a student. What are they ? ----
He’s a cook and she’s a student.
 John is a barber. Joe is a teacher. What are John and Joe? ---
John is a barber and Joe is a teacher

5
7. IS BILL HAPPY OR ANGRY. BILL IS ANGRY.

 Is Ted hot or cold? Ted is hot.

 Are they in the lab or in the classroom? They are in the lab.
 Are you a student or a teacher? I’m a student.

8. LET’S LOOK AT THE LESSON.

 Look at the book. -----------> Let’s look at the book.

 Write the sentence. -----------> Let’s write the sentence.
 Open the windows -----------> Let’s open the windows.

9. WHERE’S YOUR FRIEND?

The map?
is The student?
Where The books?
are The pilots?
The map is Under the table.
The book On the chair.
The students In the classroom.
The pilots are In the barracks.

10. THIS IS OUR CLASSROOM.

This is Our Classroom.

Your Lab.
their Brother.

11. WHOSE MONEY IS THIS?

Whose sister She?

is
She His sister.

Whose money This?

is
This Our money.

Whose pens These?

are
They My pens.

12. THIS IS BETTY’S BOOK.

Whose book That?

Is
That Betty’s book.

Whose books Those?

Are
Those Betty’s books.

6
 13. THAT IS BETTY’S BOOK. = THAT BOOK BELONGS TO
BETTY.

14. INSIDE OR OUTSIDE.

I
Am
You
They
We Are Inside
The boys outside
Linda
He
She is
It

INSIDE OUTSIDE

15. THEY’RE LISTENING TO THE TEACHER.

I Am Reading.
You Are Repeating.
He Writing.
She Is Sitting.
We Listening.
You are Answering
They going

16. HE ISN’T STUDYING. HE’S WATCHING TV.

I’m
You’re Standing up
He’s Talking.
She’s not Eating.
We’re Reading.
They’re Writing.
You aren’t Drinking.
He isn’t Walking.
She isn’t Studying.
We aren’t Sitting.
They aren’t

7
17. ARE YOU EATING?

I
Am Eating Breakfast now
Am I

You
Are Studying Your lesson
Are You

He
She Is Listening To tapes
Is He
She
You
We Are
They watching TV
Are You
We
They

18. ? YES NO

Are you studying? Yes, I am No, I’m not.

Is he studying? Yes, he is. No, he’s not.
No, he isn’t.
Is she studying? Yes, she is. No, she’s not.
No, she isn’t.
Are you studying? Yes, we are. No, we’re not.
No, we aren’t.
Are they studying? Yes, they are. No, they’re not.
No, they aren’t.

19. WHO IS YOUR TEACHER ? WHO’S SICK TODAY ?

 Who is his teacher ? -------- Mr. Jackson is his teacher.

 Who is his teacher ? -------- His teacher is Mr. Jackson.
 Who is Ted ? -------- Ted is Mr. Jackson’s student.
 Who are they ? -------- They are my children.
 Who is tired ? -------- Aldo is tired.
 Who’s sick today ? -------- My teacher’s sick today.
 Who’s his brother ? -------- Tom’s his brother.
 Who’s his sister ? -------  Jan’s his sister.
 Who’s Bob ? -------  Bob’s Susan’s brother.

20. WHO IS READING A BOOK ? ANDY IS READING A BOOK.

 Who’s eating breakfast? ------My father is eating breakfast.

 Who’s writing on the chalkboard? ----- The student is writing on the
chalkboard.
 Who’s coming to the classroom? ----- The teacher is coming to the
classroom.
 Who’s drinking orange juice? ----- Aldo is drinking orange juice.

8
 21. WHAT IS HE EATING? HE’S EATING BREAKFAST.

 What is he doing? ---------He’s listening to the radio.

 What are you drinking? ---------I’m drinking coffee.
o What are they doing? ---------They’re answering the questions.
o What is Bob writing? ---------Bob’s writing the alphabet.

22. WHERE ARE YOU GOING? I’M GOING TO THE BX.

o Where is Tom studying? ------ He’s studying at the library.

o Where’s Bill eating breakfast? ------ He’s eating breakfast in the mess
hall.
o Where are you going? ------ I’m going to the dispensary.
o Where are Mary and Ken studying? -- They’re studying in the classroom.

23. I’M TIRED ME, TOO. LET’S GO TO THE BARRACKS.

 I’m sick. ---------- Let’s go to the dispensary.

 It’s time for class ----------- Let’s go.
 I’m cold. ----------- Me, too. Let’s go inside.
 I’m tired ----------- Me, too. Let’s go to the barracks.
 It’s 12:00. ----------- Let’s eat lunch.

BOOK 3-GRAMMAR

1. USING THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE.

He
She eats lunch every day.
It
I
You Eat breakfast every morning.
We
They

2. USING THE NEGATIVE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE.

He
She
Linda does not Eat Breakfast in the mess hall.
The boy doesn’t
It

I
You
We do not eat lunch in the mess hall.
They don’t
The students

9
 3. MAKING SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE YES/NO QUESTIONS.

I
You
Do We Go to the gym?
they

He
Does she Go to the class?
It

4. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE LONG AND SHORT ANSWERS.

I
You Go to de gym. He Goes to class.
Yes , We Yes, She
they Do. it Does.
No, I Do not Go to the gym. He Does not Go to class
They Don’t No, She Doesn’t
You It
we Don’t Doesn’t

5. ASKING SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE QUESTIONS WITH WHO.

Mark studies Every day .

Who studies Every day ?
His classmates study Every day .

6. REVIEWING SIMPLE PRESENT YES/NO QUESTIONS.

Mark studies English. -----------> Does Mark study English ?

To make a yes/no question, put do or does in front of the subject and use the simple form
of the verb.

7. ASKING PRESENT TENSE INFORMATION QUESTIONS.

Mark studies English. --------> Does Mark study English?------> What does Mark study?
8. USING ADVERBS – ALWAYS, SOMETIMES, NEVER.

100% 50% 0%

always sometimes never

 Mark is always in his classroom at 0715.

 The students sometimes speak their own languages in the dining hall.
 The students are never in Ms. Miller’s classroom after 1600.

9. NEW GRAMMAR STRUCTURES. USEFUL PHRASES

How many students are in your class? Where (are you) from?
I was in Spain last year. What country (are you) from?
I wasn’t at the BX today. It wasn’t bad.
Were you in lab yesterday? In a month; last month.

10
10. ASKING QUESTIONS WITH HOW MANY + NOUN + BE

How many students are In your class ?

Eight students are In my class.

 For BE verbs, use a plural noun after how many.

11. ASKING QUESTIONS USING HOW MANY + NOUN + DO/DOES.

I
Do You
We
How many students They See ?
He
does She
it

12. THE PAST TENSE OF BE – WAS AND WERE.

Am
I Am not
‘m not In the US today
He Is
She Is not
it Isn’t
I
He Was In Spain last year.
She Was not
It Wasn’t
We Are
You Are not In the US now.
They Aren’t
We Were
You Were not In France last month.
They Weren’t

13. ASKING YES/NO PAST TENSE QUESTIONS WITH BE VERBS.

He was in class yesterday. Was he in class yesterday?

We were in class last month. Were we in class last month ?

14. USING ADJECTIVES TO DESCRIBE PEOPLE, PLACES, THINGS.

 The man is tall. He’s a tall man

 The woman is short. She’s a short woman.
 The coffee is hot. It’s hot coffee.
 Those children are small. They’re small children.

11
15. USING WANT TO + VERB.

I Eat.
You Wan to Drink.
We Go.
they Walk.
He Swim.
She Wants to Watch.
It Learn.

I Eat.
You Don’t Wan to Drink.
We Go.
they Walk.
He Swim.
She Doesn’t Wants to Watch.
It Learn.

16. ASKING YES/NO QUESTIONS WITH WANT TO + VERB.

I
You
Do We Want to eat In the dinning hall?
they

I
Yes, You Want to Eat
We In the dinning hall.
No, they
Don’t want to eat

17. AST TENSE QUESTIONS – WHO + BE.

Frank was in England last year.-------- Who was in England last year ?

18. PAST TENSE QUESTIONS – WHAT + BE.

The dictionary was On the table .

was The dictionary On the table ?
what was On the table ?

19. PAST TENSE QUESTIONS – WHERE + BE.

John was At the library Last night .

was John At the library Last night ?
where was John Last night ?

 Use the BE verb form was for I, he, she, and it.

They were At the snack bar Last night .

were they At the snack bar Last night ?
where were they Last night ?

 Use the BE verb form were for we, you, and they..

12
 20. PAST TENSE QUESTIONS – WHEN + BE.

John was At the library Last night .

was John At the library Last night ?
when was John At the library ?

 Use the BE verb form was with I, he, she, and it..

They wer At the snack Last night .

e bar
were they At the snack Last night ?
bar
when were they Last night ?

 Use the BE verb form were with we, you, and they.

BOOK 4 - GRAMMAR

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE.

SIMPLE PRESENT: we walk to class every day

SIMPLE PAST: we walked to class every day.
SIMPLE PRESENT: He walks to class every day.
SIMPLE PAST: He walked to class yesterday.

Verb + -ed = simple past

Play + ed = played close + d = closed

Walk + ed = walked study + ed = studies

2. NEGATIVE SIMPLE PAST TENSE.

Jack played baseball yesterday. He did not play tennis. He didn’t play soccer.

3. SIMPLE PAST TENSE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.

The show started At 08:00

Did The show start At
Yes, it did.
Yes, the show started at 8:00
No, it didn’t
No, the show didn’t start at 8:00……………..

4. SIMPLE PAST TENSE : IRREGULAR VERBS.

SIMPLE PRESENT : We drive to work every day

SIMLE PAST : We drove to work yesterday.

SIMPLE PRESENT : He drives to work every day.

SIMPLE PAST : He drove to work yesterday.

5. HE WENT TO THE MOVIES.

Mark went to the movies last Saturday. He drove his father’s car. Before the movie, he
bought a snack. He saw two movies. Then he drove home at 10:00 p.m.

13
 6. CAN

Can is used to express ability.

statement: The students can read well

negative: Mary can’t speak French.
question: Can you fly an airplane? Yes, I can. No I can’t.
What languages can you speak?
I can speak English and Spanish.
Who can play soccer well?
Bill can!.
Cannot = can’t

7. MUST

MUST is used to express something that is necessary.

Statement : I have a test tomorrow.

I must study tonight.
He’s in the military.
He must wear his uniform.

8. MUST NOT

MUST NOT is used to express prohibition . (DON’T DO THIS)

Statement : You must not eat in the classroom.

Don’t eat in the classroom!
We must not open that door.
It says, “Do not open the door.”

9. MAY/CAN

May and Can are used to express permission.

Statement: Children, you may have some fruit after dinner.

You can leave early today.
Questions: May I sit here?
Yes, you may. No, you may not.
Can I write in my book?
Yes, you can. No, you can’t.

10. HOW MUCH…..?

Do The shoes cost?

How much Are The shoes?
Are They?

Does The shirt cost?

How much Is The shirt?
Is It?

Did The shoes cost?

How much Were The shoes?
Were They?

Did The shirt cost?

How much Was The shirt?
Was It?

14
 11. IRREGULAR VERBS.

Present Past

Begin Began
Drink drank
Sit sat
Swim swan
Come came
Get up got up
Know knew
Write wrote
Drive drove
Wake up woke up
Speak spoke
Choose chose
Eat ate
Take took
Take off took off
Stand stood
See saw
Wear wore
Hear heard
Say said
Have had
Do did
Sell sold
Leave left
Sleep slept
Buy bought
Bring brought
Fly flew
Go went

12. IRREGULAR VERBS.

NEAR NO NEAR
Singular This That
Plural These Those

BOOK 5-GRAMMAR

1. Which tie do you want?

Which
Tie Do you want?
Which One

The red Tie.

Which That One
This One

15
 2. Using some and any

Use some with affirmative and any with negative statements.

Some Towels.
I Have
Don’t
any

Some
Do you Have Towels?

any

3. Using a few, a little , a lot of, and a lots of.

Bill: Excuse me. I want to buy a few toothbrushes.

Clerk: We have lots of toothbrushes next to the toothpaste.
Bill: I don’t need any toothpaste, but is there any shampoo over there?
Clerk: We have a little shampoo next to the soap.
Bill: Good , I need a lot of soap. Too. Thanks.
Clerk: Sure. You’re welcome.

 Plural words with s = count nouns.

4. Using Can to express possibility.

Josh: Can I drive to Dallas from S. Antonio.

Mike: Yes, you can. You can drive to Dallas in five hours.
Josh: Can I drive to Los Angeles, too?
Mike: Well, you can drive there, but you need three days.

5. Talking about the future.

She will fly tomorrow.

Will is the same for all subjects.
I, you, he, she, It, We, You, They.
She will = She’ll. She will not=She won’t….

6. Asking yes/no questions with will.

Jim will fly to Atlanta.

Will Jim fly to Atlanta?

Short answers

Yes. He will
No, he won’t

7. Future tense time expressions

Year.
Month.
Next Week.
Weekend.
Saturday

16
 Morning.
Afternoon.
I Will depart Tomorrow Evening.
Night.
Two minutes.
An hour.
in Four days.
A week.
Six months.
A year.

8. Using articles a, an, and the.

Use a or an before singular count nouns that the listener doesn’t know about.
Exe. Look! I bought a new car.
Use the before nouns (singular, plural, or no count) that listener knows about.
Exe. I had to take the car to a mechanic already.

You can use a or an when speaking of a thing for the first time.
1. Gary bought a new car on Tuesday.
You can use the when speaking of the same thing for the second time.
2. Gary had to take the car to a mechanic on Friday.

9. Using many and much..

Use many with count nouns. Use much with non count nouns.

Many / a lot of / lots of Cookies.

I Don’t have
Much / a lot of / lots of Ice cream.

Many / a lot of / lots of Cookies?

Do you have
Much / a lot of / lots of Ice cream?

10. Using how many and how much..

How many Cups of coffee

did you Drink?

How much coffee

* Use how many with count nouns. Use how much with non count nouns.

11. Using have to and don’t have to.

Use don’t have to when an action is not required. It does NOT mean must not..
You have to have an ID card.
You don’t have to give the library a photo of yourself.
You have to live in the city.
You have to pay for the library card.
You don’t have to get a new one every year.

17
 BOOK 6-GRAMMAR

1. Asking questions with How + Be .

Bruce: Hi, Sara. How’s it going?

Sara: Just fine. Bruce. I was in California for two weeks.
Bruce: Oh. Really? I want to go there, too!! How was the trip?
Sara: It was great!!.
Bruce: How ‘s the weather in California?
Sara: Well, it was different. It was sunny in San Diego and cloudy in S. Francisco.
Bruce: I didn’t know those two cities had different weather . Did you get wet?
Sara: No. It was cloudy, but it didn’t rain. It was dry…

2. Making sentences with that + noun clause.

I
You Think
He
She Thinks (that) the car is nice.
We
You Think
They

3. Asking questions with that + noun clause.

 Bob thought the car was nice.

 Who thought the car was nice?
 Did Bob think the car was nice?
 What did Bob think?
4. Making statements with would like (to).

I want

Some food.
I would like

Would like = ‘d like.

 Use would like before nouns and noun phrases.

5. Asking questions with would like (to).

He
Would Like
Bruce Like To buy A sports car?

Would I
You
How He
What It Like (to)…?
Who would She
When We
where they

6. Using something, nothing, anything, and else.

 Something and anything follow these rules:

18
 Statement: Let’s order something for dessert. Use something in af. statement.
 Negative : I didn’t eat anything for lunch. Use anything in a negative sent.
 Question: Would you like something to eat?
Did she drink anything else? Use something or anything in a
questions.

 In negative statement, nothing and anything follow these rules.

Negating a statement: Sara didn’t say anything. Sara said nothing.

Both sentences have the same meaning . Use anything when the verb is affirmative, use
nothing..

7. Using object pronouns.

Subject I You he she it we They

Pronouns
Object me You him her it us them
Pronouns

8. Making sentences with an indirect object.

Sara will send a package to him.

Sara will send him a package.

9. Using also.

Sara chose a CD player for Bruce.

/ She also made him some cookies
/She made him some cookies, also…

She’ll go to the post office.

/She’ll also go to the bank.
/She’ll go to the bank, also.

Also = too.

10. Combining sentences – and/but.

 The conjunctions and and but can be used to join two statements.

My vacation is next month. I want to travel.

My vacation is next month and I want to travel.

 Use and to show addition. It is used when the statements are similar.

I like the Navy now. I didn’t at first.

I like the Navy now, but I didn’t at first

Use but to connect statements that express opposite ideas.

11. Answering Why – question with because.

Why are you smiling? Because I’m happy.

Why did your friend get a good score on the book quiz?
Because he studied.
Why are you eating?
Because I’m hungry…..

19
 BOOK 7-GRAMMAR

1. ONE MAN IS SAD. THE OTHER MAN IS HAPPY.

 One answer is wrong. ----------- The other answer is right.

 We liked one show. ----------- We didn’t like the other
show.
 Sam ate one sandwich ----------- He didn’t eat the other
sandwich.
 One book is on the table. ----------- The other one is on the
chair.
 This exercise is easy. ----------- The other exercise isn’t.

2. BOTH MEN ARE HAPPY.

 One man is happy. The other man is also happy.----- Both men are happy.
 This cake is delicious. The other cake is also delicious --- Both cakes are
delicious.
 This restaurant is crowded.
 The other restaurant is also crowded .--- Both restaurants are
crowded.
3. OPPOSITES

20
  The opposite of big is little. ------- The opposite of narrow is wide.
-------- Strong is opposite of weak.
 Slow is the opposite of fast.-------- Small and little are alike.
-------- Also and too are alike.
 Wet and dry aren’t alike. --------- Check out is the opposite of check in.
-------- Hot is the opposite of cold.

4. HE STUDENT FLIES AIRPLANES. THEY ARE FAST. THE STUDENT

FLIES FAST AIRPLANES.
 The girl is crying. She is little. ------------> The little girl is
crying.
 Bob drives a taxi. It is red. ------------> Bob drives a red
taxi.
 Jim has an umbrella. It is black. ------------> Jim has a black
umbrella.
 Alice is writing a letter. It’s long. ------------> Alice is writing a
long letter.

5. MAKING COMPARISONS.

ER AND THAN ARE ADDED TO REGULAR ADJETIVES TO COMPARE PEOPLE

OR THINGS.

Greg is taller than Diana. This window is cleaner than that one.

ER + THAN

Tall Taller
Clean Cleaner
Narrow -- er Narrower
Weak Weaker
Slow Slower
long longer

WORDS THAT END IN A CONSONANT WITH A SHORT VOWEL SOUND BEFORE

THE CONSONANT WILL DOUBLE THE CONSONANT BEFORE ADDING ER AND
THAN.

EXAMPLE: HIS SHOES ARE WETTER THAN HIS COAT.

wet +ter wetter

big +ger bigger
sad +der sadder
hot +ter hotter

WORDS THAT END IN A CONSONANT + Y CHANGE THE Y TO I AND ADD ER

AND THAN..
EXAMPLE : THE MEN WERE HAPPIER THAN THE WOMEN.

y------- i + er = ier + than

Happy Happier
Heavy Heavier
Rainy Rainier
Windy ier Windier
Thirsty Thirstier
hungry hungrier

21
WORDS THAT END IN E NEED ONLY R AND THAN.

--r + than

Nice Nicer
Large Larger
Little --r Littler
Late Later
Wide wider

6. DOYOU WANT SOME?

I made some coffee. Do you want some? --------

Sure. I’ll take a cup.
Ralph gave me a box of candy. Would you like some? ------- No,
thanks. I’m not hungry now.
I need some black shoes. Can you show me some? -------
Yes, sir, I’ll bring some..
Is there more orange juice? -------
Yes, there’s some on the table.
Did you need some film for your camera? --------
No, I have some. I bought film yesterday.

7. DOYOU HAVE ANY?

Have some coffee? No, thanks. I never drink any at night.

Is she taking anything for her sore back? No, she doesn’t like medicine. She never
takes any.
The sergeant has three stripes. The airman doesn’t have any.
Did you make any mistakes on the test? No, not any. I made 100.

8. BOTH ARE SMALL.

This book is small. The other book is also small. Both books are small. Both are
small.
Tom speaks Spanish and English . Marie speaks English and Arabic . Both speak
two languages.
Did you take my book and his book? Yes, I took both of them.
Do you want milk or coffee? I’ll have both, please.

9. HOW OLD ARE YOU. I’M TWENTY YEARS OLD.

1. How old is Steve? He’s ten years old.

2. How old are Mr. And Mrs. Clark? They are both thirty years old.
3. How old is their house? It’s fifteen years old.

10. NEW NEWER NEWEST.

ADJETIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Big Bigger The biggest
Heavy Heavier The heaviest
Light Lighter The lightest
New Newer The newest
Old Older The oldest
Wide wider The widest

22
 The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare three or more persons, or
things. Add the + est to one syllable-
adjectives and to some two-syllable adjectives. Ex: The small suitcase is the lightest.

11. USE YOUR HEAD FOR THINKING.

I Use Cutting Meat.

You Knife
Sue and I
The boys Drinking Coffee.
Cup
a for
Becky uses Taking Pictures.
He Camera
John
drinking Milk.
Glass

BOOK 8-GRAMMAR

1. WILL = BE GOING TO.

I Am
He Is Going to leave At 8:00.
You Are

2. WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?

Steve is Going to Run

Is Steve Going to Run?
What is Steve Going to Do?

3. JOHN WANTS TO PLAY VOLLEYBALL.

Certain verbs may be followed by the present infinitive form (to speak, to
work, to talk, etc.). The verbs in the paradigm are verbs that you know, which
follow the pattern.

Begins
Forgets
Learns
Likes
Carlos Needs To speak English.
Remembers
Starts
Tries
wants

4. WHEN ARE YOU GOING TO SEE MAJOR WILLIAMS?

I MAY SEE HIM AT LUNCH.

I
You
John May Go to the movies.
Marie might
Bob and Linda
Steve and I

23
5. TELL LT JONES THAT I’LL SEE HIM AT THE LIBRARY.
TELL LT JOHN I’LL SEE HIM AT THE LIBRARY.

Tell Him
Don’t Tell Her (that) We’ll go at 6:30.
tell Sam

BOOK 9-GRAMMAR

1. TED’S LEAVING TOMORROW.

The present progressive (I’m studying, you’re reading, etc.) is sometimes used
to express a future action which is expected to happen soon.

Will arrive
The plane Is going to arrive At 6:00
Is arriving

2. AL ‘S TIRED BECAUSE HE HAD A LONG TRIP.

I spent it all yesterday.

I don’t have any time because
I spent it all yesterday,
Because It’s the end of the month,
I lost my wallet,
It’s the end of the month.
I lost my wallet.
I don’t have any money

The word because is used to tell the reason for something. It can come before
or after the main clause…

3. THE BREAD SMELLS GOOD.

Is
Feels
This Looks Good.
Sounds
Smells
tastes

4. ANNE WAS STUDYING IN THE LIBRARY.

The past progressive is used to show that an action took place over aperiod of
time..

I Was studying
Mark Was studying Last night.
Mark and Al Were studying

5. ASK CAPTAIN HENRY TO COME TO MY OFFICE.

Ask or tell is used with an indirect object + the infinitive to express and indirect
request or command.
Ask To pay de bill.
Tell Bob To write a check.
To go to the store.

24
6. DID YOU ASK THE WAITER TO BRING US COFFEE?
NO. I ASKED HIM TO BRING THE MENU.

I asked Bob To pay the bill.

I told To write a check.

7. YOUR UNIFORM IS SIMILAR TO MINE.

Bob’s shirt is like Mike’s. Their shirts are alike.

My name is the same as your name. Our names are the same.
Tim’s car is similar to Allen’s car. Their cars are similar.
Army uniforms are different from Navy uniforms.
Army and Navy uniforms are different.

8. I THINK WE SHOULD WALK.

The restaurant is 6 blocks away. Should we walk or take a taxi?

I think we should walk.

We must be at the airport at 7:30. When should we leave?

We should leave right after dinner.

Which tie should I wear?

You should wear the red one. It looks good with that shirt.

9. YOU SHOULDN’ T DRIVE SO FAST.

Should + not = Shouldn’t

Bob should take two sweaters.

He shouldn’t take a heavy coat.

You should take the bus.

You shouldn’t take a taxi.

We should go swimming tomorrow.

We shouldn’t go swimming today.

10. IS MIKE A CAREFUL DRIVER? YES, HE DRIVES CAREFULLY.

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word. Many adverbs
are formed by adding the suffix ly to the adjective.
* Notice the spelling change when the adjective ends in y.

Adjective Suffix Adverb

Bad Badly
Careful Carefully
Careless Carelessly
Correct ly Correctly
Slow Slowly
Busy Busily
Happy Happily
easy easily

Some adverbs have an irregular form.(*)

25
 Some have the same form for both the adjective and the adverb. (**)

Adjective Adverb
Good Well (*)
Fast Fast (**)

11. HOW DID MARY DRIVE THIS MORNING ?

Mary drove Fast.

(Did Mary drive Fast?)
How did Mary drive?

12. I THINK THIS MOVIE IS BORING ?

I forgot (that) We had a test today

I think (that) This movie is boring.
He hope (that) You’ll come to his party.

Did you remember (that) There’s a test today?

Did he understand (that) The movie started at 7?
Do you realize (that) We’re leaving tomorrow?

Forget, guess, hear, realize, learn, think, hope, remember, see, read, know
and understand…

After these verbs indicating mental activity you use a that noun clause as a direct
object. Notice: That is optional…

13. ALEX IS GLAD THAT TIM AND BOB ARRIVED SAFELY.

Use an adverbial that clause to express cause or reason after these

expressions.
Happy
Pleased
I’m Glad (that) He went there.
Angry
Sorry
upset

14. BETH IS APOLOGIZING FOR BEING LATE THIS MORNING.

What is Beth apologizing to the instructor for?

She’s apologizing to him for being late to class.
After the verb apologize, notice the use for + gerund (verb + ing)

BOOK 10 – GRAMMAR

1. JIM KNOWS HOW TO PLAY TENNIS.

Found out
Forgot
Knew
Learned
Bill Remembered How to Fix the car.
Showed
Told Me
Taught
asked (me)

26
2. WHEN, WHILE, AFTER, BEFORE, UNTIL.

Jerry listening to the radio while He studies.

Bonnie saw the new sofa when She came in.
Major Sims will write to us after He arrives home.
James was watching TV before His brother called.
Fran can’t buy a new car until She saves some money.

3. IT’S THE SAME, BUT DIFFERENT.

The students were studying when the teacher walked in.

When the teacher walked in, the students were studying.

4. BE SUPPOSED TO.

I’m Relax.
You’re Supposed to Be on time for class.
He’s Wear a seatbelt.
She’s
We’re Not supposed to Drink and drive.
They’re Smoke in the classroom.

I
Am He Be in this building?
Is She Go to lab now?
Are You Supposed to Report to the captain?
We Obey traffic laws?
They

5. CHARLES WASN’T AFRAID TO FLY THE HELICOPTER.

The infinitive form of the verb (to eat, to leave, to say, etc.) can sometimes follow an
adjective in the paradigm follow this pattern.

Ted isn’t Ready To leave The party.

Col Davis will be Pleased To speak At graduation
Calvin was Upset To hear About the accident
Janet is happy To be Back in town.
Frank was Glad To help Judy move.
Lt Brooks is Sorry To say Good-bye to his men.
Is Linda afraid Alone?

6. TONY’S PLANE ARRIVES AT 3:05.

SOMETIMES WE USE THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE TO EXPRESS A FUTURE

ACTION.

Will arrive
Is going to arrive
The bus Is arriving tomorrow
arrives

27
7. GERUNDS.

The object of a verb is usually a noun or pronoun.

I like basketball.
(noun)

The object of a verb can also be a gerund. A gerund is the -ing form of a verb. It is
used as a noun.
I like playing basketball .
(gerund)
I like playing basketball.
(gerund phrase)

There are certain verbs that can be followed by gerunds.

Mike Starts Moving Next week.

The boys Enjoy Playing Soccer.
Does William Mind Stopping Here?
Sgt Kline Didn’t begin Exercising Until 7:00 a.m.
Janet Finished Eating Before Peter
The Martins like driving Along the ocean.

8. POLITE REQUESTS.

We use could you and would you to make a polite requests. (when we need
another person’s help).

Polite request Answer

Could you please open the door? Yes , of course I can.
No, I’m sorry, I can’t
Would you help me with this box? Yes, I’ll be happy to help you.
I’d like to, but I can’t right now.

9. BE ABLE TO.

Be able to is used to express ability. It is the same as can.

Present John is able to speak three languages.
John can speak three languages.
Future We’ll be able to leave tomorrow.
We can leave tomorrow.
Past I wasn’t able to go last night.
I couldn’t go last night.
BOOK 11 - GRAMMAR

1. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

Has Now.

John Had A red car Last year.

Has had

is Today.

Robert Was In New York Thursday.

28
 Has been Since Monday.

We use the present perfect tense to talk about three kinds of actions:

 Those that began in the past and are still happening.

 Those that just ended .
 Those that occurred at an indefinite time.

Exe: They have been here for a month. (they got here a month ago, and
they’re still here).

Ed has already had dinner. (He just finished eating.)

He has been to Europe before. (I’m not sure when he went.)

Since, refers to a point in time:

Exe: Jim has been in the army for five years.

He has been a captain since February 1.

2. QUESTIONS WITH HOW LONG.

The phrase how long is used to introduce questions about lengths of time.

Exe: How long did you stay at the party?

How long will they be on vacation?
How long is the flight to New York?

3. THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE.

The present perfect progressive tense stresses that an action or event is not
finished. It also suggests that it will continue into the future.

Exe: They’ve been talking on the phone for an hour.

(they are talking now and may talk for another hour.)

Keith Has

Been Studying since

Ann and Have 4:30

2. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

Someone and somebody are used in affirmative statement and questions…

Exe: Someone wants to speak to you on the phone.

Somebody forgot to put gas in the car.
Can someone please take this book to the library?
Has somebody been using my pen without asking me?

No one and nobody are used in affirmative statements.

Exe: No one wants to leave before the General does.

The weather was awful; nobody got to work on time..

29
Anyone and anybody are used in affirmative and negative statements and
affirmative questions.

Exe: Anybody can learn another language.

Was anybody in the office when you got there?

3. BECAME AND GET.

Became and Get are used as linking verbs to show a change in state or
condition.

SUBJECT LINKING VERB SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

Most captains become Majors.(noun)
The homework Became confusing
got

6. ADJETIVE CLAUSES

Who: Refers to people.

Which: refers to things.
That: refers to both people and things.

Exe: Ms. Steve is the one who teaches Spanish..

Roper’s is the store which sells tires.
This is the watch that broke last week.
Mr. Dial is the man that fixed it for me.

7. TOO + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE + TO-INFINITIVE

One of the meaning of too is “more than enough”. Too followed by an

adjective and a to-infinitive means “more than is necessary for a particular
purpose”.

Exe: The test was too long for us to finish. (we couldn’t finish the test
because it was longer than necessary)

These shoes don’t fit well. They’re too tight. (these shoes are tighter than
they should be in order to fit well.)

TOO + (FOR + NOUN/PRONOUN) INFINITIVE

ADJECTIVE
Candy is Too sweet.
Coffee is Too bitter For me To drink.
Carol was Too tired To drive.
It’ll be Too early For the children To get up.

8. INFINITIVE PHRASE OF PURPOSE

An infinitive or infinitive phrase placed after a verb tells the reason for
which something is done.

Exe: Jim didn’t have any news. He just called to talk. (He only called
because he wanted to talk).

30
 Beth stopped at the store to buy some milk.(She stopped because she
needed to buy some milk.)

INFINITIVE PHRASE OF PURPUSE

Ray moved To save A little money.

Lt Lee went To talk To the Supervisor.
Don’t use a pen To mark The answer sheet
Roger called To invite Us to his party.

9. THE SUFFIX “Y”

when the suffix “y” is added to a noun , the noun becomes an adjective which
means “like”, “full of”, or “characterized by” something.
Exe: The water was soapy. (the water was full of soap.)

10. COULD AS PAST ABILITY

COULD = WAS ABLE TO COULD + NOT = COULDN’T

Exe: JIMMY COULDN’T BUTTON HIS SHIRT.

11. INDIRECT SPEECH

Indirect speech reports what another person has said. For this reason, it is
also called reported speech. The speaker’s exact words aren’t repeated in
indirect speech:

 Present tense verbs change to the past tense.

 Pronouns and possessive adjectives change from first or second person
(unless someone is reporting his own words.)

Direct speech (present tense)

Jan : I’m out of money.

Jim: I have some cash.

Indirect speech

Jan told Jim that she was out of money.

Jim told her that he had some cash.
I told Jan that I had some cash

12. PREPOSITION ON TIME.

AT: is used with the time of day, with an age, and with the words night, first,
last, beginning, and end.

Exe: at noon, at night, at midnight , at 07:30 a.m., at the age of twelve. At first,
at last, at the beginning , at the end.

ON: is used with days and dates. It can also be used with parts of certain day
and the words time and schedule.

Exe: on Monday, on your birthday, on October 18, on the evening, on time, on

schedule..

31
IN: is used with quantities of time and with the words beginning and end.
Exe: in ten minutes, in an hour, in a week, in two years, in the beginning , in
the end.

BEFORE AND AFTER: are used with time of day, with dates , and with
nouns that name events or occurrences.

Exe: before noon, after 5:00 p.m., before December 31, after April 15, before
the game, after dinner.
After six months, after thirty years.

FROM: is used with to and till/until to indicate periods of time.

Exe: from 1985 to 1993, from May 1 until June 15., from 10:00 a.m. till 5:30
p.m.

UNTIL/TILL: can also be used alone with days, dates, and times.

Exe: until next Friday, till next week, until 1997, till August 2. until 10:00 p.m.,
till midnight.

FOR: is used with a period of time.

Exe: For half an hour, for three weeks, for one year.

SINCE: is used with definite times.

Exe: since Sunday, since 6:00 this morning, since 1988.

BOOK 12 - GRAMMAR

1. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

We drive
If the weather’s good We’re driving To the beach.
We’ll drive
We’re going to drive

MAIN CLAUSE IF
CLAUSE
Can/could
May/might
Tom Should come If he doesn’t have to study.
Must/has to
Is able to

MAIN CLAUSE IF
CLAUSE

Can/could you
Will/would you Read my paper If you have time?
Are you going to

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

How will you tell me?

32
If you finish early What will you do?
Where are you going?

Conditional sentences have two parts: The if-clause and the main clause. One
type of conditional sentence is used to show what may/will happen in the
present/future if a certain condition happens. When the if clause has the
present tense, the main clause uses the present or future tense. Note that the
if clause may come before or after the main clause.

4. PRESENT PERFECT

I
We Have
You Haven’t Studied All afternoon.
They
He Has
She Hasn’t

I
We
Have You studied All afternoon?
They
Has He
She

The present perfect tense is formed with have or has + the past participle of
the verb. With regular verbs, the past participle is formed by adding –ed to
the verb. With irregular verbs, the past participle changes its form.

COMPARISON OF PAST TENSE AND PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

We use past tense to describe situations that happened at a definite time in

the past.
We use present perfect tense to describe situations that have happened at a
indefinite time (or times) in the past, or situations that have begun in the past
and have continued to the present ..

5. HOW LONG HAS THE ENGINE SOUNDED LIKE THIS?

Dale: How long has your car’s engine sounded this way?
Gene: I’ve heard that noise for a week or two, I guess.
Dale: How long has it been since someone put oil in it?
Gene: I don’t think anyone has done it for several months.

6. ADVERBS: ALREADY/STILL/YET/ANYMORE/ANY LONGER/NO

LONGER

Already ( ? & +): We use to say some happened before now or before this
time.
Ed already has a high school diploma. Mr. Smith is already here.
Are they already in elementary school?

Still ( ?, + & - ): We use to say that situation is continuing. It usually goes in

the middle of the sentence with the verb.
Ed still doesn’t have a college degree. It was warm yesterday, and it’s still
warm today. Are you still waiting?.

Yet (? & - ) We use to ask or talk about something that did not happen before
now, but might in the future. It goes at the end of sentence.

33
I’m very hungry. Is dinner ready yet?. Can you wait ten minutes? John isn’t
here yet..

Anymore and any longer (? & -): They use to say that a past situation
does not exist. They go at the end of the sentences…
Is he in high school anymore/any longer? . She isn’t in the army anymore/any
longer.

No longer (+): Used to say that a past situation does not exist. It goes in the
middle of the sentences with the verb.
He is no longer a student. She no longer works at night.

7. PRESENT PERFECT: INDEFINITE PAST.

Doug: Have you ever been to France?

Dave: No, I never have. Have you?
Rick: Don’t hang up! I haven’t talked to Tom yet.
Jack: Too late. He’s already hung up.

8. DO YOU NEED AN APPOINTMENT TODAY, OR CAN YOU WAIT

UNTIL MONDAY?

Clerk: Can you wait until Monday until Monday? or do you need an
appointment today?
Mary: I really feel awful, so I need an appointment right away.

Steven: Does Rex have to stay outside, or can he come in the house?
Mother: He’s wet and dirty, so please keep him outside.

9. I DON’T HAVE ANY MONEY, SO I NEED TO WRITE A CHECK.

We use the conjunction so to express the result of situation.

SITUATION RESULT
Because I don’t have any cash, I’ll write a check.
so

Because it was raining, we took a taxi. It was raining, so we took a taxi..

10. I CAN PAY CASH FOR THE GAS, OR I CAN CHARGE IT.

We use conjunction or to express a choice.

We can charge the gas. We can pay cash for it.
We can charge the gas, or We can pay cash for it.

We can go now. We can leave later. We can go now, or we can leave later.

11. YOU COULD BE THE WINNER OF A MILLION DOLLARS!

Could is used to express possibility.

Could
The keys Might be In the kitchen.
may

12. THE ING & ED ADJECTIVES.

The ing adjective describes the person/thing causing the feeling.

34
 The ed adjective describes the person experiencing/having the feeling.

Kevin isn’t interested in playing tennis. He likes to play soccer.

My math class is very interesting. I like to study numbers.
George is excited about his new job. Is basketball an exciting game?
My morning class is bored.

13. INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
(present tense) (past tense)
What did Tom say?
Tom: I know the answer. Tom said (that) he knew the answer.

A noun clause is used to report what someone has said. This is called
indirect speech or reported speech.
The following changes are made:
1. The present tense verb in direct speech changes to the past
tense in indirect speech.
2. The conjunction that is used to introduce the clause. It is
sometime omitted.

ERIC SAID THAT HE WANTED TO ADD A SECOND STORY TO HIS

HOUSE.

14. USED TO

We use used to to say that something happened regularly or existed in

the past but no longer happens or exists now.
I used to be a student at that college. Now I’m an instructor there.
My father used to smoke, but he stopped last year.

15. WOULD.

We use Would when we talk about things that often happened in the
past.
When my sister and I were young, my family would go to the mountains.
If the weather was good, we would get up early and go swimming in the
cold river.
Use to is also possible in these sentences.

16. COMPARATIVE OF ADVERBS.

Use er for the comparative form of adverbs that don’t end in ly.

John can run faster than his brother.

BOOK 13 - GRAMMAR

1. DO YOU IMAGINE THEY’LL WIN THE GAME? . I GUESS SO.

We use so after some verbs as a substitute for a that – noun clause. The most
common verbs followed by so are think, believe, guess, hope, imagine, and
suppose.
Will Jack come to the party? I think so. (I think that Jack will come.)
Has Bill finished his work?. I hope so. (I hope that Bill has finished his work.)
The negative depends on the verb:
I think so. ----- I don’t think so
I believe so ----- I don’t believe so.
I imagine so ----- I don’t imagine so.

35
I suppose so ----- I don’t suppose so.
I guess so ----- I guess not.
I hope so ------ I hope not.

2. I’M SURE YOU’LL UNDERSTAND THIS EXERCISE.

We use a that – clause after the adjective certain , sure, and positive to
express an opinion about someone or something.
I’m certain that I can go this weekend.
He’s sure that he’ll pass the test.
We’re positive that we’ll have enough money for the car.
The conjunction “that” is many times omitted in conversation.

3. ER AND EST FORMS OF ADVERBS.

The er and est forms are used with one- syllable adverbs.
Early Earlier (than) The earliest
Far Farther(than) The farthest
Further (than) The furthest
Hard Harder (than) The hardest
High Higher (than) The highest
Late Later (than) The latest
low Lower (than) The lowest
near Nearer (than) The nearest
slow Slower (than) The slowest
soon Sooner (than) The soonest
straight Straighter (than) The straightest

* early is an exception to the rule.

4. COULD AS PERMISSION.

Could is frequently used to request permission.

It ‘s like may and can.
Could I borrow your book, please?
May I ask you a question?
Can I leave early today?
Can or can’t are usually used as responses to a request for permission with
could.
Could I borrow your book, please?
Yes, of course you can.
Could I leave early today?
I’m sorry. You can’t.
We have a meeting at 1500.

5. REVIEW OF MODALS.

May, might , and could are used to express possibility.

Where’s Joe?
He may be in his office.
He might be eating lunch.
He could be at home.
Can and is/am/are able to are used to express ability in the present or future.
Could and was/were/able to are used for the past.
She can speak three languages.
They are able to speak French and Spanish.
I couldn’t swim when I was young.
My grandfather was able to speak Russian.
May, can, and could are used to request permission.
May I come in?

36
 Can I swim here?
Could I use your phone?

6. NOUN ADJUNCTS.

Adjectives usually modify or describe nouns.

A nice day
A cold winter.
Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts.
They are always singular.
A store that sells shoes is a shoe store.
My brother drives trucks. He’s a truck driver.
When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun is stressed.
A can opener.
A wedding ring
Some paint brushes.

7. PHRASAL VERBS.

The term phrasal verb refers to a verb and adverb that are together. This verb
and adverb have a special meaning.
He put on his hat.
She wrote down the telephone number.
They threw away the old newspapers.
Many times a phrasal verb will have an object. There are two possible
positions for the object.
If the object is a noun, it can come before the adverb or after it.
He turned on the radio.
He turned the radio on.
She’ll look up the word in the dictionary.
She’ll look the word up in the dictionary.
If the object of a phrasal verb is a pronoun (me, you, him, her, etc.) the
pronoun must be between the verb and the adverb.
I like the hat. Try it on.
I’ll give you the money, but you must pay it back.
She is sleeping. Don’t wake her up.
Phrasal verbs are very common in conversation.

8. MODALS IN REPORTED SPEECH.

When a modal is used in direct speech, it is frequently changed in reported

speech.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

(present tense) (past tense)
May Might
Might Might
Can Could
Could Could
Am/is/are/able to. Was/were/able to

37
 Exe: WHAT DID SHE SAY? . SHE SAID WE MIGHT GO.
Lt Allen: Sir, are we going to fly today?
Capt. Smith: It’s cloudy, but we may still fly.
(later…)
Lt. Bass: What did the Captain tell you?
Lt. Allen: He told me that we might still fly.

9. SUFFIX –ER AND –OR .

The suffix –er and –or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to express
the meaning of “one who” or “that which”.
He teaches students to read. He’s a teacher.
She collects stamps. She’s a stamp collector. *

* Collector, visitor, educator, and instructor are spelled with –or.

10. HOW + ADJECTIVE.

The question word how has many uses. It is often used with adjectives to ask
questions.

How long asks about length.

How high asks about height.
How tall* asks about height.
How far asks about distance.
How wide asks about width.
How deep asks about depth.
How old asks about age.
How heavy asks about weight.
How hot/cold asks about temperature.

A question with what can be used for a question with how.

How long is it?. What’s its length?

* tall is used to refer to someone or something from the ground up; high is
used when talking about something at a point above the ground.

11. IF CLAUSES.

Certain if-conditional sentences express something that is true. The simple

present tense can be used in the if-clause and the imperative or present tense in
the main clause.

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

(condition) (result)
If the TV doesn’t work, push this button.
If I get up at 0600, I get to work on time.
If I don’t eat lunch, I become hungry by 2:00 p.m.

12. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

LARGE QUANTITIES
Many is used to refer to count nouns.

38
Much is used to refer to no count nouns. It’s usually used in neg. sentences.
A lot is used to refer to both count and no count nouns.
SMALL QUANTITIES
A Few is used to refer to count nouns.
A Little is used to refer to no count nouns.
GENERAL QUANTITIES
Some, any, and none are used to refer to both count and no count nouns.
Use some in an affirmative statement and question.
Use any in a negative statement and a question.
Use none in a affirmative statement only.
Example: Mrs. Vernon needs some more pencils. Does Ed have any?
Yes, he has some. No, he doesn’t have any. No, he has none.
BOOK 14 - GRAMMAR

1. PLURAL COUNT NOUNS.

Counts nouns are nouns that may be preceded by a or an in the singular.

A book a man
An apple a fish.

Count nouns can be made plural.

Regular plurals are formed by adding:

Irregular plurals
- es to words -es and changing - s to other Have different
ending in these the Y to I to words words. Forms:
letters: ch, ce, s, ending in a
z, ge, sh, x, consonant + Y
Fish
Boxes Families Books Deer
Sandwiches Duties Chairs Children
Dresses Cities Tables Feet
Inches libraries Words Teeth
Pages Boys Men
wishes Women
knives

The –es that is added to count nouns to form the plural has three different
pronunciations.

IZ S Z
Boxes Books Tables
Dresses Suits Sons
Sandwiches Cooks Words
Dishes Cups Windows
Pages Boots Boys
Quizzes Crops Duties
Horses Recruits Jobs
Chances Ranks Times
Classes basics Caves
services Eggs

2. JUST & SOON.

Just and soon are adverbs of time

39
 Just is used to indicate recent completion in the past.
Soon is used to indicate expected completion in the near future.

John just arrived from New Year.

His brother will arrive from Los Angeles soon.

3. AS……AS COMPARISONS.

We use an as…as construction wlth adjectives and adverbs to make

comparisons. Look at the examples.
1. Jack is twenty years old.
Bill is twenty years old.
Jack is as old as Bill.
(= they are the same age)
2.Fred is rich.
He is richer than his brother John.
John isn’t as rich as his brother Fred.
(= Fred is richer.)
3. Bob studies hard every night.
Mary sometimes studies.
Mary doesn’t study as hard as Bob does.
(= Bob studies harder than Mary.)

4. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE.

The future progressive is formed with.

Will + be + Verb ing
It’s used to express an action that will be in progress at or up to a particular
time in the future.
We’ll be leaving at noon on Friday.
Tom won’t be leaving until midnight tonight.

5. ADVERBS OF DEGREE.

We can use certain adverbs before adjectives and others adverbs to make the
meaning stronger.
These adverbs have the general meaning of very . For example:
Extremely cheap (adverbs + adjective)
Really interesting ( adverb + adjective)
Rather good ( adverb + adjective)
Terribly noisy ( adverb + adjective)

Quite fast ( adverb + adverb)

So well ( adverb + adverb)
Very quickly ( adverb + adverb)

6. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE WITH WHERE AND WHEN.

Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place. It comes right after

the place.
We found a restaurant.
The food was good (at the restaurant)
We found a restaurant where the food was good.
(where refers to restaurant, a place)
When is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time. It comes right

40
 after the noun.
The summer was hot. We went to San Francisco(during the summer)
The summer when we went to San Francisco was hot.
(When refers to summer, a noun of time.)

7. “IF” CONDITIONAL .

Certain If – conditional sentences express something that is true . The present

progressive or the present perfect can be used in the if – clause , and the
future, a modal, or the imperative can be used in the main clause.
IF-CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
(condition) (Result)
Present Progressive Future/Modal/Imperative
You’ll find him in the library.
If you’re looking for Bill, You can find him in the library.
Go to the library.
Present Perfect Future/Modal/Imperative
We’re going to go this Sunday.
If you haven’t been to the park, You should go this Sunday.
Go this Sunday.

8. GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS

A gerund is the –ing form of a verb.

Examples: eating , playing , sleeping.
A gerund is used as a noun. The most common noun function of a gerund is
the object of a verb. The gerund plus the words that go with it is called a
gerund phrase.
He enjoys teaching English. We finished working about an hour ago.
A gerund or gerund phrase can also be used as the subject of a sentence.

Driving on wet roads can be dangerous.. Learning a second language is fun.

A gerund or gerund phrase can be used as the object of a preposition.

You can turn off the radio by pushing this button. Are you interested in
learning German? .. He apologized for being late.
The following is a list of common preposition combinations with verbs and
adjectives that gerunds can follow:
Verb + preposition

Apologized for / look forward to

Believe in / plan on
Decide on / than someone for
Finish with….

Adjective + preposition

Afraid of / nervous about

Bored with / proud of
Excited about / scared of
Fond of / talk about
Frightened of / think of
Happy about / tired of
Interested in / worried about

41
9. MUST AS PROBABILITY.

Must is used with the simple present tense or the present progressive to
express probability.
Steve is smiling. He must be happy.
I smell smoke. Something must be burning.
Must not is used for the negative.
John’s light are off. He must not be at home.
Betty isn’t eating. She must not be hungry.

10. MAKING DEDUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS.

We use the modals must , may, might, and could to make deductions and
conclusions from the information that we receive.

Must is used when we are very sure or very certain about something.
May, might , and could are used when we are less sure or certain.

Must----- very sure

May------
Might----
Could--- less sure
Examples:

She wear a big diamond ring; he drives an expensive car.

They must be rich.

What’s wrong with Lynn?. She didn’t eat any supper.

Oh, she might not be hungry.

George isn’t at home. He could be shopping at the mall.

11. REVIEW OF MODALS.

Must and have/has to both express necessity and obligation.

You must have money to buy car.

I can’t go.
I have to study for a test.

Must not is used to express prohibition.

You must not smoke in the building.

(Don’t smoke in the building.)
You must not drive through a red light.
(Don’t drive through a red light)

Not have/has to is used to express lack of necessity.

Tomorrow is Saturday. We don’t have to go to class.

We have a lot of time. We don’t have to study.

Will and be going to are both used to express future time.

Frank will finish packing tonight.

42
 He is going to finish packing tonight.

Could and would are used to make requests.

Would you close the window, please?

Could you please hand me the sugar?

12. INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH.

When a modal is used in direct speech, it’s frequently changed in reported

speech.
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
(present tense) (past tense)

Will Would
Present-Be going to Past-Be going to

Must (necessity) Had to*

Have/has to Had to
Not have to Didn’t have to
Must not (prohibition) Must not

*Notice that had to is used instead of must in the past tense reported speech
when must means necessity.

13 . IRREGULAR ADVERBS.

Some adverbs have irregular comparisons.

ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Well Better than The best
badly Worse than The worst

The comparative form is used when referring to two people or things.

The superlative form is used when referring to three or more people or
things.

BOOK 15 - GRAMMAR.

1. NEVER , EVER, SELDOM, ALWAYS, USUALLY , OFTEN,

FREQUENTLY, OCCASIONALLY , SOMETIMES.

There are some adverbs that are called adverbs of frequency.

Notice where they are in the sentences. The most common position is before
the verb, but after BE. They can also come at the beginning or end of the
semtences.

43
 She is Seldom On time
Is she Usually On time?
She Never Comes here.
Does she Always Come here?

3. MORE ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY.

Usually, frequently, seldom , ever, never,

Always, occasionally, sometimes, often …..

4. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS.

More and Most are used with adverbs of 2 or more syllables for the
comparative and superlative forms.
ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Slowly More slowly than The most slowly

Carefully More carefully than The most carefully
frequently More frequently than The most frequently

These are some examples of adverbs formed by adding ly to adjectives.

*Note de spelling changes.
Correct--------correctly
Beautiful------beautifully
Natural --------naturally
Soft -------------softly
Quiet------------quietly
Careful ----------------carefully
Cautious --------------cautiously
Slow --------------------slowly
Nervous ---------------nervously
Quick -------------------quickly

*easy------------easily *angry ------------------angrily

*reasonable—reasonably *automatic-------------automatically

5. THE SUFFIX ION.

The suffix ion may be added to some verbs to form nouns. Note the spelling
changes….
Collect ---collection Confuse------confusion
Educate---education Instruct -----instruction
Locate------location Select------selection
Operate -------operation Promote-----promotion

6. WOULD & WILL.

We use will and would to say what we want or want to do.

Can I help you please? Yes, I’d like a cheese sandwich. (= I want a cheese
sandwich.)

We’re having a party next weekend. Can you come? Yes, I’d love to.( = Yes, I
want to come.)

That box looks heavy. I’ll help you with it. ( = I want to help you with it.)

7. REVIEW OF MODALS.

Should , ought to, and be supposed to have the same meaning. They are

44
 used to give advise.
You should study more.
You ought to do better.
We’re supposed to take off our hats inside.

Used to is used to express an activity, situation , or habit that existed in the

past but which no longer exists.

I used to smoke ten years ago, but I don’t any longer.

Would is used to express an action that was repeated regularly in the past.
Used to can also be used this way.

When I was a boy, my father would play baseball with us. When I was a boy,
my father used to play baseball with us.

Must is used to express deduction and probability .

John’s not in class. He must be sick today…..

8. LET’S GO SOMEWHERE.

To express an indefinite place or location we use the adverbs somewhere,

anywhere, and nowhere.
This is how they are used:
Somewhere in affirmative questions/statements,
Anywhere in affirmative questions/negative statement ,
Nowhere in short answers. (nowhere means not anywhere.)

Are you going somewhere?

Are you going anywhere?

Yes, I’m going Somewhere. (+, ?)

No, I’m not going Anywhere. (- , ?)

Where are you going?

Nowhere. (+)

9. WAS/WERE GOING TO.

Was/were going to , is used to say what someone intended to do something

in the past, but didn’t…

John was going to fly to Paris, but he changed his mind..

My sister was going to meet me for dinner, but she forgot..

9. ELSE.

The word else is used with adverb and pronoun compounds of some , any,
no, and every:
Someone else/somebody else = some other person
Anyone else/anybody else = any other person

45
 No one else/nobody else = no other person
Everyone else/everybody else = every other person.

Something else = some other thing

Anything else = any other thing
Nothing else = no other thing
Everything else = every other thing

Somewhere else = in/at/to some other place.

Anywhere else = in/at/to any other place
Nowhere else = in/at/to no other place.
Everywhere else = in/at/to every other place.
11. DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH.

When a modal is used in direct speech, it is sometimes changed in reported

speech. Notice will/would.*
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
(past tense) (past tense)
Ought to (advise) Ought to
Should (advice) Should
Used to/would (past routine Used to/would
Used to (discontinued past habit) Used to
Must ( deduction) Must
Must not (deduction) Must not
Was/were going to Was/were going to
Would like to (desire) Would like to
Will*/would (willingness) would

12. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

The following words are reflexive pronouns:

Myself Itself
Yourself Ourselves
Himself Yourselves
herself themselves
A reflexive pronoun is used as an object and refers to the subject of the
sentence or clause.
He looked at himself in the mirror. She injured herself during the game.
The children went to the movies by themselves .
Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis.
Who cooked dinner? . Betty herself cooked dinner, not her mother.
She cooked dinner herself….

I myself locked it.

I know the door was locked.

I locked it myself.

13. LINKING VERBS.

We use adjectives after certain verbs called linking verbs. When an adjective
is used after a linking verbs, the adjective modifies the subject of the
sentence.
The most common linking verbs are:
Appear Get Smell
Be Keep Sound

46
 Become Remain Stay
Feel seem taste

Examples:
Your friend is very nice
The coffee taste strong.
Tom appeared calm during the storm.
The food will remain cold on the ice.
Bill seems nervous about his operation…

BOOK 16 - GRAMMAR

1. IT’S SAFER TO JOG DURING THE DAY.

A good plan To save Money every month.

It’s Expensive To take A taxi.
Not healthy To skip Meals.
fun Swim.

2. YOU’D BETTER PAY THE RENT.

Pay the rent today.

You Had better Get to class on time.
‘d better Stop at the red light.

Forget to pay the rent today.

You Had better not Be late for class .
‘d better not Run the red light.

4. YOU SHOULD GET MORE REST .

= WHY DON’T YOU GET MORE REST?

= WHY NOT GET MORE REST?

Use the infinitive of the verb (without to) after “why don’t you” and “why
not”..
I Ask for a drink?
Don’t you Call him?
Why We Watch the news?
not Start jogging?
Open it now?

5. PAST PERFECT TENSE.

The past perfect tense expresses an activity that was completed before
another activity occurred in the past.
He Started the car After they’d fastened their seat belt
I Hadn’t met him Before he came to our class.
She Had gone inside By the time he thought to ask her.

47
The past perfect tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the
verb. It ‘s used when you’re talking about two things that have already
happened…

6. PASSIVE VOICE: BE PASSIVE.

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT AGENT

ACTIVE The secretary types The letters.
VOICE
PASSIVE The letters Are typed By the secretary.
VOICE
To form the Be – passive:
Add be + ed (past participle) to the verb. Move the object of
the sentences to the subject position.
Add by to the original subject and move it to the agent
position. The agent may be omitted.

7. DAN HAD BEEN DRIVING FOR 10 YEARS BEFORE HE GOT A

TICKET.

The soldiers Had been Marching For hours before dinner

The tourists Napping During the rain storm.
Ted and Bob Hadn’t been Watching TV while I was
shopping

8. WHICH DO YOU PREFER.

I
You Meat to chicken.
He Prefer (s) Boating to skiing.
She Tea rather than coffee.
We To ride rather than walk.
they

9 . THE ROADS WERE DANGEROUS TO DRIVE ON.

He was Easy To understand.

It’s Impossible (for me) To eat ice cream on cold
I am Difficult days.
To be with when I’m mad!!

10. WE WERE UNABLE TO FIX IT.

Am
I Was

Sue Is Unable to Fix it.

He Was
You
Bill and I Are
They were

Isn’t able to
Sue Is unable to Install de battery.

48
 Can’t
Wasn’t able to Be here last night
Frank Was unable to Be here last nighr.
Couldn’t

11. ENOUGH.

I’m Dirty enough To take a shower.

Jim couldn’t jog Fast enough To catch Bill.
Do you swim Regularly enough To keep fit?

12. TOO MANY; TOO MUCH..

Count nouns are things that can be Non count nouns are things that can’t
counted. be counted..
Lessons Information
Showers Rain
Dollars Money
Spoons Sugar
Cups Coffee
Glasses Water
Minutes Time
peoples news
Too many is used to express “more Too much also means “more than
than enough”. .Use too many with enough”. .Use too much with non
count nouns. count nouns.

BOOK 17 - GRAMMAR

1. A LINKING VERBS.

The linking verbs in the list are used to express a state or condition. They
also reflect a point of view.

John is His father.

taste The cake we had in Paris.

Sounds A good idea.
Looks A nice place to stay.
It Smells (to me*) like Smoke in this room.
Feels Another cold evening.
Seems The right thing to do.
Appears

* This can also be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.

To be often follows the verbs appear and seem in this pattern.

Angry
Seems A nice person.
He Appears (to me*) To be In a hurry.
Interested in books.

49
 * This is sometimes placed at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence.

2. INDIRECT SPEECH: YES/NO QUESTIONS.

Direct speech Can we Go fishing

John :
Indirect John asked Whether They could Go fishing.
speech (Sam) if

Direct speech Jack: Do you want To go to Europe?

Indirect Jack asked Whether I wanted To go to Europe.
speech (me) If

Note that the present tense verbs change to past tense, the order of the verb
and the subject changes , and the pronouns and possessive adjectives
change from one person to another.

5. EMBEDDED YES/NO QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES .

(statements)

Is it supposed to rain?
I don’t know
I wonder
I can’t remember If It’s supposed to rain (or not).
I’ve forgotten whether
I’ve not sure
I have no idea
When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to
introduce the clause.

6. EMBEDDED YES/NO QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES .

(questions)

Is Major Simms in?

Do you know
Can you tell me
Could you tell me If Major Simms is in (or not)?
Could you please tell me Whether
Do you have any idea
Do you by any chance
know

7. EMBEDDED QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES .

(questions)

When Does the library open?

What Time is it?

Do you know
Can you tell me
Could you tell me when The library open?
Could you please tell me what Time it is?
Do you have any idea
Do you by any chance
know

50
 When a question-word-question is changed to a noun clause, the same
question word is used to introduce the clause…

8. EMBEDDED QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES .

(statements)

Where Is the library?

When Will he leave?
who Can help me?
I don’t know
I wonder
I can’t remember where The library is.
I’ve forgotten when He will leave.
I’ve not sure who Can help me.
I have no idea

9. PASSIVE VOICE WITH MODALS.

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT

Will
Must
Ought to
Should Put on
ACTIVE They Can Wear Shoes.
VOICE May Remove Hats.
Might Take off Gloves.
Could
Have to
Don’t have to
SUBJECT VERB AGENT
Will
Must
Ought to
PASSIVE Shoes Should Put on
VOICE Hats Can BE Worn
Gloves May Removed (By them).
Might Taken off
Could
Have to
Don’t have to

10. QUESTION WORD + INFINITIVE.

Decide
Find out
Forget When To leave
Know Which To buy.
Learn How To cook.
I didn’t Remember Who To ask.
Show (her) Where To go.
Tell (him) what To do.
Teach (them)
ask (you)

51
11. EVEN THOUGH!!!
MANY PEOPLE DRIVE 65 MPH EVEN THOUGH THE SPEED LIMIT IS 55….

Although my apartment is quite small, I like it a lot.

I like my apartment a lot although it is quite small.

Though that restaurant is very expensive, it is always full.

That restaurant is always full though it is very expensive…

12. HIS DEATH SADDENED THEM ALL.

Soft
The fire Weak The pots.
I Black The dishes.
You Hard
Dark

Short The pool.

We Wide -en(s) The lake.
The workers Deep -ened
Bill
Tight
Sharp The screw.
loose

The death Sad The children.

13. WE HAVE TO READ THESE DIALOG, DON’T WE?

TAG QUESTIONS

Doesn’t study every day, Does

He Hasn’t written his family, Has He?

Isn’t leaving tomorrow, Is

Should do your homework, Shouldn’t

You You?
Have a large family, Don’t

Are a student here, Aren’t

14. HE LOVES THIS BOOK, AND SO DO I.

He went downtown. I went downtown.

He went downtown, and I did too.

So did I.
She doesn’t like fish. They don’t like fish.

52
 She doesn’t like fish, and Neither do they.
They don’t either..

BOOK 18-GRAMMAR

1. PAST PASSIVE VOICE WITH “BE”

SUBJECT VERB DIRECT OBJECT AGENT

ACTIVE Lt Hill Flew The plane.
VOICE
PASSIVE The plane Was flown ----------------------- By Lt. Hill
VOICE

2. CORRELATIVE CONJUCTIONS.

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join nouns, adjectives, adverbs,

verbs , phrases, and clauses..

BOTH….. AND and NOT ONLY…..BUT ALSO indicate addition.

EITHER….OR indicates choice/alternative.
NEITHER…NOR indicates negative choice/addition.

Each conjunction should be placed immediately in front of the word, phrase, or

clause it connects.

Examples: Both Janet and her sister arrived last night.

You can either go with me or stay here.
He’s not only intelligent but also wealthy.
Roy drives neither careless nor fast.

When the compound subjects of a sentence are joined by either…or/neither…

nor, the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the number
of the noun phrase closest to it.
Examples: Either Mr. Reynolds or his sons always attend the company’s
annual meeting.

Neither the passengers nor the bus driver was injured in the
accident.

3. INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT SPEECH Ann: What Is the matter, Tom?

(present tense) Why Are you so late?

INDIRECT SPEECH Ann asked (Tom) What The matter was.

why He was so late.

4. ANTICIPATORY IT

It be- verb adjective that noun clause

53
 someone made mistake
It is Possible
was Clear (that) the party was over

5. IF CLAUSE (UNREAL PRESENT CONDITIONAL)

If – clause that refer to an unreal, or hypothetical situation* in the present use

verbs in the subjunctive mood. Their forms are the same as those of the past
tense, except for the verb be. Were, not was, is used with singular nouns and I,
he, she, and it.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE (CAUSE) MAIN CLAUSE (EFECT)

If he exercised regularly, He would probably feel better.
If you called Steve now, You might be able to reach him.
If we left earlier, We could get home before dark.
If I were you, I’d follow the doctor’s advice..

The If-clause can also follow the main clause. In the pattern, there is no comma
between the clauses.

MAIN CLAUSE (EFECT) CONDITIONAL CLAUSE (CAUSE)

Sam wouldn’t get so confused If he followed instructions.

You could get your money back If you had your sales slip.
I might understand her better If she spoke more slowly..

* Such a situation is often also called a condition contrary to fact.

6. WISH + THAT NOUN CLAUSE
(PRESENT UNREAL SITUATIONS)

WISH THAT NOUN CLAUSE

The students wish They graduated sooner.
My instructor wishes that She could retire next year.
Captain Wilson wishes He were a four-star general.
The trainees often wish They weren’t in the service.

7. BE USED TO/ACCUSTOMED TO VERSUS USED TO

Used to can indicate a discontinued past habit. Something that was once done
regularly but is not anymore. When it is used in this way, it is followed by an
infinitive without to (the simple form of the verb).

USED TO INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO

Harry Work In an office downtown.
Janet Used to Teach Classes at the university.
They ride To work together every day.

Used to can also express the same meaning as accustomed to.

Then, like accustomed to, it is followed by a noun or a gerund.

BE USED TO/BE NOUN/GERUND

ACCUSTOMED TO
They are used to Beef and potatoes for dinner.

54
Jean isn’t used to Eating supper at six o’clock.
We were accustomed to Dry weather in Arizona.
I wasn’t accustomed to Carrying an umbrella everywhere.

8. VERB + DIRECT OBJECT + TO-INFINITIVE.

SUBJECT VERB DIRECT TO-INFINITIVE

OBJECT
I Advice You To make a reservation.
We Expect Everyone To leave the meeting.
They Require Their customers To pay in advance.

These are some of the verbs which can appear in this pattern:
Ask, Advice, Allow, Cause, Convince, Expect, Help, Instruct, Invite, Need,
Order, Permit, Require, Select,Teach,Tell, Want, Warn, Would like.

9. NEGATIVE QUESTIONS.
Negative questions are formed by adding the word not after the verb or
modal..

Example: Were you not at the meeting?

Did the secretary not notify you?
Why was everyone not told about it?

However, a contraction of not and the verb or modal is almost always used
in informal speech and writing.

Example: Weren’t you at the meeting?

Didn’t the secretary notify you?
Why wasn’t everyone told about it?

The use of a negative yes-no question indicates that the speaker thinks he
already know the answer. He hopes for or expects an affirmative response
from the listener, even though he does not always receive one.

Examples: Wasn’t the game postponed?

Yes, it was put off until next weekend.
Haven’t we met somewhere before?

No, I don’t believe so.

A negative question that begins with a question-word is simply a

request for information.

Examples: Why wasn’t the game held today?

The coach had to be out of town.
Who hasn’t met the new commander yet?
No one in our office has..
10. TAG QUESTIONS.

STATEMENT TAG
You’re a pilot, Aren’t you?
They study a lot, Don’t they?
We can leave now, Can’t we?
He’s not pilot, Is he?
They don’t study a lot, Do they?
We can’t leave now, Can we?

55
11. CAN’T/COULDN’T AS LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY.

Can’t and Couldn’t are often used to mean “It’s not possible that” or “It’s
impossible that……”

Example: It’s not possible for the car to be out of gas.

It’s impossible for the car to be out of gas.
The car can’t/couldn’t be out of gas.

12. HAVE, MAKE AND GET.

Have, make and get are often used to indicate that one person has the
power to force another to do something.
Get is followed by a noun or pronoun and a to-infinitive . Have and make
are followed by a noun or pronoun and an infinitive without to.

Had
Made Fix
He The mechanic The car.

got To fix

13. PERFECT MODALS.

Modals in the perfect tense have the following meaning:

May have, might have, and could have express possibility about a past
action or condition.

Ex: The secretary may have gone to lunch.

They might have taken a different flight.
You could have cashed a check at the BX.

Must have indicates that a deduction is being made about a past action or
condition..

Ex: They’re not hungry. They must have already eaten.

Should have and ought to have indicate that a past obligation wasn’t
fulfilled. They also express the idea that a sensible action was no taken.

Ex: We should have asked Ted to eat dinner with us.

I ought to have studied more for the test.

Should not have is used to indicate that the a past action or condition was
not wise(no se sabia)
EX: He shouldn’t have changed lanes without signaling.

14. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

MAIN CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

She’s a person (whom) I’d like to meet.
Is that the book (which) The teacher gave you?
Here’s the money (that) I borrowed from you.

15. THE SUFFIX “MENT

VERB SUFFIX NOUN

56
 Advertise Advertisement
Agree + ment = Agreement
Appoint Appointment.

BOOK 19-GRAMMAR

1. POSSESSIVE NOUNS

To show that people own or possess something, we add an apostrophe

and –s (‘s) to a singular noun or irregular plural noun. The pronunciation
is the same as with plural nouns.
When the final sound is voiced (words that end with the letters m, n, b, y,
l, r, g, or vowel), we pronounce ‘s as /z/.
Ex: Sally rents this apartment.
This is Sally’s apartment.
The restroom for men is next to the elevator.
The men’ s restroom is next to the elevator.
When the final sound is voiceless (words that end with the letters s, t, p, f,
k), we pronounce ‘s as /s/.
Ex: The report the lieutenant made was long.
The lieutenant’s report was long.
When the final sound ends in the letters s, sh, ch, ge, x, or z, we
pronounce ‘s as /ez/.
Ex: This book belongs to Les.
This ‘s Les’s book.
When we have a plural noun, we add only the apostrophe (‘) after the final
-s. The pronunciation doesn’t change.
Ex: The students have books.
Those are the students’ books.

2. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVES PRONOUNS

My Mine
Your Yours
His His
Her Hers
Its Its*
Our Ours
their Theirs
Possessive adjectives are used Possessive pronouns are used
before nouns. alone without nouns.
This is my pen. This pen is mine.
That’s your book. That book is yours.
These are her papers. These papers are hers.
* The pronoun ITS is not commonly used.

3. INSEPARABLE TRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS.

In this group are transitive verbs (two-word verbs) whose parts are never
separated by an object. We call these inseparable transitive phrasal verbs.
Also included in this group are phrasal-prepositional verbs with three parts
that are never separated.

PHRASAL VERBS MEANING EXAMPLES

57
1. call for Go to get, pick The movie stars at seven o’clock. I’ll call
up. for you at about six.
2.call on Pay a a. I call on him whenever I’m in NY.
visit/request b. And now I’d like to call on our guest
someone to speaker to say a few words to us.
speak or recite
3. catch up overtake This student was never able to catch up
with with the rest of the class.
4. check out ofEnd stay in I checked out of the hotel at eleven.
hotel.
5. check up on Investigate the The police are checking up on the recent
background… activities of all four men.
6. chip in Contribute If we all chip in a dollar a piece, we’ll be
something, able to buy a nice gift.
usually money
7. come across find When a was cleaning out a drawer, I came
across some interesting old photographs.
8. come along accompany Why don’t you come long with us?
with. There’s plenty of room in the car..
phrasal verbs meaning examples
9. come to total The hotel bill came to $71.40.
10. drop in on Visit informally Our neighbor from up the street drops in
on us from time to time.
11.drop out of Stop attending, A few students have dropped out of
quit. school. They’ll probably have trouble
finding a good job.
12. get along Maintain a good I understand he’s getting along better
with relationship with with his mother-in-law than he used to.
13. get behind Delay in meeting Thy had so much sickness in the in the
in. some family that they got behind in paying their
obligation.. bill.
14. get in/get Enter or leave Get in front seat; the back’s full of stuff!!
out (of).. car, or others He got out of the taxi at Time Square..
small vehicles..
15. get on/get Enter or leave Get on the bus at the next corner.
off bus or other I got off the ship at Naples.
large vehicles..
16. get on with continue Let’s get on with our math lesson.
17. get over Recover from It took me two months to get over that
illness, surprise.. cold I caught at Christmas.
18. get through Finish, complete I’d like to read that book when you get
with through with it.
19. go on with continue Go on with your story; I’m enjoying it!
20. go over review Let’s go over the last two pages again.
21. go through Endure/search in a. That was the worst experience I
ever went trough.
b. Would you mind going through
this box of cold clothing to see if
there’s anything worth keeping.
22. keep on Continue to I kept on walking, though I no longer
knew where I was going.
23.keep up Remain equal a. She works so fast that I can hardly
with with/remain keep up with her.
informed… b. I subscribe to several news magazines.
24. look after Guard, take care We have a baby-sitter to look after our
of children when we want to go out.
25. look down Feel superior to She looks down on everyone who has
on less education than she does.
26. look Anticipate… I look forward to meeting you again in the

58
forward to. near future.
27. look in on Pay a brief visit I think I’ll look in on my sister on my way
to home.
28. look in to investigate While you’re in NY, you might look in to
the possibility of finding a job there.
29. look out for Be careful about When you drive in residential areas, you
have to look out for children.
30. look up to Respect, admire He’s trusted by his employers and look
up to by all his fellow workers.
31. put up with Tolerate, endure You have to put up with a lot of
inconveniences when you travel.
32. run across Meet by chance When I was in Rome, I ran across several
of my former students..
33. run into Meet by chance We ran into some old friends last night.
34. run out of Exhaust the Coming back from Austin, we ran out of
supply of gas.
35. see about Find out what I have to see about shipping my excess
has to be done baggage by boat.
and then to do..
36. send for Order by mail I had to send for those books…
37 send for Summon a I have to go. The boss just sent for me
person by and wants to see me at once.
means of
another person.
38. take after Resemble a John takes after his father, but Mary
parent, etc.. doesn’t look or act like of her parents.
39. take out Pursue, chase The policeman took out after the
after speeding car.
40. talk back to Answer without They child talked back to his teacher and
respect was sent to the principal’s office.
41. think up create He’s always thinking up new ways to get
rich quickly.
42. wait on serve Here you can never find anyone to wait on
you

4. COULDN’CT HAVE.
We use couldn’t have + past participle to express logical impossibility about
a past action.
Example: Mark couldn’t have quit job.
I saw him at work just this morning.
Lt Rice couldn’t have been promoted yet.
He only recently became a lieutenant.

5. COULD HAVE.
We use could have + past participle to express past unfulfilled ability.
Examples: Curtis could have gone to college.
He decided to get a job instead.
Molly could have been a supervisor, but she turned down the offer.

6. FEW & A FEW.

Few has a negative connotation. It means not many or not enough .
A few, on the other hand, doesn’t have the negative connotation and means
several even though in a small quantity.. They are used with count nouns..
Ed is not popular; he has few friends (neg.)
I still have a few dollars left. (pos.)

7. LITTLE & A LITTLE.

Little has a negative connotation. It means not much or not enough.

59
A little is more positive and means some. They are used with no count nouns.
We’re so busy at the job that we have little time for conversation (neg.)
Let’s sit here. We have a little time before the bus leave. (pos.)

Many (contable) Much (no contable) Sentido de la oracion

few Little Sentido negativo
A few A little Sentido positivo

8. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES: Past unreal condition or situation.

Conditional sentences have two parts: The If-clause and the main clause. One
type of conditional sentence is used to show a past unreal condition or
situation . It tells what could , would , or might have happened in the past if
certain condition or situation had been true. The if-clause has the past perfect
tense, and the main clause uses could have, might have, would have plus a
past participle. Note that the if – clause may come before or after the main
clause.

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

Could
If we had left earlier, we Might Have been on time
Would
Could
If you had had more money, what Might You have done?
Would

MAIN CLAUSE IF CLAUSE

Could
Ed Might Have passed If he had studied harder.
Would
Could
Might You have gone If you had finished your work?
Would

9. SUFFIXES: ABLE – IBLE

The suffixes “able” , and “ible” are added to certain nouns and verbs to make
adjectives. These adjectives have the meaning of “capable of” or “showing-
having”.
Examples: We can refund your money.
Your money is refundable.

Smoking isnot permitted here.

It is not permissible here.
Accept| acceptable love| lovable
Adjust| adjustable mange| manageable
Agree| agreeable move| movable|moveable
Believe| believable notice| noticeable
Depend| dependable reason| reasonable
Inflate | inflatable sense | sensible
Like| likable wash | washable

10. PASSIVE TO-INFINITIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT

60
A passive to-infinitive (to / be / past participle) can be used as a direct object
of certain verbs such as expect, hope, like, need, prefer, and want.

Examples: Mike expects to be observed on his job today.

Lt Wyn hopes to be considered for that assigment.
The general would like to be served immediately.
The colonel needs to be answered honestly.

11. INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

A present progressive tense in direct speech should be changed to the past
progressive in indirect speech.

Direct
Speech Ann: I ‘ m going to the coast this weekend.
Indirect
Speech Ann said that she was going to the coast this weekend.
Direct
Speech Ed: Al, are you taking the bus to work tomorrow?

Indirect Ed asked me if/wheter I was taking the bus to work tomorrow.

Speech

BOOK 20

1. REVIEW OF INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE QUANTIFIERS

USE WITH:

COUNT NOUNS NONCOUNT BOTH COUNT AND NONCOUNT

NOUNS NOUNS
Many Much Some a good deal of
Several A little Any a great deal of
A few little More a lot of
Few Most lots of
Enough plenty of
All

2. REVIEW OF HOW MUCH/HOW MANY AND UNITS NOUNS WITH OF

To inquire about the amount or quantity of something , we use a question

beginning with how much or how many. How much is used with noncount
nouns and how many with count nouns.
Examples: How much gas does this tank hold?
How many gallons of gas did you buy?
To express quantity or amount, we use the pattern below:

UNIT NOUN - OF - count/noncount NOUN.

Examples: The recipe calls for a pint of cream.
There were only two cans of soup left.

3. OF WITH PRONOUN QUANTIFIERS

PRONOU QUANTIFIERS – OF

Much of all of either of few of one of

Many of most of neither of a few of two of
Some of half of both of little of three of
Any of none of more of a little of

61
4. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE

The present progressive tense is used to refer to an activity or event which is

currently in progress.
Examples: The mechanic is repairing my car.
They are offering courses in spanish.
The passive form is used when the agent either is not known or is not
considered as important as the action or event.

Examples: My car is being repaired (by the mechanic).

Courses in Spanish are being offered.

Passive form of the present progressive tense.

Am
Is being past participle
are

5. PAST PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE

The past progressive tense refers to actions or events which are no longer in
progress.

Examples: someone was painting their house yesterday.

The doctor was treating the patients.

The use of the passive form emphasizes the receiver of the past action rather
than its agent. It can also indicate that the agent is not known.

Example: Their house was being painted yesterday.

The patients were being treated (by the doctor).

Passive form of the past progressive:

Was
Were being past participle.

6. ELSE
Question – words
Who Will be at the party?
Whom else Should we ask to the party?
What Can I do?
Where Can I look for my keys?
When else Do you have time?
How Can I get there?
Why Would he do it?
Pronouns

He does not remember Who else was there.

Do you know Whom else she spoke to?
Can you tell me What else he said?

Adverbs
She does not know Where else she should look.
When else to have the party.
Can you tell me How else I can do it?
Why else he would say that?

7. DIRECT OBJECT PASSIVE INFINITIVE / PAST PARTICIPLE

62
When we have someone else perform a job for us, we often use a verb of
volition (like , want, need, or expect) , followed by a direct object and either a
passive infinitive or a past partciple.

Like, want, need and expect can be folowed by either a past partciple or a
passive infinitive.

Examples: I d like the oil changed this morning.

Pete wants his brakes checked before his trip.
He needs the wheels aligned as soon as possible.
The librarian wants the books to be returned in good
condition.
We d like the pictures to be taken by a professional
photographer.
Expect is usually followed by a passive infinitive.

Examples: The boss expects this job to be done today.

Maj Garza does not expect his orders to be changed.

8.Have and get are followed by a direct object and a past partciple. The
sentences below show the pattern.
Joe had His precription Filled.
Linda got Her letter Approved
I have to get My transmission Checked.
Did you get Your laundry Done?
How often do have Your hair Cut?
you
Why does not have Her car Painted?
she
When was the had The oil in your car Changed?
last time you

9. INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED SIMPLE PAST TENSE.

When a statement or question in the past tense is reported, two changes

occur:

1. The tense of the verb changes from simple past to past perfect.

Examples: Jane said, “Jim joined the Army”

Jane said Jim had joined the Army.
“Did Anne attend the meeting?” Al asked.
Al asked if Anne had attended the meeting.
2. First and second person pronouns change to the third person (unless
someone is reporting his own words).
Examples: Jim said “I joined the Army”
Jim said that he had joined the Army.
Al asked, “Did you attend the meeting, Ann?
Al asked Ann wheter she had attended the meeting
Al asked Ann If she had attended the meeting.
Ann said, “Yes, I went to the meeting, Al”.
Ann : I told Al that I had gone to the meeting.

10–IVE/-TIVE/-ATIVE SUFFIX

Sometime we can add the suffixes IVE, TIVE, or ATIVE to a verb or noun to
make an adjective. Adjectives formed in this way indicate a certain tendency,
character, or quality.

63
Examples: Linda talks all the time. She is very talkative.
This watch has a defect. It is a defective watch.
Our farm produces large crops. The land is very productive.

A change in the spelling of the verb or noun is required in some cases. When
either IVE or TIVE is added to a word that ends with the letter e, that letter is
omitted.

Examples: Communicate/communicative
Create/creative
Defense/defensive
Produce/productive
In other cases , letters in the stem (raiz) are changed.
Examples: destroy/destructive
Persuade/persuasive

11. COMPARISON OF QUANTIFIERS: LITTLE, FEW, MUCH, MANY

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Little Less (than) The least
Few Fewer(than) The fewest
Much More (than) The most
Many More (than) The most

12. SO (THAT)

Mary takes vitamins So (that) she won’t get sick.

He hurried So (that) he wouldn’t be late
She is studying more So (that) she can graduate on time.
Phil moved to Rome So (that) he could learn Italian.

13. AS MUCH /MANY AS

To express the idea of equality or the lack of it, we ca use as much as, or as
many as in the following pattern:

AS MUCH/MANY (noun) , as , NOUN/PRONOUN (VERB).

EXAMPLES: Rita knows as many people as Sara does.
Ed doesn’t earn as much money as Bob.
As many as is used with count nouns.
Example: We took as many pictures as we could.

As much as is used with noncount (mass) nouns.

Example: I don’t get as much mail as you do.

14. ADVERB COMPARISONS.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

MUCH MORE (THAN) THE MOST
A LITTLE LESS (THAN) THE LEAST

BOOK 21.

1. LET’T MAKE COMPARISONS !!

COMPARATIVE: - ER
SUPERLATIVE: THE - EST
ADJECTIVES
Old Older The oldest
Young Younger The youngest

64
 Pretty Prettier The prettiest
ADVERBS
Late Later The latest
Fast Faster The fastest
Early Earlier The earliest

COMPARATIVE: MORE/LESS

ADJECTIVES
Careful More careful Less careful
beautiful More beautiful Less beautiful

ADVERBS
Often more often Less often
Carefully more carefully Less beautifully
softly * more softly Less softly

SUPERLATIVE: THE MOST/THE LEAST

ADJECTIVES
Careful The most careful The least careful
beautiful The most beautiful The least beautiful

ADVERBS
Often The most often The least often
Carefully The most carefully The least beautifully
softly * The most softly The least softly
* NOTE: There are exceptions...

2. IRREGULAR FORMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

Bad worse the worst

Badly worse the worst
Far farther/further the farthest/the furthest
Good (adj) better the best
Well (adv) better the best

3. TOO , ADVERBS , TO INFINITIVE

Besides meaning “more than enough or more than is necessary for a

particular purpose”. The word too also indicates a problem or difficulty .
Look at too followed by an adverb and for plus object and/or the to-infinitive.
This city grews too rapidly For me.
(For me) To keep up with it.

4. REPORTED PAST PROGRESSIVE SPEECH

STATEMENT WITH PAST PROGRESIVE.

Last action 2nd action
(main clause) (time clause)
Ben was eating dinner When Tom called.

In reporting what was said in a past progressive statement or a question,

change the past progressive to the past perfect progressive. The verb in the
time clause remains the same.

Questions
What did Al say ? / what did Al tell you?

65
 Reported Speech with past perfect progressive.

Al said
Al told me (that) Ben had been eating When Tom called.

Yes / No Question with Past Progressive

Was Ben eating when Tom called?

Questions.
What did Al say? / What did Al ask you ?

Reported Speech with Past Perfect Progressive.

If
Al asked (me) Ben had been eating When Tom called.

wheter

Question-word Questions with Past progressive.

Where
What Was Ben eating When Tom called?

Questions
What did Al say?; What did Al ask you?

Reported speech with past perfect progressive.

Al asked (me) Where Ben had been eating When Tom called.

What

5. SO....(THAT) / SUCH....(THAT).

SITUATION RESULT
Jim is So Tall (that) He has to bend to
Such A tall man enter.

6. SHOWING EFFECT OR RESULT.

as a result, He can’t buy a new car.

thus,
Mr.Green lost his job; therefore,
consequently,
As a result, He can’t buy a new car.
Mr Green lost his job. Thus,
Therefore,
consequently

7. ASKING ABOUT DEGREE WITH HOW + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB.

How tall is he? / How well does play the guitar?

66
How sick was your father? He was so sick that he had to go to the hospital.
How near do you live? I live very near...
8. REVIEW OF BE-PASSIVE

In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the
passive verb. The pasive is formed with the verb BE + the past participle.
The agent may or may not appear in passive voice sentences.

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT AGENT

ACTIVE Capt Lee Helps Lt Reed.
VOICE They Wash The cars.
Capt Lee Helped Lt Reed.
They Washed The cars.
PASSIV Lt Reed Is helped By Capt Lee.
E VOICE The car Are washed.
Lt Reed Was helped By Capt Lee.
The cars Were washed.

9. PRESENT PERFECT BE-PASSIVE

The present pefect passive is used to indicate an indefinite past action or
event.
SUBJECT VERB OBJECT AGENT
ACTIVE Capt Lee Has helped Lt Reed.
VOICE They Have washed The cars.
PASSIV Lt Reed Has been helped By Capt Lee.
E VOICE The cars Have been
washed.

10. CHANGING TO NOUNS

-Y
ADJECTIVE NOUN
honest Honesty
-TY
ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN
Certain Uncertain
Entire Loyal
special Safe
-ITY
Electric Public
Formal Neutral
Real Fatal
Personal Stupid
Regular Elastic
national rigid
humid Senior
technical Popular
-ITY (SILENT VOWEL DROPPED)
secure active
creative severe
clear generous
-ILITY( L + SILENT VOWEL DROPPED)
responsible probable
elegible dependable
visible reliable
able Capable
sensible Posible
Flexible

67
11. RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES(L3)
A restrictive adjective clause modifies a noun by describing or giving
additional information about that noun. It always directly follows the noun to
which is relates. Since it follows so closely, this clause frequently separates
noun from the verb.
Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns that/which/who
and relate to the subject of the clause. In this type of structure, the clause is
linked to part or all of the main clause.
The relative pronouns may not be omitted.
Examples:
The book is on the table. It is interesting.
The book that is on the table is interesting.

The movie was on TV yesterday. It made me cry.

The movie which was on TV yesterday made me cry.

12. MORE RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

Adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns
who(m)/which/that and relate to the object of the clause. The relative
pronouns may be omitted.

Examples:
The woman was beautiful. I met her in the library.
The woman ( who(m) ) I met in the library was beautiful.

The wallet belongs to Larry. Mark found it in the lab.

The wallet (that) Mark found in the lab belongs to Larry.

13.WHERE/WHEN USED AS RELATIVE ADVERBS

Some adjective clause may be introduced by the relative adverbs where/when
and relate to the place or time.
Examples:
I prefer the French restaurant. We ate there last week.
I prefer the French restaurant where we ate last week.

14. WHOSE IN RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

Another restrictive adjective clause is introduced by the relative adjective
“whose”. It is used to show possession and replaces the possessive
adjectives in combined sentences. It comes directly after the noun to which it
relates and almost always refers to people.
Examples:
Last night , we met a man. His wife was born in Australia.
Last night, we met a man whose wife was born in Australia.

15. PAST PERFECT BE-PASSIVE.

The past perfect passive is used to indicate an action or event which

occurred before another action or event in the past. * Note that passive
voice changes occur only in the main clause of the statement.
MAIN CLAUSE TIME
VOICE SUBJECT VERB OBJECT EXPRESSION
ACTIVE John Had finished The report
VOICE The report Had been Before Al left.
finished

16.ANTICIPATORY IT + GERUND
A gerund is frequently used as the subject of a sentence.

Traveling, to Europe this summer will be exciting.

68
 Not buying a new car was a big mistake.

Sometime the gerund is used in a sentence with an anticipatory it

construction. The it and the gerund phrase mean the same thing.

It’ll be exciting traveling to Europe this summer.

It was a big mistake not buying a new car.

The pattern used in these sentences is:

It + Be + noun/adjective + gerund phrase.

17. NONREFERENTIAL THERE + GERUND

There + Be means something exists. It can sometimes be followed by a gerund
phrase.

There was yelling and screaming at the football game.

There will be celebrating after the graduation.
There is no smoking in this building.

18. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE REDUCED TO TO-INFINITIVE PHRASE.(L4)

Restrictive adjective clauses can be reduced to to-infinitive phrases. For +
noun or pronoun sometimes comes before the to-infinitive phrase.

Roger has a lot (that) he must learn.

Roger has a lot to learn.

Mr. Kent is the man (whom) you should talk to about your taxes.
Mr. Kent is the man to talk to about your taxes.

Relative clauses introduced by when and where can also be reduced to to-
infinitive phrase.

Do you know a place (where) I can buy batteries?

Do you know a place to buy batteries?

19. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVE AFTER BE.

The to-infinitive and gerund forms can be used as subject complements after
the verb BE. There are differences in the usage of the two. Subjects which
express duty, advice, purpose, etc, are often followed by infinitive.

Jim’s goal is to learn Russian.

Her purpose in life is to be a good teacher.
His advice was not to fly in this weather.

20. NOUN CLAUSE AFTER CERTAIN VERBS.

A noun clause can be used after certain verbs that express necessity and
requesting. Some of the more common verbs are:
Advice recommend insist
Ask request order
Command suggest urge

“that” can be used to introduce these clauses, It can also be omitted in this
structure. When a noun clause follows one of these verbs, the verb in the
clause has no –s for third person singular and no –ed for past tense. Be is
used instead of is, am, are. We say that the verb is a subjuntive form.

His mother finished (that) he be home at eight.

I suggested to John (that) he study for the test.

69
BOOK 22
1. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE VS. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Use the present progressive to talk Use the simple present tense to talk
about something that is happening about something that happens all the
now. time.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Look!! It’s snowing !! It’s usually snws here in the winter.

Excuse me, what are you doing? What do you do after class most of the
time?
John and his cousin are jogging Do you ever jog? Yes, I jog every
around the block. morning.

2. REVIEW OF YES / NO QUESTIONS

STATEMENT YES/NO QUESTIONS

A statement gives some kind of
information.
Examples:
They live in New York.
He rides a bicycle to work.
She’s studying French at night.
They will leave tomorrow.
The girls had already eaten before
they got home.
A yes/no question is a simple question
which elicits a yes or no answer. It can
begin with forms of do, forms of be,
has/have/had, or modals.
Examples:
Do they live in New York?
Does he ride a bicycle to work?
Is she studying French at night?
Will they leave tomorrow?
Had the girls already eaten before they
got home?

3. PREFIX RE-
The prefix re- has the meaning of again.
Examples:
Bill: I’m glad we’re fixing this old radio.
Fred: I’m , too, but reconnecting the wires will be difficult.

4. AS IF / AS THOUGH
The conjunctions as if and as though are preferred in formal speech to
introduce an adverb clause of manner which expresses how someone or
something looks, sounds, smells, feels, or seems. Informally, however, we use
“like”.

As if
It smells As though Something is burning.
like

We can also use as if or as though to show how someone does something.

Examples: Helen speaks as though she knows that subject very well.
Bob always acts as if he’s mad.
Rita reads that story as though she’s written it.
5. SUFFIX –NESS
We can add the suffix –ness to some adjectives to make nouns which then
express “the quality or state of being”.
Examples:

70
Dark/ darkness great/greatness
Dizzy/dizziness happy/happiness
Empty/emptiness ill/illness

Ready/readiness quick/quickness
Friendly/friendliness sick/sickness

6. NOUN AS OBJECT COMPLEMENT AFTER VERB OF CHOOSING.(L2)

In sentences that contain verbs of choosing, considering, and thinking, two
nouns can follow the verb. These two nouns refer to the same person or the
same thing. These sentences may be written different ways.

Examples: The players elected Jim as their leader.

The players elected Jim to be their leader.
The players elected Jim their leader.
(Jim = leader)
Note: In some sentences, either as or to be can be used, but not both.

7. REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO ADJECTIVE PHRASE.

Sentences that contain adjective clauses can be shortened by changing the
adjective phrases. Either the present or past participle is used in the phrase.

Examples:
Cars that are parked on the grass/must be moved.
Cars parked on the grass must be moved.

No one who is taking the test/may leave the room.

No one taking the test may leave the room.

8. REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

Sentences that contain adjective clauses with a subject pronoun and the verb be
followed by a prepositional phrase or the verb have and a direct object can be
shortened by changing the adjective clauses to prepositional phrases. Adjective
clauses that contain have/don’t have are reduced to prepositional phrases
containing “with” or “without”..
SUBJECT ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PREDICATE
Subject Prepositional
pronoun + Phrase
Be/have
The pay phone That’s On the wall Doesn’t work
The pay phone ---------- On the wall Doesn’t work.
The cap That has A star on it Is the general’s.
The cap ----------------- With a star on it Is the general’s.

9. SEQUENCING MODIFIERS BEFORE NOUNS.

Study the columns below. They show the kinds of words that can be used to
describe something and the order in wich the words are usually placed.
Determiner Adjective that Adjective that Noun used Noun
that tells gives a general gives a as an headword
which or how description. physical adjective
many. description.
An Exciting Soccer Match
Mom’n Delicious Hot Apple Pie
Dangerous Narrow Mountain Roads
Their Heavy Combat Boots
The Clear Blue Sky
No Major Health Problems

71
Two Interesting New TV Programs
Eager Young College Students
Several Small State Colleges
A dozen cheap white paper Plates.

10. VERB + THAT-NOUN CLAUSE.(L3)

A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb and is used as part
of a sentence. There are certain verbs that are followed by that (optional) +
noun clause.
NOUN CLAUSE
I think (that) I’ll leave tomorrow.
Did you forget (that) John isn’t here today?
The following verbs can be used with noun clauses begining with “that”.
Agree, believe, decide, disciver, doubt, feel, figure out, find out, forget, guess,
hear, hope, imagine, indicate, know, learn, notice, observe, predict, read,
realize, regret, remember, say, tell, think, and understand.

11. ENPHATIC “DO”.

When we want to stress or enphasize an action, we can use do, does, or did
before the verb.
Examples: Alan: Do you want to play soccer with us this afternoon?
Rick: I don’t play soccer, but I do play tennis.

Anne: Does Andy have a class tonight?

Paul: Not tonight, but he does have one Monday.
Note: Use the emphatic do sparingly.

12. SUFFIXES –FUL AND –LESS

We can add the suffixes –ful and –less to some nouns to make adjectives. The
suffixes –ful and –less have opposite meanings: -ful means “ful of or having”;
and –less means “without” or “not having”.
Example: Power The general is a very powerful man.
He has a lotof power and authority.
I couldn’t do anything. I felt powerless
I didn’t have the power to do anything.
Care Kay always obeys the traffic laws.She is careful
driver.
Gary doesn’t follow traffic rules. He is a
careless driver.
We cannot add these suffixes to all nouns to make words with opposite
meanings.
Example: friend He’s friendless
He doesn’t have a friend.
We can’t add –ful to”friend”.

13.MODAL REVIEW: CAN/WAS OR WERE GOING TO/BE UNABLE TO/HAD

BETTER.

Can is used to show possibility.

Examples: You can see the whole city from this tower.
Mark can jog tonight if he finishes work early.
Was/were going to is used to show past intention.
Examples: I was going to call you, but I didn’t have time.
We were going to go to the beach, but it started to rain.

Be unable to is used to show inability or incapability.

72
Examples: Ed has lost his watch and is unable to find it.
The sound was too low, so we were unable to hear the tape clearly.
Had better is used to give advice.
Examples: We had better call off the soccer game tonight.
It’s starting to rain. You’d better take your umbrella.

14. GET PASSIVE.

Get-passive is used to refer to an action that happens to something or
someone.
Examples: The house will get finished eventually.
John and sue got married last Saturday.
Rome didn’t get built in a day.

15. INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PERFECT.

A present perfect tense in direct speech should be changed to the past perfect
in indirect speech.

Examples: Pam: Have you ever been to Paris, Paul?

Paul: No, I’ve never been there.
(later)
Dan: What did Pam ask you?
Paul: She asked if I had ever been to Paris.

Kirk: I haven’t finished this report yet.

(later)
Sara: Has Kirk finished his report?
Pete: No, he said he hadn’t finished it yet.

BOOK 23
1. PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES AS NOUN MODIFIERS
A partciple is a verb form which can be used either in a verb phrase or as an
adjective. The present partciple ends in – ing. The past participle ends in –ed,
-d, -t, -n, or –en.
Examples: The water which boiling produces steam.
(present participle used in a verb phrase)
Boiling water produces steam.
(present participle used as an adjective)

He opened the envelope which had been sealed.

(past participle used in a verb phrase)
He opened the sealed envelope.
(past participle used as an adjective)
In a participle-noun combination, the noun receives the primary stress(/), and
the participle receives the secondary stress (||).

Examples: We walked for a mile in the pouring RAIN.

The bank will return your cancelled CHECKS.
2. REVIEW OF QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS
Question-word questions are used to ask for specific information, such as a
time, a name, a location, or a reason. They begin with one of the “question
words”: who, whom, which, what, whose, when, where, why, and how.
Example: Where’s the party?
Who’s invited?
How many people will be there?
What time does the entertaiment start?
When are you going?
3. PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES AS OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS
A present participle is used when the direct object performs an action. A past
participle is used when the direct object receives the action.

73
 SUBJEC VERB DIRECT OBJECT PARTICIPLE
We found The other guests Waiting for us.
He kept His fear of heights Hidden.

4. REVIEW OF THE IMPERATIVE FORM (L2)

Is used to give commands, instruccions, and situations. The simple form of
the verb.(the bare infinitive) is used. The negative imperative is formed with do
not or don’t.
Answer the phone, please
You Don’t move the victim.
Go Two blocks straight
ahead.

5. ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME

Adverb clauses of time are introduced by the following conjuntions: as, after,
before, now that, until, when, while, whenever, since, and as soon as.

Example: Please lock the door when you leave.

Others precede the main clause and are followed by a comma.
Example: When you leave, please lock the door.
6. THE GERUND AS A NOUN MODIFIER.
A gerund is a verbal noun ending in –ing. It can be used before another
noun to describe that noun’s purpose.
Example: a fishing boat = a boat for fishing.
In a gerund-noun combination, the gerund receives the primary stress; the
other noun receives weaker stress called third stress.
Example: typing paper = paper for typing.

7. PREPOSITION OF PLACE AND DIRECTION (L3)

Prepositions which indicate place or location.

At beside near over
Above between next to throughout
Among in on under
Behind in back of on top of underneath
Below in front of opposite beneath
inside

Preposition which indicate direction of movement:

Around from on through
As far as in onto to
Away from into out(of) toward(s)
Down off past up.
8. THE SUFFIX –WARD
The suffix ward(s) is used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate a
direction in time or space.
Examples: northward, southward, eastward, westward, upward(s),
downward(s), backward(s).
THE WIND IS BLOWING SOUTHWARD...

9. THE SUFFIX –ERN

Indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a certain direction. It is
aded to nouns to form adjectives.
Examples: northern, southern, eastern, western.
“I live in the southern part of the country”.

10. INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE.

a. The tense of the verb changes from the present perfect progressive to the
past perfect progressive.

74
 Example: Jim said, “Ann has been teaching French.”
Jim said that Ann had been teaching French.

Jan asked, “Have you been working here long, Ed?”

Jan asked Ed if he had been working here long.
b. First and second person pronouns change to the third person (unless
someone is reporting his own words.)

Examples: Ken said, “I’ve been trying to lose weight.”

Ken told me that he had been trying to lose weight.

Kay said, “I’ve been trying to reach you, Jan”

I told Jan I had been trying to reach her.

11. HE TOLD ME THAT THEY HAD BEEN WORKING ALL DAY.

Verb in the sentence Verb in the sentence that
Originally spoken: Tells what was said:
Have/has been_____ing Had been_________ing
Hasn’t/haven’t been_____ing Hadn’t been_______ing

12. THEPREFFIX –PRE (L4)

Examples: This meat is cooked and ready to eat. It’s precooked.
Is this a new car? No, it’s preowned...

13. USING SHOULD , OUGHT TO, AND SHOULD HAVE TO EXPRESS

EXPECTANCY.
Should and ought to are used to express what we suppose is happening now
or will probably happen in the future.
Examples: I mailed the package yesterday.
You should get it tomorrow.

We ordered dinner 20 minutes ago.

The waiter ought to be bringing our food soon.
Should have is used to express expectation about actions or conditions in the
past.
Examples: The flight left Miami on schedule.
It should have already landed in New York.

13. REVIEW OF ADVERBS OF DEGREE.

Adverbs of degree are used to enphasize or limit adjectives or other adverbs.
The following adverbsof degree are placed in front of the word they modify.
A little entirely much scarcely
Absolutely extremely nearly so
Almost fairly only somewhat
Awfully far quite such a (n)
Barely hardly rather too
Completely just really very.

One adverb of degree differs from these: enough follows the adjective or
adverb it modifies.

Examples: I thought the test was fairly easy.

Al found the exam extremely difficult.
He must not have studied hard enough.
The students did rather well on their tests this morning.

14. SUFFIXES –ANCE/-ENCE

The suffixes –ance and –ence can be added to verbs to form nouns which
name an act, condition, or quality.

75
Example: accep + -ance= acceptance.
(the act of accepting)

exist + -ence = existence

(the condition of existing)
BOOK 24

1. THE GERUND AS DIRECT OBJECT(L1)

Some verbs in English are followed by a gerund or a gerund phrase. The
gerund is the verb form which ends in –ing. The gerund is used as a noun.
TYPE OF SUBJECT VERB GERUND (PHRASE)
SENTENCE
Affirmative I Put off Studying until today.
She Practices Speaking English every day.
They Considered Inviting Mary.

Negative I Don’t like Wearing glasses

He Doesn’t miss Being with his family
They Don’t mind Helping

I Like Not wearing glasses.

She Regrets Not being with her family.
They Deny Not helping the police.

Do you Like Playing the guitar?

Interrogative Did he Continue Studying French?
Can they Begin Working on the report now?
This is a partial list of verbs which can be followed by a gerund.

Allow , anticipate, appreciate, begin, can’t help, consider, continue, deny,

discuss, enjoy, escape, finish, imagine, keep, like, mind, miss, permit,
postpone, practice, put off, quit, recall, recommend, regret, remember, report,
resist, start, stop, suggest, tolerate, understand...

2. THE SUFFIX –FY/-IFY

The suffix –fy or –ify is added to some nouns and adjectives to make verbs.
The suffix expresses the meaning of “to make or become”. * Note the spelling
changes.

Examples:
Beauty/beautify glory/glorify pure/purify
Class/classify just/justify simple/simplify
Electric/electricity liquid/liquefy solid/solidify

3. REDUCING AN ADVERB CLAUSE OF TIME TO A MODIFYING PHRASE.

EXAMPLES:
I feel sleepy whenever I study after dinner.
I feel sleepy whenever studying after dinner.

Before we opened the door, we heard a loud noise.

Before opening the door, we heard a loud noise.

Could you walk after you fell off the horse?

Could you walk after falling off the horse?

While you were in Germany, did you hear the news?

While in Germany, did you hear the news?

76
4. THE PREFIX CO- (L2)
Co- is a prefix which has the meaning of “joint” and “together with”.
Sometimes co- appears as com-, con-, or col- like in the words compress,
contain , and collect.

5. ONE USE OF THE GERUND

Eating too much candy is bad for you teeth.
Not getting enough sleep will make you feel tired at word.
Johnny’s(*) fast driving caused him to lose his license.
(*) possessive form...

6. ANOTHER USE OF THE GERUND.

A gerund or gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear
after the verb in an anticipatory-it consruction.
Examples:
It’s been a pleasure meeting you.
(means the same as)
meeting you has been a pleasure.

It hasn’t been fun climbing this mountain.

(means the same as)
Climbing this mountain hasn’t been fun.

7. ONE MORE USE OF THE GERUND

A gerund or gerund phrase may be used as the object of a preposition. It can
be made negative by placing the word not before the gerund. If there’s a
subject of the gerund, it must be in the possesssive form.

EXAMPLE:
Thank you for being my friend.
We were happy about not having homework.
When he spoke to the soldiers, the colonel insisted on their standing at
attention.

8. TAG QUESTIONS
Tag questions are short questions which are attached to statements.
Affirmative statements have negative tag questions. Negative statements
have affirmative tag questions.
Examples:
You can understand this , can’t you?
You locked the front door, didn’t you?
There isn’t a television in that room, is there?
You like lemon in your tea, don’t you?
There aren’t any problem, are there?

9. SUBJUNTIVE THAT NOUN CLAUSE AFTER ANTICIPATORY – IT

A noun clause which follows an anticipatory –it construccion has the verb in
the subjuntive mood.
Anticipatory –it Subjunctive noun clause
Adjective
Advisable
Best
Better I be on time.
Compulsory You do the work.
It’s Critical He not fail the exam
Essential (that) She remain in class
Important The book be studied.
Mandatory We report to the chief.
Necessary They go to the meeting.

77
 Required
Urgent

10. TENSES INDICATING FUTURE (L3)

A future action or condition is expressed with will or be going to. When
there’s certainty about a future action, the simple present tense or the
present progressive may also be used. Time expressions often accompany
these last tenses to clarify time.
Will depart
The train Is going to depart At 2:30 p.m.
Departs
Is departing

11. TO –INFINITIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT.

An infinitive is the word to + the simple form of a verb. An infinitive may be
used as a noun. In the pattern illustrated below, an infinitive or an infinitive
phrase is used as a direct object. Note the negative form of the phrase.
Subject Verb Direct Object
Infinitive Phrase
Mr. Crane Likes To go to the movies.
Jerry Is planing To cook dinner tonight.
The students Will need To do their homework.
Louise Has decided Not to watch TV.
Monty Promised Not to spend all his
The men Agreed money.
Not to fight.
This is a partial list of verbs which are followed by an infinitive. The verbs
with an asterisk (*) may also be followed by a gerund or gerund phrase.
Afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, attempt(*) , begin(*) , bother, care,
choose, continue(*) decide, demand, determine, expect, fail, forget(*),
happen, hate(*) , hesitate, hope, intend(*) , learn, like(*), love(*), manage,
mean(*), need(*), neglect(*), offer, plan(*), prefer(*), prepare, proceed,
promise, refuse, regret(*), remember(*), request, seem, star(*), tend, threaten,
try(*), volunteer, wait, want, wish.....

12. PAST PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IN INDIRECT

SPEECH.
DIRECT Ed: I’d worked in a bank before I came to this job.
Ann: I’d been swimming before Sam called.
SPEECH Ron: where had Kim studied English before she came here?
Pam: Had you met Mr. Wong before?
INDIREC Ed said (that) he’d worked in a bank before he came to his job.
T Ann said she’d been swimming before Sam called.
Rom asked where Kim had studied English before she came
SPEECH here.
Pam asked me if/wheter I had met Mr. Wong before.

13. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS : SOME, ANY, AND NO COMPOUNDS (L4)

The indefinite pronouns something, someone, somebody, anything, anyone,
and anybody can be used in questions.
Examples:
Did Al put something in his car?
Did you see someone/somebody in the lab?
Would you like anything to drink?
Did you speak to anyone/anybody about your problem?

78
Something, someone, somebody,anything, anyone, anybody, nothing, no
one, and nobody can be used in affirmative sentences.
Examples:
Ed put something in his desk.
I saw someone/somebody in the library.
You may choose anything you want from the menu.

Anything , anyone, and anybody can be used in negative sentence.

Examples:
Joe didn’t bring anything to wear for cold weather.
I don’t want anyone/anybody to know I’m leaving.
14. INDEFINITE ADVERBS: SOME, ANY, AND NO COMPOUNDS.
Someplace, somewhere, anyplace, and anywhere can be used in questions.
Examples:
Would you like to go someplace/somewhere after dinner?
Are you going anyplace/anywhere this weekend?

Someplace , somewhere, anyplace, anywhere, noplace, and nowhere can be

used in affirmative sentences.

Examples:
John went someplace/somewhere this morning.

Anyplace , and anywhere can be used in negative sentences.

Example:
I feel ill, so I won’t go anyplace/anywhere tonight.

14. VERBS OF PERCEPTION + BARE INFINITIVES OR PRESENT

PARTICIPLES.
The Present Participle is used to emphasize the duration of the action.

These verbs follow the pattern:

Feel look at observe smell
Hear notice see watch
Listen to

Example:
We saw him run/runing across the field.
Can’t you smell the cookies baking in the kitchen?

15. THE SUFFIXES –ENT/-ANT

EXAMPLES:
-ENT -ANT
Absorb / absorbent assist / assistant
Converge/convergent observe/observant
Depend/dependent please/pleasant
Differ/different rely/reliant

BOOK 25

1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Certain coordinating conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or
clauses that funtion the same way within a sentence. When a coordinating
conjunction connects these same structures, it is called “parallel structure”.
The most common are: and, or, but, and not.
And: It’s used to indicate addition.
Or: is used to indicate a choice of two items or an alternative.
But: show a contrast between two items.

79
Not: shows an acceptance of one and a rejection of another. It’s usually set
off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION.
The following conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions:

Both ......and
Not only.....but also
Either.......or
Neither.....nor
Both ..and shows the addition of two or more items or persons. It is stronger
than and.

Not only..but also is similar to both...and. It includes two or more items or

persons..

Either ....or indicates a choice between two items or persons.

Neithefr ...nor is the negative of either...or . It is never used with a negative

verb.

The items that are joined by correlative conjunctions must be parallel, the
same kinds of words or phrases. Notice in the examples below that each item
in each part of the paired conjunction is the same grammatical structure.

Both George and hir brother can play the piano.

(noun) (noun)
Her husband not only cooks but also cleans the kitchen.
(verb) (verb)
either corn or wheat can be planted here.
(noun) (noun)
Betty is neither kind nir helpful.
(adj) (adj)

3. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE.

The conjunctions where and wherever are commonly used to introduce an

adverb clause of place. The clause will answer the question where?

Other conjunctions used are anywhere and everywhere, with or without that
following it.

Clauses beginning with wherever or everywhere can come either before or

after the main clause.

Examples:
Apple don’t grow where the weather is hot.
The weather was cool wherever we traveled.
Wherever we traveled , the weather was cool.
You may sit anywhere (that) you like.

4. ADVERBS OF TIME (L2)

80
 Yet, already, still, and anymore are adverbs of time. They have different
meanings and are used in different types of sentences.

Yet shows that we expect some action to take place in the future. It is used in
Yes/no questions and negative statements at the end of the sentence.

No, I haven’t received the letter yet.

Already shows that an expected activity has happened. It’s used in questions
and affirmative statement, usually in the middle of the sentence.
Dinner has already been served.
Have you already mailed the package?
Still shows that a situation continues to exist from the past to the present. It
is used in questions and statement in the middle of the sentence.
Does he still live in los Angeles?
Yes, he still lives there.
Still can also carry a negative meaning .
He still hasn’t finished what he was told to do.
Anymore shows that a past situation is over and doesn’t continue to exist. It
is used in Yes/no questions and negative statements at the end of the
sentence. It is frequently used with still to show a contrast.

I don’t go to the gym anymore, but I still exercise every day.

Do you speak italian anymore?

5. ADVERBIAL CONNECTIVES OF ADDITION.

There are certain words which can join two related ideas or sentences.
These words are frequently called connectives, or transitions. Some of them
are used in conversation while others are used mainly in writing.
One type of connective expresses addition. They mean and. They are used
when you want to add something to what has already been said or when you
want to add an additional though which supports a previous one.
The following is a list of connectives that express addition:
Also , besides, furthermore, in addition, and moreover..

SENTENCES THAT CONTAIN THESE CONNECTIVES CAN BE PUNTUATED

IN A COUPLE OF WAYS.
Also
Besides
SENTENECE ; Furthermore , SENTENCE
In addition
moreover
Also
Besides
SENTENCE . Furthermore , SENTENCE
In addition
moreover
Examples: Cigarettes are expensive ; in addition , they are bad for your
health.

6. BE ABOUT TO
Be about to is used for the very immediate future.
The ship is about to leave. ( the ship will leave any minute now).
When we talk about the past, be about to is commonly used with a time clause
beginning with when.
We were about to leave when friends came to visit.

81
 7. THE PREPOSITION “OF”
The preposition”of” has many different usages in English. He following are
some of the most common ways of used.
a. Of is used to indicate possession or association .

We don’t know the name of the baby.

The police want to know who the owner of the car is.

b. Of is used to show origin (where something comes from).

The coffee of Colombia is delicious.

c. Of is often used to show a part or amount.

Some of the tourists became sick.

d. Of is used in an oppositive meaning.

The state of Alaska is very large.
(state = Alaska)

e. Of is used to say what something is made from.

The cup is made of silver.

f. Of is used to indicate thecontents of a container.

He drinks five glasses of milk a day.

7. COORDINATING CONJUCTIONS SO, YET, AND NOR.

They are used to connect two independent clauses.

So, is used to express result.

I had a bad toothache. (situation/actio)
I went to the dentist. (result)
I had a bad toothache, so I went to the dentist.

Yet is used to express contrast. It is similar to the conjuction but.

She didn’t study for the test. (action)
She passed it. (contrast).
She didn’t study for the test, yet she passed it.

Nor is used to indicate the addition of negative idea to a negative sentence.

The verb of the second clause is changed to the affirmative, and the word
order is changed to that of a question.

John can’t swim.(negative).

His brother can’t swim, nor can his brother (swim).
8. ALWAYS AND THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE.
Usually express at the moment of speaking. It implies that the activity will
probably end at some point in the future.
The plane is approaching the airport.

Express also future time .

Jack is leaving tomorow at 08:30 hours.

Express frequently repeated or habitual action.

Fred is always working late at his office.

Little children are always learning new things.

82
9. SUFFIX –AL
When we add this suffix , it has the meaning of “the act of or the process
of”. Look at the examples.
She will arrive a week from tomorrow.
We are looking forward to her arrival.
List of the most common nouns that are formed by adding the suffix –al .
Verb noun
Approve approval
Arrive arrival
Deny denial
Dissapprove dissapproval
Dismiss dismissal
Refuse refusal
Remove removal
Withdraw withfrawal

10. ANTICIPATORY –IT + NOUN CLAUSE

A THAT noun clause which is the subject of a sentence can be placed after
the verb. It’s used in the usual subject position before the verb. This type
of construction is called an anticipatory-it construction.

Certain verbs expressing emotional reactions can be used in this

anticipatory-it construction. It’s a way to tell someone how you or
someone else feels about something.

Amaze disturb shock

Annoy frighten surprise
Bother hurt
Dissaoint irritate

It doesn’t surprise me that Joe was promoted.

/verb/ /noun clause./

The conjuction “That” is many times ommited in speech, depending on

the verb used, this contraction can express disapproval or
dissatisfacction on the part of the speaker:

It disturbs me that you never help with the work around here.
It bothers a lot of people that Mr. Smith is quitting his job.

BOOK 26

1. BE ALLOWED TO / BE PERMITTED TO
The expressions be allowed to and be permitted to are used to indicate
permission. Look at these examples:

SUBJECT+BE PERMITTED TO/ALLOWED TO+VERB.

They will each be permitted to bring 2 suitcases.
The students are allowed to use these computers.

2. LET’S ASK FOR PERMISSION.

ASKING PERMISSION:

Can ...? Are we allowed..? Is it okay if..?

Could ..? Are we permitted..? Would you mind if..?
May .....? Do you mind if...?
I wonder if I could..?
GIVING PERMISSION

83
Sure, go ahead. Yes, of course.
Sure, (it’s) okay. Yes, you (can/may).
Sure, no problem. Of course.
No, I don’t mind at all. Certainly.

DENYING PERMISSION
Sorry. Sorry, I can’t
Sorry , (it’s) not allowed/permitted. (No) I’m afraid not.
I’m sorry ,but.... Please don’t
I wish you wouldn’t

3. THE SIMPLE PAST IS USED TO EXPRESS.(L2)

........ An action that occurred at a specific time in the past.
Example: Al arrived ten days ago.
I woke up at 7:30 this morning.
........A single past action, or a repeated past action in a completed time
period.
Examples: He called me twice this morning.
They visited us once when we lived in New York.
THE PRESENT PERFECT IS USED TO EXPRESS:
..........An action wich began in the past and has continued up to the present.
Examples: I have worked here since 1986.
Up to now we have always bought new cars.

...........An action which occurred at unspecified time in the past.

Examples: They have already taken the test.
Have you ever eaten chinese food?
Words and expressions frequently used with the:
SIMPLE PAST PAST PERFECT
Ago since already
Before + ( an event) for+(time) yet
After + (an event) always just
Last (day/time word) (3) times ever
Lately recently
4. LET’S REDUCE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONTRAST TO MODIFYING
PHRASES.(L3)
Some dependent clauses in English can be reduced to phrases by omitting
the subject of the clause and BE form of the verb. Look at these adverb
clauses of contrast/concession. Pay special attention to the words in the
parentheses ( ), and notice how the clauses become phrases when they are
omitted.

Even if (he is) sick, Mark still tries to come to work.

The tank was damaged Even though (it was) made of armor.

Although (he was) tired, Tom studied until 3:00 a.m.

The dessert was delicious Though(it was) too sweet.

5. THIS LESSON’S SHORT; EVEN SO, IT’S VERY USEFUL

Even so,

84
 However,
Pete is looking for Nevertheless, He hasn’t resigned from
a new job; Nonetheless, his old one yet.
On the other hand,
Regardeless of that,
Even so,
The students did However, They did poorly on their
well in class. Nevertheless final exams.
Nonetheless,
On the other hand,
Regardeless of that,

6.STUDY THIS LESSON DESPITE THE FACT (THAT) YOU ARE TIRED.

She’ll never accept Despite How much it cost.

a gift from you. In spite of
No matter What you say.
Regardless of

Despite
In spite of What he’s done in the past, the jury should consider
No matter only the facts of this case.
Regardless of

The supervisor will Despite The fact (that)

continually check In spite of You’ve operated it
you out on the Regardless of For 2 years.
machinery.

Despite The fact (that) it’s been raining all week, the
In spite of graduation ceremony will still be held outdoor.
Regardless of

7.SIMPLE PAST TENSE AND PAST PROGRESSIVE.(L4)

Example simple Past:
Mary ate breakfast. (We know the action is
finished.....Mary ate; she’s not eating now).
Example Pas progressive:
Mary was eating breakfast. (We know Mary was in
middle of eating breakfast at some past time. But the statement does’nt tell
us if she finished eating it.).
Example Past progressive and simple past together:
Mary was eating breakfast when you called. (Mary was
in process of eating breakfast at the time that you called. Your call
interrupted her breakfast.)

8.IS EVERYONE READY TO CONTINUE?

Pay special attention to the compound some- , any-, no-, and every- words
and their modifiers. Descriptive adjectives modifying these compound appear
in the appositive position, following the compound word they modify.

Examples:
Did you meet anyone interesting in the class?
No, there was no one special in the group.
10. I WILL NEVER SPEAK TO HIM AGAIN!!

85
The frequency adverb negator, never, seldom, rarely, hardly, and scarcely,
are used toexpress the idea of infrequency. Frequently, they are used
together with the optional ever or the phrase at all as intensifiers of their
meaning. Notice the position of the adverbs in sentences. They will appear
before the verb, and/or after BE.
Examples: I am hardly ever able to catch up on my work at the office.
Randy never brings his own cigarettes.
Col Timmons scarcely look at the weekly reports.
Never say never.

10. SOMEDAYS I BARELLY KNOW MY OWN NAME !

The words barely (casi nada), hardly(apenas), and scarcely (plus the optional
any) are used in affirmative sentences to express degree. Without ever they
do not express frequency, but instead are used as intensifiers expressing
degree.
Examples: Look at Harry in the pool. He looks like he’s going to drown.
What do you expect? He hardly knows how to swim.

Would you like to read Paul’s letter?

Can you read it to me? I can barely read his writting.

BOOK 27.
1. USING WILL, WON’T , AND WOULDN’T TO EXPRESS WILLINGNESS AND
REFUSAL.
The word Will can be used to express this willingness. Won’t and wouldn’t
are used to express refusal.
Will + a verb can be used to express present or future
willingness. This structure has the same meaning as be
WILL + willing + to infinitive.
Example: John will lend me a dollar.
Jhon is willing to lend me a dollar.
Will + not (won’t) + a verb can be used to express
refusal in the present or future.
WON’T Example: Ed won’t give me a hand with the work.
Ed refuses to give me a hand with the work.
Would + not (wouldn’t) + a verb is used to express past
WOULDN’T refusal.
Example: He wouldn’t talk to us yesterday.
He refused to talk to us yesterday.

2.MANNER USING A PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

EXPRESSION + ING

Have fun singing

Have a good time playing
Have trouble studying
Have difficulty understanding
Have a hard time hearing
Have a difficult time getting

SPEND/WASTE + expression of time + -ing

Spend a year studying

86
Waste an hour waiting

SIT/STAND/LIE + expression of place + -ing

Sit at the computer working
Stand in line waiting
Lie on the beach sleeping

3. DO AS I SAY, NOT AS I DO.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF MANNER
In the way/manner that
The child obeys as a good child should.
My grandfather, as I remember him, was a big man.
Just as we expected, the mal was crowded.

4. THE SAME AS, SIMILAR TO, ALIKE, AND DIFFERENT FROM. (L2)

a. Same, similar, alike, and different function as adjectives.

These are the same pictures.
These pictures are alike.

b. Same indicates that the items being compared are identical, or without
differences. The always precedes same, and BE + the same is followed by
as. A noun or pronoun may come between BE + the same and as.
This picture is the same as that one.

c. Similar indicates that there are small differences between the items which
are being compared. BE + similar is preceded by a plural noun or
pronoun or a compound subject.
This picture and that one are similar.

d. Alike indicates that the items being compared are either almost or
completely identical. BE + alike is preceded by a plural noun or pronoun
or a compound subject.
These pictures are alike.

e. BE + different is followed by from.

This picture is different from that one.

5. SUFFIXES: - IC/- ICAL

MEAN “OF, LIKE, OR CONNECTED WITH”
This election will be remembered in history.
It’s an historic event.
The study of history interests many people.
Historical facts are easy for them to remember.
-ic -ical
Algebra/algebraic Method/methodical
Atom/atomic Comic/comical
Thermostat/termostatic Mechanic/mechanical
History/historic History/historical
Economy/economic Economy/economical
Technology/tecnhological
Atmosphere/atmospheric
Barometer/barometric Cylinder/cylindrical
Emphasis/emphatic Surgery/surgical
Anesthesia/anesthetic Chemistry/chemical

87
6. SUMMATION USING ADVERBIAL CONNECTIVES
All in all
Consequently
In all
In conclusion
To conclude
To put in briefly
In short
To summarize
In other words
In summary

7. USING BE TO(L3)
meaning “be required to”, “be supposed to”, or “be scheduled to”, is used to
express necessity/obligation or future time.
The plane is scheduled to leave at noon.
The plane is to leave at noon.

8. EMBEDDED QUESTIONS

How did he do it? (q-w-q)

I don’t know how he did it.(embedded clause)

Is he going? (yes-no question)

Do you know if he is going? (embedded clause)

How did he do it? (question word-auxiliary verb-subject-main verb)

I don’t know how he did it. (question word-subject-main verb)

Has he left? (auxiliary verb-subject-verb)

Do you know if he has left? (conjunction-subject-auxiliary verb + main verb)

What he did is not yet known.

How he got there is not important.

9. WHEREVER MEANS ANYWHERE

-EVER WORDS GIVE THE IDEA OF “ANY”.
We will follow whoever leads.
We will follow anyone who lead.

You may leave whenever you’re ready.

You may leave any time you’re ready.

10. IF, IN THE EVENT THAT, AND IN CASE (L4)

If you don’t lend me a dollar, I can’t buy the book.

I can’t buy the book if you don’t lend me a dollar.

Bring your keys in case the door is locked.

Bring your keys in the event the door is locked.

If it rains, the party will be held indoors.

In the event (that) it rains, the party will be held inddoors.

11. THIS IS A DEMAND, A REQUIREMEN, OR ESSENTIAL

- Provided (that) , providing (that), and If.

Example:

88
 You can borrow my book provided/providing (that) you return it tomorrow.
You can borrow my book if you return tomorrow.

12.THEY DIDN’T LIKE EACH OTHER.

THEY REFUSED TO SPEAK TO ONE ANOTHER

Dave looked at Marsha; Marsha looked at Dave:

They lookeed at each other. They looked at one another.

The pronouns each other (entre si) and one another(uno al otro) are used to
indicate a reciprocal or mutual relationship.

13. EXPRESSING CAUSE/REASON WITH BECAUSE, SINCE, AND NOW THAT.

Conjuction of Cause/reason clause Effect clause

cause/reason (main)
Because There were thunderstorms we had to turn off the
In the area, computers.
Since The computers were we decided to go out for
turned off, luch.
Now that The storms have moved we can turn the
out of the area. computers on again.

BOOK 28.
1. REVIEW OF MODALS

Modals are used with the bare infinitive, a simple form of the verb without
“to”.
Examples:

Can do would know must obey

Will call should leave had better go
May rain ought to pay have to know.
Can: is used to express ability. The negative of can is cannot (can’t).
Bill: Can Howard repair cars?
Dan: Yes, he can fix cars as well as trucks.
Can , may :
Are used to give and request permissioln. May is usually used in formal
situation in giving permission: can is informal. May not is more emphatic
than cannot.
May I, Can I
May I and can I are both used to request permission. May I is more formal
than can I. Which is used to request permission from someone you know
well.
Examples:
Dave: May I borrow your dictionary, sir?
Mr. Fry: Certainly. You may use it aslong as you like.
COULD , WOULD, WILL
Could you, would you, and will you are all used to make polite requests. All
have about the same meaning, except for could, which carries a slight
meaning of possibility. Please is often used..
Example:
Ann: Could you move your car, please? I can’t get mine out.
Sam: Yes, I’ll be glad to.
May, Might.
May and might both express posibility (maybe, perhaps).
May expresses more certainly than might.
Examples:

89
 Where are you going on your vacation?
I’m not sure. We might go to Hong Kong.
SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER.
We use should, ought to, and had better to give advice, recommend, or
remind someone of something important, for questions and negatives. We
usually use should and had better.
Example:
Bill: That report should be ready by tomorrow.
Lee: Then I guess I ought to stay until I finish it.

Should , ought to.

Should and ought to are also used to express expectation.
Examples:
Pat: Are you finished with the newspaper yet?
Hal: I ought to be finished with it in five more minutes.
Must, have to
We use must or have to to express necessity. Must has a stronger meaning
than have to and refers mostly to laws and regulations. Had to is used for
the past of must.
Must not and not have to have completely different meanings. Must not
stresses that something is not allowed or is against the law or regulations. It
can also be used as a warning. Not have to shows that something is not
necessary or required.
Examples:
Sgt Ames: How should I report this accident?
Sgt Dow: First, you must fill out this form.
MUST
We also use must to express probability or to reach a conclusion about
something based upon information we have. It’s sometimes used with the be
+ -ing form of the verb. The construction is usually not used.
Examples:
Text: I sure am hungry.
Fred: Me , too. It must be time for lunch.

2. TO- SUBSTITUTION
“To” – substitution can be used in the following constructions:
a. After verbs that take infinitive obcjects.
Frank has asked me to help him, but I really don’t want to (help him)

b. After adjectives following BE.

Jim isn’t here to show you what to do, but I’ll be glad to show (show you
what todo)
c. Negative form:
He wants to leave early, but I’ll try to persuade him not to (leave early).

3. USING A (AN) + A TIME WORD TO INDICATE FREQUENCY.

A common way to express frequency in english is to use once or twice or a
noun phrase with a (an) plus a time word.
Examples:
Once a day
Twice a month
Three times an hour
Four times a year
Several times a week.
These frequency expressions answer the question “how often?” and are
found at the end of a sentence.
Examples:
How often do you go to the library?
I go about three times a week.

90
4. THE SUFFIX –IST
“A person who does , makes , or follows” or “one whose profession is”.
Violin + - ist = violinist (one who play a violin)
Biology + -ist = biologist (one whose profession is biology).

5. ADVERBIAL CONNECTIVES
Abverbial connectives such as first, second, next, then , finaly, and last are
used when explaining the order in which events occur or the order in which
steps of an operation are performed.
Example: I got dressed first; then I ate breakfast and brushed my teeth.
Finally I went to work.

6.THE SUFFIX – IZE

Mean “make or cause to be”.
Equal + -ize = equalize.
Examples:
Joe: This article on art isn’t at all objective. It should be on the editorial page.
Ann: I agree. Reporters shouldn’t editorialize.

7. THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

a. The future perfect tense is formed as follows:
WILL HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
Exemples: will have lived
Will have written.
b.The future perfect tense indicates an event or condition which will be
completed before another event or specific time in the future.

now

_____________________________ | ____x______x___________future
| event 1 event 2

d. The future perfect is used with the action that happens first., The other
action is often introduced by a time expression beginning with by, when,
before, or by the time. If a time clause is used , it will be in the present
tense.

now

_____________________________ | ____x______x___________future
| will arrives
have
left

e. Finally , the event expressed in the future perfect tense can actually be
one that begins in the past and ends in the future.
Example: John will have lived there for five years when you visit him
next March.

now

_____________________________ | ____x______x___________future
| will have visit
lived

91
8.THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The future perfect progressive tense is formed as follows:
WILL HAVE BEEN + VERB – ING
Examples: Will have been living.

Like the future perfect, the future perfect progressive is used with time
expressions beginning with by, when, before, or by the time. If a time clause
is used, it will be in the present tense. Also, the event expressed in the future
perfect progressive tense can actually be one that begings in the past and
ends in the future.

Example: I will have been studying for three hours when you see me.

now

_____________________________ | ____x______x___________future
| |............ |
studying see

9. IF CLAUSES: REAL CONDITIONS AND UNREAL CONDITIONS.(L3)

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If I study hard, I always pass the test.
If I study hard, I will pass the test.
If you want to pass the test, Study hard.

MAIN CLAUSE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE

I always pass the test if I study hard.
I will pass the test if I study hard.
Study hard if you want to pass the test.

Present Unreal conditions.

Conditional clause Main clause

If I studied hard, I could pass the test.
If I were you, I would study harder.

Main clause Conditional clause

I could pass the test if I studied hard.
I would study hard if I were you.

Past unreal conditions

Conditional clause Main clause

92
 If I had studied harder, I could have passed the test.
If you had studied harder, Would you have passed the test.

Main clause If- clause

I could have passed the test if I studied hard.
Would you have passed the test If you had studied harder.

10. NOUN SUFFIXES

Example: base form: rely
Suffix –able: reliable
Prefix un- : unreliable
- ness , - ty , and –ity

ADJECTIVE SUFFIX NOUN

Blind + -ness blindness
Kind + -ness kindness
Safe +-ty safety
Familiar +-ity familiarity

-er, -or , and –ist

VERB SUFFIX NOUN

Sing + -er singer
Collect + -or collector

The noun suffix –ist can be added to some nouns to express the meaning
“one who” or “that which”

NOUN SUFFIX NOUN

Guitar +-ist guitarrist
Tour + -ist tourist

NOUN SUFFIXES : -ION, -ATION, -ITION, AND –SION .

VERB SUFFIX NOUN

Instruct + -ion instruction
Observe + - stion observation
Intend + - tion intention
Decide +- sion decision.

NOUN SUFFIXES: -AL, -ANCE, -ENCE, -MENT, -Y.

VERB SUFFIX NOUN

Approve + -al approval
Allow + - ance allowance
Refer + - ence reference
Employ + - ment employment
Recover +-y recovery

11. RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

Example: The boy who waved to us is my brother.
Adjective clauses introduced by “that” are always restrictive.

Nonrestrictive adjective clause

93
 Nonrestrictive adjective clauses usually modify proper nouns or nouns
modified by this or that. They are set off from the rest of the sentence by a
comma or a pair of commas. Who , whom, and which are used to
introducce nonrestrictive adjective clauses. That is not used.
Example: Mr. Smith, who lives next door, is moving to Ohio.
The clause “who lives next door” does not identify the man who is moving
to Ohio. He has already been named by the proper noun “Mr. Smith”.

12.NEGATIVE STATEMENTS (L4)

Examples: She will visit her mother today. (affirmative statement)
She will not visit her brother today. (negative statement).
I wash my car every Saturday.
I do not wash my car every Saturday
I don’t wash my car every Saturday.
I didn’t wash the truck.
I haven’t washed the truck yet.
My brother wasn’t late for work.
John might not have been sleeping late.
13.ADJECTIVE SUFFIX –LIKE
Examples: child + - like = childlike (resembling a child/having the
characteristics of a child)
When –like is added to words ending in double “l”, the words are hyphenated
Examples:
Bell + like = bell –like
Bull + like = bull – like

14.REDUCING ADVERBIAL CLAUSES TO PARTICIPIAL PHRASES.

Adverb Clauses of time.

While I was swimming in the I saw a large fish jump.

lake, (while) swimming in the
lake,
Robert always reads the while he eats breakfast.
newspaper while eating breakfast.
The driver, While he was racing to the Ran several stop
hospital, signs.
(while) racing to the
hospital,

Adverb Clauses of cause/effect.

Because he has been reassigned, Lt. West will leave soon.

Having been reassigned,
Because we were tired of waiting, We decided to go home.
Being tired of waiting,

The player, Because they have won, Want to celebrate.

Having won,
My suitcase, Because it is not full, Want to celebrate.
Not being full,

I wasn’t able to return the coat
The students stood at the corner
Because I’d lost the receipt.
Having lost my receipt.
Because they were waiting for the
bus.
Waiting for the bus.

BOOK 29.

94
1. REVIEW OF CAUSATIVES
The verbs have, make , and get are commonly used in causative
constructions.
MAKE/MADE
Mrs. Jones makes her children clean their rooms.
The instructor made the students stay after class.

When you “make someone do something” it gives the idea that there are no
choices; someone must do something. The bare infinitive(simple form) is
used after the verb.
HAVE/HAD
We have Mr. James paint our house every four years.
He had his friend help him with his homework.
GET/GOT
He’ll get the carpenter to build a bookcase.
She got the mechanic to adjust the brakes.
PASSIVE CAUSATIVES.
I had my film developed. (by someone)
We got our car repaired. (by someone).
2. TIME EXPRESSIONS
Examples:
He lives in New york now. (adverb)
We went to the post office yesterday. (adverb)
I sometimes visit the library. (adverb)
Class start at 0730.(prepositional phrase)
They went to the bank on Sunday . (prepositional phrase)
She has lived in China for two years. (prepositional phrase)

John left three hours ago. (noun phrase + ago)

All of these words and phrases that answer the question “when?” “how long?”
or “how often?” are called “time adverbials”.
Time adverbials can express definite time, a duration of time, or frequency.
a. Time adverbials expressing a definite time.
Denote a definite point of time, answer the question “when?”
Now yesterday in the morning
Then tomorrow on Saturday
Again last week at night
Just Monday evening three weeks ago
Recently next year the day after tomorrow.

b. Time adverbials expressing duration.

Answer the question “how long?”
He lived in Egypt for three years.
She’s been a doctor since 1985.

c. Time adverbials expressing frequency.

Answer the question “how often?”. Examples:
Definite frequency indefinite frequency
Daily always
Weekly sometimes
Every day frequently
Once a year usually.

3. VERB SUFFIXES
- EN, - FY, - IFY AND –IZE.
Wide – widen (to make wide)
Deep – deepen (to make deep)
Strength – strengthen (to make stronger)

95
 Length – lengthen (to make longer)
Clear – clarify (to make clear)
Solid – solidify (to become a solid)
Liquid – liquefy ( to become a liquid)
Modern- modernize (to make modern)
Familiar – familiarize (to make familiar).

4. GO + GERUND (L2)
The expressions with GO + VERB-ING are ones that describe activities.
Example:
We went fishing last weekend.
What do you usually do in the summer?
I like to go swimming at the lake.
The following are some common expressions with go+gerund:
Go dancing go shopping
Go fishing go sightseeing
Go jogging go swimming
Go running go walking

5. ADJECTIVE AND PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

Examples:
My son is afraid of lightning and thunder.
Don’t be worried about the storm.
Is he absent from school today?

Some adj-preposition combinations are frequently followed by a gerund (a

verb in –ing that functions like a noun).
Examples:
All of us are excited about visiting San francisco.
Bill is accustomed to eating dinner late.
Mr. Price is fond of reading at night.

6. SUFFIXES –AL AND –IAL

The suffixes –al and –ial can be added to some nouns to form adjectives.
They have the meaning “of, like, or suitable for.”

Examples: accident – accidental

Addition – additional
Commerce- commercial
Environment – environmental
Manager – managerial
Resident – residential
7. VERB + OBJECT + TO – INFINITIVE
Certain verbs are commonly followed by a noun or pronoun and a to –
infinitive. In this construction, the direct object (a noun or pronoun) is the
performer of the action of the infinitive.

Advise need
Allow order
Ask permit
Cause persuade
Convince remind
Expect require
Forbid teach
Force tell
Hire urge
Instruct want
Invite warn

8. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

96
 Direct speech , or quoted speech, refers to the original words of the
speaker, quotation mare is used.

Indirect speech or reported speech, refers to using a noun clause to report

what someone has said. Quotation marks are not used. Verbs and
pronouns will change from direct to indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

John said, “I feel sick” John said (that) he felt sick.
Bill said, “My car is new.” Bill said (that) his car was new.
VERB FORMS USED IN INDIRECT SPEECH

When the verb of the indirect speech sentence is in the past tense (said,
told, ask) the verb in the noun clause will also be in a past form. This
change to a past form is usually used when the words of the speaker are
reported at a later time, not immediately after it was said. Look at the
following examples of the sequence of tenses used in changing an indirect
speech noun clause to a past form.
Notice also the change in pronouns. The conjunction “that” is optional in
the indirect speech noun clause.

Direct speech Indirect speech.

He said , “I write a letter every day.”
He said , “I am writing a letter.”
He said, “I have written a letter.”
He said, “I wrote a letter.”
He said “I will write a letter.”
He said “I’m going to write a letter
aletter
He said “ I can write a letter”
He said “I may write a letter”
He said “I must write a letter”
He said “I have to write a letter.”
He asked “Do you want to write
a letter?”.
He said (that) he wrote a letter every day
He said (that)he was writing a letter.
He said (that) he had written a letter.
He said (that) he had written a letter.
He said (that) he would write a letter.
He said (that) he was going to write
He said (that)he could write a letter.”
He said (that) he might write a letter.
He said (that) he had to write a letter.
He said (that) he had to write a letter.
He asked me if I wanted to write a letter

9.FORMING ADVERBS (L4)

Many adverbs are formed adding the suffix –ly to adjectives to show
manner.The –ly adverbs describe the action of the verb and answer the
question “How?”. They are usually found at the end of the clause.
Adjective: slow
Adverb: slowly
Adjective: careful
Adverb: carefully

11. PREPOSITION “BY” AND “WITH”

Express “how” something is done.

“BY” show a means of transportation or communication:

by car by telephone by land
by train by mail by sea
by plane by air
other expressions:
by hand by mistake
by accident by check
Gerund or gerund phrase:
He entered the house by breaking the window.
She learned the word by looking it up in the dictionary.

97
 “WHIT”
Express how something is done when an instrument or part of the body is
used.

Frank dug a hole with his shovel.

She hit the table with her knee.

12. PAST MODALS

Could have.
We use could have to say that we had the oportunity to do something, but we
did not do it.
While in California, I could have visited San Francisco, but I didn’t. (I had the
oportunity to go there, but I didn’t.)
Could have, may have, might have.
We use could have, may have, or might have to say that something was
possible in the past. For the negative, we use either may not have or might
not have.

I don’t know why he failed the test.

He could have felt sick. (perhaps he felt sick)
He may have gotten confused. (perhaps he got confused)
He might have arrived late. (perhaps he arrived late)
He may/might not have studied. (perhaps he didn’t study)

Should have, ought to have

We use to say that someone did wrong thing , to give advice after something
has happened. Should have is used more commonly than ought to have.

The team had a very good game.

You should have been there.
John is very sleepy today.
He ought to have gone to sleep earlier.

Must have
We use to make conclusion or deductions about the past. ( we use must not
have ,not contraction in negative statement.)

I haven’t seen our neighbors for a while.

They must have gone on vacation.
His headlights were on all night.
He must not have turned them off when he got home.

BOOK 30.
1. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS
A gerund is often used as the subject of a sentence.
Subject Complement verb Complement
Driving Across the city takes About an hour

An infinitive may also be the subject of a sentence.

subject complement verb Complement
To leave Now Would be rude.
However , when an infinitive is used as the subject, it usually follows
anticipatory “it”
AN,IT | verb Complement Subject Complement
It | takes About an hour To drive Across the city
A gerund subject sometimes follows anticipatory “it” + adjective, this is
considered an informal usage. In formal writing, an infinitive would be used.
An , it | verb complement Subject Complement

98
 | was Nice Meeting You.
It | was wonderful To see Maria again.

2. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS.

A gerunds is often used as the subject of a sentence.

Subject complement Verb Complement

Driving across the city takes about an hour.

An infinitive may also be the subject of a sentence.

Subject complement Verb Complement

To leave Now Would be Rude.

However , when an infinitive is used as the subject, it usually follows anticipatory

“it”.
An , it Verb Complement Subject Complement
It takes About an hour To drive Across the city.

A gerund subject sometimes follows anticipatory “it” + adjective. This is considered

an informal usage. In formal writing, an infinitive would be used.

AN, IT VERB COMPLEMENT SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

Was Nice meeting You.
It Was wonderful To see Maria again.

3. SEQUENCE OF ADVERBS IN FINAL POSITION.

PLACE MANNER TIME
1 2 3
- The children are at home alone Tonight.

4. THAT – NOUN CLAUSE SENTENCES

A noun clause may be as the subject of the sntence. It may occur at the beginning
of the sentence (before the main verb), or it may follow an anticipatory “it” phrase.
It ‘s a wonder that you weren’t killed.
That you weren’t killed is a wonder.

5. CHANGING EMBEDDED QUESTIONS TO INFINITIVES(L2)

MAIN CLAUSE EMBEDDED QUESTION (noun clause)

how I can wrap this package?
Can you tell me where I can find that book?
what I should bring for the party?
how I can wrap this package.
I don’t know were I can find that book.
what I should bring for the party.

MAIN CLAUSE QUESTION-WORD + TO-INFINITIVE

how to wrap this package?
Can you tell me Where to find that book?
what to bring for the party?

99
 how to wrap this package.
I don’t know were to find that book.
what to bring for the party.

6. CONNECTIVES
CONNECTIVE USE EXAMPLES
Indicates Albert prefers to read rather than watch TV.
RATHER preference or Martha likes working in the garden rather than
THAN alternative in the kitchen.
(similar to We’ ll walk rather than take a taxi.
“instead of”)
Indicates addition The game was long as well as tiring.
AS WELL AS (similar to Paul ordered rice as well as potatoes.
“besides”) Sally swims as well as skis.
Indicates contrast The curtains fit the windows in length, but not
BUT NOT NOTE: But not width.
does not join The party was great fun, but not long enough.
verbs.

7. NOUN/ADJECTIVE APPOSITIVES

a. Adjective clauses reduced to appositive phrases.

Major Smith, who is a Navy pilot, plans to retire in March.
Major Smith, a Navy pilot, plans to retire in March.
The Millers are going to Jamaica between October and February, which is the
tourist season.
The Millers are going to Jamaica between October and February, the tourist
season.

b. Adverbial clauses reduced to appositive phrases.

Because he was exhausted from the long trip, Grandfather rested before going on.
Exhausted from the long trip, Grandfather rested before going on.
Although he was tired and hungry, Uncle Ben still refused to break for dinner until
he’d finished the job.
Tired and hungry, Uncle Ben still refused to break for dinner until he’d finished the
job.

8. ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES(L3)
-y, -ly, -fu, -less, -ern, -ous, -ic, -ical, -ish, -like, -al, -ar , -ary
Examples:
Silk/silky hysteria/hysterical
Brother/brotherly style/stylish
Use/useful child/childlike
Home/homeless station/stationary
North/northern family/familiar

-able, -ible, -ive, -tive, -ative.

Examples:
Refund/refundable protec/protective
Force/forcible produce/productive
Talk/talkative

-ent, -ant
Examples:

100
Differ/different assist/assistant

Ward.
Examples:
Back/backward land/landward.

9. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Singular Indefinite Pronouns:
One, each, either, neither, every, somebody, someone, everybody, everyone, no
one, nobody.
Examples:
One of the teachers in our school has a foreing car.
Each of the children in the class has a dictionary.

There + Be:
Examples:
There is a pencil on the table.
There are some pencils on the table.

Compound subjects:
Examples:
Her brother and president of the company was at the party.
Betty , together with her sister, is going to Italy.
David , accompanied by Theresa, was at the theater.
Every student and every teacher was at the meeting.
Each coach and each player knows this rule.
Beacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.
Tomas or Eric operates the new computer.
Neither Todd nor Roy understands the problem.
Either you or the girl has to complete the task.
Either you or the girls have to complete the task.
Neither Tom nor Jim was here.
Neither Tom nor his friends were there.

And when two or more subjects are joined by and, a plural verb is used.
Examples:
Ross and Ted are good friends.
Mr. and Mrs. Jones are hardworking individuals.

Expressions of quantity.
Any, all, some, none, more, and most.
Examples:
Are any of the students from Ecuador?
All of the water in this area has a lot of minerals.
None of the pie was eaten.
None of the pies were eaten.

Irregular construction:
Some nouns which are irregular always appear in plural form, and therefore require
plural verbs.
Example:
The clothes are in the dryier.
Other irregular nouns end in –s and are singular in meaning, and therefore take a
singular verb.
Example:
The news about more US jobs is good.
Plural :
The man works eight hours. The men work eight hours.
Singular:
One fish was in the shallow water. Ten fish were in deep water.

101
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Neither of the two instructors was at the party.
Every room in the house needs to be painted.
Someone from Spain is visiting Bruce.

THERE + BE
There is a student from Spain in our class.
There are many decisions to be made before we settle here.

COMPOUND SUBJECTS
The student and team captain is Mr. Smith’s son.
Sgt. Carson, together with Sgt Evans, rides the bus to the city.
Bread and butter is served at dinner.

EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY
Some of the butter contains less animal fat.
None of the pilots have checked in.

IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION
The following sentences contain irregular singulars and plurals.
- Physics keeps Ed very busy at he university.
- Mathematics confuses many students in that class.
- Whose pliers are on the table?
- The children go out to play everyday.
- The fish in the lake grow very quickly.
- The sheep on our ranch produce a lot of wool.

10. PERFECT GERUNDS AND PERFECT INFINITIVES.

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Perfect Gerund: Having + past participle Having been + past
participle
Having studied all night,
Gerald was ready for the Having been accused of
exam. robbery, Sam had to hire a
lawyer.
Perfect Infinitive: To have + past participle To have been + past
participle
The all night study session Today the accusations
proved to have been a against Sam appear to have
mistake for Gerald. been dropped.

11. ADJECTIVES USES AS NOUNS. (L4)

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns to refer to groups of people with the
quality of the adjective, for example, “the poor”.
Another group of adjectives, usually ending in –ese or –ish , refer to groups of
people of a particular nationality: the Chinese, the English.
When used as nouns, all of these adjectives regularly take a plural verb.
- Carring for the poor is one of the responsibilities of religion.
- An old saying states, “only the good die young.”
- After the battle, the dead were buried and the wounded were sent
home.
- The missing in action are the cause of many tears back home.

12. PRONOUN AGREEMENT.

PRONOUN FORMS
Subject object possess possess reflexive
adject pronoun

102
Sing. I me my mine myself
You you your yours yourself
She her her hers herself
He him his his himself
It it its itself

Plur. We us our ours ourselves

You you your yours
yourselves
They them their theirs
themselves

103