Cathodic Protection of Underground Gas Pipeline

Model Development and its Monitoring

Techniques at SSGC

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

Bachelor of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

By

Syed Ali Abbas D-13-MT-19

Ejaz Hussain Nasiry D-13-MT-17

Sayed Majid Ali Bukhari D-13-MT-26

Arif Hussain D-13-MT-47

Inayat Hussain D-13-MT-22

Turab Ali D-13-MT-43

Supervisor: Engr. Tufail Ahmed Ujjan

Co. Supervisor: Engr. Arshad Ali Jokhio

Department of Metallurgy & Materials Engineering

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi

2016

i
This work is dedicated to our parents and teachers for keeping our dreams alive and their dedicated
partnership for success in our life.

ii
 Dawood University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi

Certificate

This is to certify that the work presented in this project/Thesis on “Cathodic protection of
Underground Gas Pipeline Model Development and its Monitoring Techniques at SSGC”, is
written and completed by the following students themselves, under the supervision of Lecturer.
Engr. Tufail Ahmed Ujjan.

Syed Ali Abbas D-13-MT-19

Ejaz Hussain Nasiry D-13-MT-17

Sayed Majid Ali Bukhari D-13-MT-26

Arif Hussain D-13-MT-47

Inayat Hussain D-13-MT-22

Turab Ali D-13-MT-43

_________________________ _________________

Lecturer. Engr. Tufail Ahmed Ujjan External Examiner

Project/Thesis Supervisor

_________________________

Chairman,

Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

iii
 Acknowledgment

First of all, thanks to Almighty Allah for giving us courage, self-believe, motivation and
commitment to accomplish a prescribed final year project and thesis. It was not possible without
the spiritual influence of Allah, the Greatest.

Secondly, we are grateful to Dr. Muhammad Hayat Jokhiyo (Chairman MME Department), who
has always been very supportive and kind to us.

We are deeply thankful to our respected supervisor Engr. Tufail Ahmed Ujjan. He supervised us in
a way that we prospered to complete this work impressively.

Our gratitude to the co-supervisor Engr. Arshad Ali jokhiyo. He guided very well and made us
learn many things during this work.

We express our thanks to the Chief Engr. Khurram Sheikh at SSGC (Cathodic Protection
Department) and other staff. Their guidance and co-operation during the project work was really
worthy.

iv
 ABSTRACT

Cathodic protection (CP) is a method to suppress the corrosion of a metal by making it a

cathode of an electrochemical cell, and oxidation in the cell is concentrated at the anode. Impressed
current cathodic protection (ICCP) with coating offers optimal protection to the underground gas
pipeline against corrosion. Long transmission lines of kilometers can be protected by this technique
of cathodic protection, very well.

This project symbolizes the model of an (ICCP) system that is installed on an underground
steel gas pipeline. Experimental work was done to design the ICCP system for a pipeline structure
in a specific environment, on a criteria of National Association of Corrosion Engineering (NACE)
standards. System was installed and executed to protect the structure through current meet with
the criteria of NACE standard (RP 0169) for (CP), which requires potential must be kept between -
850 mV to -1200 mV for 3-LPE coating.

The results were revealed for the current requirement of structure by developing variable
soil resistivity. Current requirement increases on a little soil resistivity, and decreases on high soil
resistivity. Better protection can be attained when we have high soil resistivity, as it is a low
corrosive environment and economical to control by cathodic protection. Coating effectiveness is
also an important factor in cathodic protection technique. Results have shown the influence of
coating on current requirement and protection. Coating reduces the current requirement and the
protection of the structure becomes easy, through current.

Field surveys and measurements are also taken to have a better practical approach of the
technique. ICCP system must be tested on a regular basis. This testing will confirm that cathodic
protection is being achieved, identify any adjustments or repairs required, and maintain regulatory
compliance. To make sure continued corrosion protection of the asset, regular, scheduled testing of
cathodic protection systems enables appropriate protective maintenance.

v
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment IV
Abstract V
Table of Contents VI
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Cathodic Protection 1
1.2 Scope of Study 1
1.3 Objectives of study 2
Chapter 2 Literature Review 3
2.1 Introduction to corrosion 3
2.2 Principle of corrosion 4
2.2.1 Half-cell reactions 4
2.2.2 Electrode potential 4
2.3 General mechanism of corrosion 6
2.4 Forms of corrosion 7
2.4.1 Uniform corrosion 8
2.4.2 Galvanic corrosion 8
2.4.3 Crevice corrosion 10
2.4.4 Pitting corrosion 10
2.4.5 Intergranular corrosion 11
2.4.6 Selective leaching 12
2.4.7 Erosion corrosion 12
2.4.8 Stress corrosion cracking 13
2.5 Corrosion control techniques 14
2.5.1 Selection of material 14
2.5.2 Environment modification 15
2.5.3 Chemical inhibitors 15
2.5.4 Coating and painting 16
2.5.5 Cathodic protection 16
2.6 Factors affecting underground corrosion 17

vi
 2.6.1 Aeration 17
2.6.2 Moisture 17
2.6.3 Soil Resistivity 17
2.6.4 pH Value 18
2.7 Sacrificial anode system 19
2.8 Impressed current cathodic protection 20
2.9 Sources of current 20
2.9.1 Transformer Rectifier 20
2.9.2 Thermoelectric generators 21
2.9.3 Solar Energy 21
2.9.4 Wind energy 22
2.10 Types of anode materials 22
2.10.1 Silicon iron anodes 22
2.10.2 Graphite anodes 23
2.10.3 Lead alloy anodes 23
2.10.4 Mixed metal oxides anodes 23
2.11 Criteria for Cathodic Protection 23
2.11.1 A negative potential of -850mV CSE Steel 24
2.11.2 100mV Polarization 24
Chapter 3 Experimental Methodology 25
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Model 25
3.2.1 Selection of material 25
3.2.2 Physical dimensions of Structure 26
3.2.3 Current requirement 26
3.2.4 Selection of power source and anodic material 27
3.2.5 Material coating 28
3.2.6 Soil resistivity 29
3.2.7 Assembling of components 30
3.2.8 Executing the system 31

vii
 3.2.8.1 Power source voltage 31
3.2.8.2 Pipe-to-soil Potential test 31
3.3 Field work and measurements 32
3.3.1 Soil resistivity test 32
3.3.2 Holiday inspection 32
3.3.3 Line detection 33
3.3.4 Pipe-to-soil potential measurement 34
3.3.5 Closed interval potential survey 35
3.3.6 Direct Current Voltage Gradient 35
3.3.7 Alternating current testing and mitigation 37
3.3.8 Corrosion coupons 38
3.3.9 Residual analysis 38
Chapter 4 Results and Discussions 39
4.1 ICCP calculations 39
4.1.1 Soil resistivity 39
4.1.2 Coating effectiveness 40
4.1.3 Current density 40
4.1.4 Current requirement 40
4.1.5 Pipe-to-soil potential 42
4.2 Field Measurements 43
4.2.1 Pipe-to-soil Survey 43
4.2.2 Closed Interval Potential Survey 44
4.3 Graphs 47
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 49
5.1 Conclusions 49
5.2 Recommendations 50
References 51

viii
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Cathodic Protection

The basic idea of cathodic protection was proposed by Sir Humphry Davy in early of
the nineteenth century. But the process could not get the proper practical application till a
period of hundred years. The quick development of this process was made by 1945 in
America, which was in oil and gas industry. Cathodic protection method is now well
established and is used widely to protect underground or submerged structures as well as
reinforced concrete infrastructures from corrosion.

Cathodic protection is a technique used for protecting immersed or submerged

metallic structures from corrosion by making the structure as cathode of an electrochemical
cell, while the anode may be a galvanic anode. The current is established due to the
potential difference between the anode and cathode or by using an external DC power
source.

1.2 Scope of Study

The corrosion, associated with metals that are immersed or submerged, is stopped
or reduced to a great extent using cathodic protection technique. Cost upon corrosion
control is far less than the cost on losses due to corrosion. In gas pipeline system, corrosion
is a serious problem because with some negligence there may occur a big loss including loss
of natural resource, down time loss, loss of infrastructure and, in many cases, loss of human
lives. In order to save all these loses, cathodic protection is a best applicable technique. A
cathodic protection (CP) system protects an infrastructure asset such as an above ground
storage tank, buried pipeline, reinforcing steel in concrete structure, heat exchanger, marine
pile, sheet pile wall or other metallic structure from corrosion. Corrosion is a leading cause

1
 of premature failure in metallic structures. Operators can extend the service life of their
facilities and equipment by installing cathodic protection systems (CP systems) and testing
them regularly.
Corrosion directly cost the national economy approximately 4% of its GNP. It would
be fair to assume that the cost of corrosion in Pakistan is in excess of 2 billion dollars
annually. The huge capital loss represents the cost of material, labor, equipment and funds
associated with lost revenues that are caused by corrosion damage to metallic structures
including bridges, gas and liquid pipelines, motor vehicles, aircraft and oil production
facilities. A wide range of civil and industrial applications have used cathodic protection
systems to prevent corrosion for many years. Cathodic protection systems are typically
installed during original construction, major expansions or upgrades. Cathodic protection
systems are typically designed to operate for 30 years or longer.

1.3 Objective of Study

 To design and execute an ICCP model for mild steel pipeline immersed in soil.
 To study the overall process of cathodic protection by protecting the structure and practice
it practically.
 Make an understanding of environmental conditions and the process of corrosion in that
environment of underground pipeline.
 To determine the effect of coating as a primary protection in cathodic protection of an
underground pipeline.
 To determine the effectiveness of cathodic protection on the structure.

2
 Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction to corrosion

Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-

stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials
(usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment.
Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and stopping corrosion.

In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metal
in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen or sulfur. Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is
a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion. This type of damage typically produces
oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal, and results in a distinctive orange coloration.
Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers,
although in this context, the term "degradation" is more common. Corrosion degrades the
useful properties of materials and structures including strength, appearance and
permeability to liquids and gases.

Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but the
process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be
concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less
uniformly corroding the surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it
occurs on exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed
surface, such as passivation and chromate conversion, can increase a material's corrosion
resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.

3
2.2 Principle of corrosion

Corrosion is a deterioration and destruction of metals caused by exposure of

materials to a corrosive environment. Corrosion can be understand by the following principles.

2.2.1 Half-cell reaction

Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which metals and alloys undergo

transformation into predominantly oxides, hydroxides, and aqueous salts.

In the corrosion process, two reactions take place. In one, the anodic reaction, metal
atoms are ionized and pass into solution leaving their electrons within the original metal
surface. In the second, the cathodic reaction, the free electrons within the metal are taken
up by chemical species such as O2 and H2O in reduction reactions.

Consider a simplified version of the corrosion reaction between iron and water. The
overall reaction proceeds as follows;

Fe + 2H2O → Fe (OH) 2 + H2 (1)

The overall reaction can be broken down into the oxidizing ANODIC reaction
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- (2)
And the reducing CATHODIC reaction
2H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2(OH) 2 (3)
Figure 2.1 depicts this corrosion process.

The reaction 2 and 3 are called ‘half-cell’ reactions. Reaction 2 is the half of the
process which is responsible for the damage during corrosion. The speed at which this
reaction proceeds is directly related to the corrosion rate.

2.2.2 Electrode potential

Values of ELECTRODE POTENTIAL are associated with each of the half-cell reactions
and give a measure of the likelihood for the reaction to occur. Figure 2.2 depicts standard
electrode potentials as measured on the Standard Hydrogen Electrode Scale for some
selected half-cell reactions. This scale sets as datum a value of zero volts for the reduction
of Hydrogen.

4
 The more reactive the metal the more negative is its standard potential. In the case
of Iron, it is -0.440V, whereas, for the more inert engineering metals, such as Platinum, the
standard electrode potential is +1.20V.

This information allows us to determine whether a metal will corrode in a given

environment.

FIGURE 2.1 –
Schematic of the Corrosion Process

Half-cell reactions Standard electrode potential (volts)

Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- -0.76

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- -0.44

2H+ + 2e- → H2 0.00

2H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2(OH) - 0.40

O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O 1.23

Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- 1.36

FIGURE 2.2 – Selected Standard Half-Cell Potentials

Under standard conditions, the potential of the corrosion cell is the difference
between the cathodic reaction half-cell potential and the anodic half-cell potential. For
reaction 1 the potential difference between the cathodic and anodic half-cell reactions is:

5
 E = +0.401 – (-0.440) = +0.841V

The positive value of the potential indicates that the reaction is possible and that
corrosion will occur under these conditions. However, theory does not permit the
calculation of the corrosion rate; this has to be measured, preferably in-situ. Thus a
calculation of the corrosion cell potential is not able to predict the magnitude of damage
likely to occur by the corrosion reaction.

2.3 Mechanism of corrosion

Since iron and steel are important constructional materials, it is important to
understand how they corrode in an aqueous media.

The anodic reaction would be Fe → Fe2+ + 2e

The loss of electrons leaves positively charged ions at the anode which travel from
the anode to cathode via the water and carry the positive current. The electrons which are
released on the anode travel from the anode to the cathode via the metallic circuit. These
electrons are utilized in the reduction of oxygen present in water which is in contact with
the cathode. Hence, at the cathode, one of the following reactions may take place.

(1) O2 + 4H+ + 4e 2H2O (if the water is acidic)

(2) O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4H+ (if the water is basic)
The negatively charged OH- ions react with the positively charged Fe2+ ions and forms
Fe (OH) 2.
4Fe2+ + 2OH- 4Fe (OH) 2 (white)

OR

4Fe (OH) 2 + O2 + 2H2O + 2Fe2O3 (brown rust)

The end product is Fe2O3, which is generally called "rust". The rust is formed a little
away from the surface. The mechanism of rust formation is shown in the following figure.

6
 Figure 2.3 –
Formation of rust

Different colors of rust may be observed. The following reactions represent the
corrosion of iron based materials.

FeO + H2 FeO + 2H+ + 2e

FeO + 2H2O Fe (OH) 2 + 2H+ + 2e

FeO + H2O Fe3O4 + 2H+ + 2e (black magnetite)

Fe3O4 + H2O 3 g-Fe2O3 + 2H+ + 2e (brown)

3 g-Fe2O3 + 3H2O 6 g-FeOOH (yellow ferric oxide hydrated)

As the corrosion produced layers are insulators, the iron is protected as long as it is
covered by a thin uniform layer of oxides, however, as soon as the oxide layer is damaged,
corrosion is accelerated.

2.4 Forms of corrosion

It is convenient to classify corrosion by the forms in which it manifests itself, the

basis for this classification being the appearance of the corroded metal. Each form can be

7
 identified by mere visual observation. In most cases the naked eye is sufficient, but
sometimes magnification is helpful or required. Valuable information for the solution of a
corrosion problem can often be obtained through careful observation of the corroded test
specimens or failed equipment. Examination before cleaning is particularly desirable. Some
of the eight forms of corrosion are unique, but all of them are more or less interrelated. The
eight forms are: (1) uniform, or general attack, (2) galvanic, or two-metal corrosion, (3)
crevice corrosion, (4) pitting, (5) intergranular corrosion, (6) selective leaching, or parting,
(7) erosion corrosion, and (8) stress corrosion. This listing is arbitrary but covers
practically all corrosion failures and problems. The forms are not listed in any particular
order of importance. Below, the eight forms of corrosion are discussed in terms of their
characteristics, mechanisms, and preventive measures. Hydrogen damage, although not a
form of corrosion, often occurs indirectly as a result of corrosive attack, and is therefore
included in this discussion.

2.4.1 Uniform attack

Uniform attack is the most common form of corrosion. It is normally characterized

by a chemical or electrochemical reaction which proceeds uniformly over the entire
exposed surface or over a large area. The metal becomes thinner and eventually fails. For
example, a piece of steel or zinc immersed in dilute sulfuric acid will normally dissolve at a
uniform rate over its entire surface. A sheet iron roof will show essentially the same degree
of rusting over its entire outside surface.

Uniform attack, or general overall corrosion, represents the greatest destruction of

metal on a tonnage basis. This form of corrosion, however, is not of too great concern from
the technical standpoint, because the life of equipment can be accurately estimated on the
basis of comparatively simple tests. Merely immersing specimens in the fluid involved is
often sufficient. Uniform attack can be prevented or reduced by proper materials, including
coatings, inhibitors, or cathodic protection.

8
2.4.2 Galvanic or two-metal corrosion
A potential difference usually exists between two dissimilar metals when they are
immersed in a corrosive or conductive solution. If these metals are placed in contact (or
otherwise electrically connected), this potential difference produces electron flow between
them. Corrosion of the less corrosion-resistant metal is usually increased and attack of the
more resistant material is decreased, as compared with the behavior of these metals when
they are not in contact. The less resistant metal becomes anodic and the more resistant
metal cathodic. Usually the- cathode or cathodic metal corrodes very little or not at all in
this type of couple. Because of the electric currents and dissimilar metals involved, this form
of corrosion is called galvanic, or two-metal, corrosion. It is electrochemical corrosion, but
we shall restrict the term galvanic to dissimilar-metal effects for purposes of clarity.

9
2.4.3 Crevice corrosion
Intense localized corrosion frequently occurs within crevices and other shielded
areas on metal surfaces exposed to corrosives. This type of attack is usually associated with
small volumes of stagnant solution caused by holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints, surface
deposits, and crevices under bolt and rivet heads. As a result, this form of corrosion is called
crevice corrosion or, sometimes, deposit or gasket corrosion.

2.4.4 Pitting corrosion

Pitting is a form of extremely localized attack that results in holes in the metal.
These holes may be small or large in diameter, but in most cases they are relatively small.
Pits are sometimes isolated or so close together that they look like a rough surface.
Generally a pit may be described as a cavity or hole with the surface diameter about the
same as or less than the depth.

Pitting is one of the most destructive and insidious forms of corrosion. It causes
equipment to fail because of perforation with only a small percent weight loss of the entire
structure. It is often difficult to detect pits because of their small size and because the pits
are often covered with corrosion products. In addition, it is difficult to measure
quantitatively and compare the extent of pitting because of the varying depths and numbers
of pits that may occur under identical conditions. Pitting is also difficult to predict by
laboratory tests. Sometimes the pits require a long time-several months or a year-to show

10
 up in actual service. Pitting is particularly vicious because it is a localized and intense form
of corrosion, and failures often occur with extreme suddenness.

2.4.5 Intergranular corrosion

Grain boundary effects are of little or no consequence in most applications or uses

of metals. If a metal corrodes, uniform attack results since grain boundaries are usually only
slightly more reactive than the matrix. However, under certain conditions, grain interfaces
are very reactive and intergranular corrosion results. Localized attack at and adjacent to
grain boundaries, with relatively little corrosion of the grains, is intergranular corrosion.
The alloy disintegrates (grains fall out) and/or loses its strength.

11
 Intergranular corrosion can be caused by impurities at the grain boundaries,
enrichment of one of the alloying elements, or depletion of one of these elements in the
grain-boundary areas. Small amounts of iron in aluminum, wherein the solubility of iron is
low, have been shown to segregate in the grain boundaries and cause intergranular
corrosion. It has been shown that based on surface tension considerations the zinc content
of a brass is higher at the grain boundaries. Depletion of chromium in the grain-boundary
regions results in intergranular corrosion of stainless steels.

2.4.6 Selective leaching

Selective leaching is the removal of one element from a solid alloy by corrosion
processes. The most common example is the selective removal of zinc in brass alloys
(dezincification). Similar processes occur in other alloy systems in which aluminum; iron,
cobalt, chromium, and other elements are removed. Selective leaching is the general term to
describe these processes, and its use precludes the creation of terms such as
dealuminumification, decobaltification, etc. Parting is a metallurgical term that is sometimes
applied, but selective leaching is preferred.

2.4.7 Erosion corrosion

Erosion corrosion is the acceleration or increase in rate of deterioration or attack on
a metal because of relative movement between a corrosive fluid and the metal surface.
Generally, this movement is quite rapid, and mechanical wear effects or abrasion are
involved. Metal is removed from the surface as dissolved ions, or it forms solid corrosion
products which are mechanically swept from the metal surface. Sometimes, movement of
the environment decreases corrosion, particularly when localized attack occurs under
stagnant conditions, but this is not erosion corrosion because deterioration is not increased.

Erosion corrosion is characterized in appearance by grooves, gullies, waves,

rounded holes, and valleys and usually exhibits a directional pattern. In many cases, failures
because of erosion corrosion occur in a relatively short time, and they are unexpected
largely because evaluation corrosion tests were run under static conditions or because the
erosion effects were not considered.

12
2.4.8 Stress corrosion cracking

Stress-corrosion cracking refers to cracking caused by the simultaneous presence of

tensile stress and a specific corrosive medium. Many investigators have classified all
cracking failures occurring in corrosive mediums as stress-corrosion cracking, including
failures due to hydrogen embrittlement. However, these two types of cracking failures
respond differently to environmental variables. To illustrate, cathodic protection is an
effective method for preventing stress-corrosion cracking whereas it rapidly accelerates
hydrogen-embrittlement effects. Hence, the importance of considering stress-corrosion
cracking and hydrogen embrittlement as separate phenomena is obvious. For this reason,
the two cracking phenomena are discussed separately in this chapter.

During stress-corrosion cracking, the metal or alloy is virtually unattacked over

most of its surface, while fine cracks progress through it. This cracking phenomenon has
serious consequences since it can occur at stresses within the range of typical design stress.
Exposure to boiling MgCl2 at 310°F (154°C) is shown to reduce the strength capability to
approximately that available at 1200°F.

The two classic cases of stress-corrosion cracking are "season cracking" of brass,
and the "caustic embrittlement" of steel. Both of these obsolete terms describe the
environmental conditions present which led to stress-corrosion cracking. Season cracking
refers to the stress-corrosion cracking failure of brass cartridge cases. During periods of
heavy rainfall, especially in the tropics, cracks were observed in the brass cartridge cases at
the point where the case was crimped to the bullet. It was later found that the important
environmental component in season cracking was ammonia resulting from the
decomposition of organic matter.

13
 Many explosions of riveted boilers occurred in early steam-driven locomotives.
Examination of these failures showed cracks or brittle failures at the rivet holes. These
areas were cold-worked during riveting operations, and analysis of the whitish deposits
found in these areas showed caustic, or sodium hydroxide, to be the major component.
Hence, brittle fracture in the presence of caustic resulted in the term caustic embrittlement.
While stress alone will react in ways well known in mechanical metallurgy (i.e., creep,
fatigue, tensile failure) and corrosion alone will react to produce characteristic dissolution
reactions; the simultaneous action of both sometimes produces the disastrous results.

2.5 Corrosion Control Techniques

There are number of corrosion controlling techniques depending on the situations
of the metal being corroded. By using these techniques, metal corrosion can be controlled or
sometimes, stopped by using the proper techniques. These techniques, following the
corrosion control, are as follows;

2.5.1 Selection of Material

Metals are susceptible to corrosion in all environments, but the corrosion rate can
be greatly reduced by changing the type of metal being used, or through monitoring and
understanding the environmental conditions that leads to corrosion.

The development of new alloys and their increasing production, and the reason
behind widely using of these alloys, are to significantly reduce the corrosion rate. The
corrosion resistant property and mechanical strength of materials are considered while

14
 selecting a material being used in a particular environment, in order to reduce corrosion
rate in that environment. Cost factor should also be considered.

2.5.2 Environmental Modification

Metals are corroded by the chemical interactions between metal and the gases in
the surrounding environment. The corrosion rate can be limited either by changing the
environment or by removing the metal from the corrosive environment. In other words,
corrosion rate can be limited by limiting the direct contact of metal with the corrosive
environment.

One method to limit the corrosion rate is to reduce the sulfur, chloride or oxygen
content in the surrounding environment.

2.5.3 Chemical Inhibitors

Corrosion of metal is caused by the interactions of metal and gases in the

environment. Therefore, to reduce the corrosion rate, such chemicals are introduced which
react either with the metal’s surface or the environmental gases leading corrosion to
interrupt the chemical reaction that causing corrosion. These chemicals are called
Inhibitors.

Inhibitors can react with metal by adsorbing themselves on the metal's surface and
forming a protective film. They are applied as a solution or as a protective coating by
dispersion techniques.

The inhibitors process to limit the corrosion rate depends upon:

 Changing the anodic or cathodic polarization behavior.

 Decreasing the diffusion of ions to the metal's surface.
 Increasing the electrical resistance of the metal's surface.

15
2.5.4 Coatings and paints:

Coatings are the most widely used technique for controlling corrosion. In coating,
generally, a corrosion-resistant material (metals or organic) is made to bond with the
material to be protected, by making a thin layer over the material’s surface. This thin layer
acts as a barrier between the vulnerable environments and the material to be protected.

Paints and organic coatings are applied to the metal’s surface to limit the direct
contact of metal with the environmental gases causing corrosion, in order to protect the
metal.

There are two types of coatings; metallic and non-metallic (organic and non-
organic). In metallic coatings, a metal of more or less noble is used to coat over the material
to be protected. While using more noble metal coating, care should be taken i.e. the coat
should be free from pores or cracks, to avoid galvanic corrosion.

The types of coating generally used in oil and gas sectors are as follows:

1. Enamel coating
2. Tape coating
3. Polyethylene coating
4. Cold applied liquid coating

2.5.5 Cathodic Protection:

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are placed together in a

corrosive electrolyte.

For metals, submerged together in seawater, it is a common problem. It can also

arise when two dissimilar metals are immersed in close proximity in moist soils. These are
the reasons that galvanic corrosion often attacks ship hulls, offshore rigs and pipelines of oil
and gas.

16
 Cathodic protection is a technique which convert active (anodic) sites on a metal
surfaces to passive (cathodic) sites by applying opposing current.

This opposing current supplies free electrons and forces local anodes to be
polarized to the potential of the local cathodes.

There are two types of cathodic protection:

 Sacrificial anode system (SAS)

 Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP)

2.6 Factors affecting underground corrosion

Underground corrosion is mainly affected by some factors which are elaborated as

under:

2.6.1 Aeration

Aeration characteristics of a soil are dependent mainly on particle size and

distribution. Corrosion decreases with the increase in aeration.

2.6.2 Moisture

Contents depend on season, location, soil type, particle size and ground water level.
The degree of moisture contributes to the corrosion by dissolving soluble salts thereby
changing the soil composition. Generally, corrosion increases with higher moisture contents
for normal ranges. In underground corrosion moist soil is the electrolyte that allows
electrochemical Corrosion by allowing the flow of current between anodic and cathodic
areas .In addition to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions (OH -) from the water itself the electrolyte
also contains and a variety of cations and anions .The amount and type of the ions depend
on the soluble salts dissolved in the electrolyte.

2.6.3 Soil resistivity

17
 It depends on natural ingredients, the amount of salts dissolved in soil and the
moisture content .The corrosion rate increases with the reduction of soil resistivity .Table 2-
1 Soil Resistivity and Corrosion, provides the relationship between soil resistivity and
corrosivity.

Table 2-1: Soil Resistivity and Corrosion (Metal Handbook 1987)

Soil resistivity ohm-meter Typical corrosion rate mills/year

Less than 25 Severely Corrosive (>13)
25-50 Moderately Corrosive (9-12)
51-100 Mildly Corrosive (4-9)
Greater than 100 Very Mildly Corrosive (<4)

2.6.4 pH value

pH Value of soil greatly affects the corrosion process .The more acidic the soil is, the
higher the corrosion rate .pH value ranges generally from 5 to 10 in soil. A value of 7
indicates neutrality; lower values, acidity; and higher values, alkalinity. The general
relationship between the pH values and the corresponding corrosion is shown in Table 2-2:

Table 2-2: pH Values and Corrosion (Metal Handbook 1987)

Soil resistivity pH value Corrosion rate

Extremely acidic Below 4.5 Highest corrosion
Very strongly acidic 4.5 – 5
Strongly acidic 5.1 – 5.5
Medium acidic 5.5 – 6
Slightly acidic 6 – 6.5
Neutral 6.6 – 7.3 Least corrosion
Mildly alkaline 7.4 – 7.8
Moderately alkaline 7.9 – 8.4

18
 Strongly alkaline 8.5 – 9
Very strongly alkaline 9 – higher Higher corrosion

2.7 Sacrificial Anode System (SAS):

In this system, metal anodes are introduced to the electrolytic environment to

sacrifice (corrode) themselves in order to protect the cathode.

Depending on the metal needing protection i.e. cathode, the type of sacrificial anode
can vary from zinc to aluminum or magnesium by keeping in mind the negative electro-
potential of these metals.

The galvanic series provides a comparison of the different electro-potential - or

nobility - of metals and alloys.

In a sacrificial system, metallic ions move from the anode to the cathode, which
leads the anode to corrode more quickly than the cathode. The anode must regularly be
replaced to protect the cathode (metals to be protect) over a periods of time.

19
2.8 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP):

This technique requires an alternative source of direct electrical current (DC) which
is supplied to the electrolyte (mostly moist soil) in order to protect the substrate
metal/cathode (to be protected).

The negative terminal of the current source is connected to the metal, while the
positive terminal is attached to a secondary/auxiliary anode, which is added to complete
the electrical circuit.

This method is often used to protect buried pipelines and ship casings.

Unlike sacrificial anode system, the auxiliary anode is not sacrificed in an impressed
current system.

2.9 Sources of current

Although most impressed current cathodic protection (CP) systems use AC power
supplied by utilities in conjunction with rectifiers as a source of DC current, there are
several other power sources that may be used if AC power lines are not available. Some of
these have been in use for some time; others are relatively new; and still others are in the
development stage. Many of these alternative power sources are expensive; therefore, the
corrosion engineer must make certain that the same degree of protection cannot be
obtained at less cost by other means.
Some of the most common power sources are as follows:
 Transformer rectifier.
 Thermoelectric generators.
 Solar power generators.
 Wind power generators

2.9.1 Transformer rectifier

20
 The typical rectifier has two basic components. The first component is a step-down
transformer to control the driving voltage. The second component is a rectification section,
most commonly a diode bridge, to convert the AC input current to DC output current. In
addition, there are gauges, connectors, fuses, taps to adjust the secondary output on the
transformer, and other accessories to make the system safe and workable. Rectifiers are
available in a variety of configurations, including:
Three-phase rectifiers to meet large power requirements (these are usually economical
when the power required exceed 2000 watts).
 Oil-cooled rectifiers for severe environmental conditions such as regions of high
temperature, dust, or salt air.
 Half-wave or center-tapped bridge rectifiers.
 Silicon-controlled rectifiers.
 Rectifiers with selenium stack rectification sections (these are usually older units).
 Switching-mode rectifiers (these began to immerge in the 1970s).
 Pulsed rectifiers that deliver current in high frequency pulses (1,000 to 5,000 pulses
per second) at relatively high voltage, but at a low (15 percent) duty cycle (these are
sometimes found on well casings).

2.9.2 Thermoelectric generators

These generators generate voltage by heating a junction of two dissimilar metals.
They generate small currents, so are used in places having low current requirements. The
purpose of using junction is to measure temperature-the voltage output of the heated
junction being served to a voltmeter in the initial attempts to use this principle as a CP
power source, large numbers of low-capacity metallic junctions were connected in series-
parallel combinations and heated with a gas flame to achieve the necessary DC output
capacity. In recent years, there has been rapid development of higher capacity
semiconducting thermoelectric materials designed specifically for power-generation use.

2.9.3 Solar Energy

In areas where sunlight can be anticipated for relatively enormous percentages of

the time, a blend of solar cells and storage batteries can be used to provide a continuous
flow of current to a CP installation. The initial cost of the solar electric powered CP systems
has dropped dramatically over the past 20 years as the technology has advanced. This

21
 development has occurred, in part, as a result of rapid development in the semiconductor
industry in general.

2.9.4 Wind Power

Wind-power generators may be used as a source of power in areas where usual

winds are of sufficient intensity and duration. Such units were used fairly broadly in the
early days of pipeline CP. However, they are costly and require quite a lot of maintenance.
Their use for this application has dropped with the enhancement of more cost-effective,
reliable power sources, such as solar cells, CCVTs, and thermoelectric generators.

2.10 Types of Anode Materials:

There are various anode materials used to protect submerged or immersed metallic
structures. Some of the important anodic materials are as under.

2.10.1 Silicon iron Anodes:

A comprehensive range of silicon iron anodes is available to satisfy impressed
current cathodic protection applications. High silicon iron has excellent corrosion
resistance in a wide variety of environments. This material has been given a fully proven
performance record after an experience of more than 50 years in cathodic protection field.

Rate of consumption of silicon iron anodes varies with current density, environment
and method of installation. The following figures are for guidance only.

Figure 2-3: Consumption rates of silicon iron anode

Consumption rate
Environment Current density A/m2
kg/A-yr.
Fresh water 10-30 0.15
Salt water 10-50 0.50
Wet carbonaceous backfill 0.10
10-30
Dry carbonaceous backfill Negligible
10-30

22
2.10.2 Graphite anodes:

Graphite is a good conductor of electricity, which is low in cost and chemically

resistant. Graphite anode is a conductive part of an electrical system or medium. It is
commonly used in cathodic protection (CP) systems. This impressed current anode is also
used to protect the structural integrity of buildings and metals, especially those that are
underwater or underground. Within a CP system, the graphite anode is the part that outputs
the protective current. They can be installed in dry soil conditions and water or wet
environments. They can also provide cathodic protection when installed within high
chloride environments.

2.10.3 Lead Alloy Anodes:

This type of anodes are used in salt water. It is an alloy of lead, antimony and silver
(1% of silver, 6% of antimony). At a current density of 108 A/m2, the annual consumption
is about 85 g/A. The alloy has a good mechanical properties and can be cast or extruded
into desired shape.

2.10.4 Mixed metal oxide

These anodes are the latest technology in anode material and have chiefly replaced
other anode types, both onshore and offshore. They consist of a trademarked assortment of
(noble) metal oxides plated on a titanium or niobium substrate. This type of anode has the
same benefits (and some restrictions) as platinized anodes but is generally cheaper. They
can be made in various shapes such as ribbons, rods, wires, mesh etc. Ribbon shapes are
often used as distributed anodes for localized protection of structure or under structure
bottoms. Applicable current densities are high and consumption rate is low.

2.11 Criteria for cathodic protection

For submerged or underground pipelines, NACE provides a standard. NACE
standard RP0169 “control of external corrosion on underground or submerged metallic

23
 piping system.” There are three criteria defined in the NACE RP0169 for steel and cast iron
including ductile iron are:

 A negative (cathodic) potential of at least 850 mV

 A negative polarized potential of at least 850 mV
 A minimum of 100 mV of cathodic polarization

2.11.1 A negative potential of at least -850 mV CSE steel

For any metal, its energy level is highest when it is new or “bright and shiny.”
Laboratory measurements of new steel samples in many different soil environments have
indicated the active corrosion potential is between -800 mV and -850 mV both referenced
to a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference electrode (CSE). Therefore, polarizing a steel
structure to -850 mV CSE would satisfy the true criterion based on the most active anodic
site being -850 mV CSE. Voltage drops (IR drops) other than those across the structure-to-
electrolyte boundary must be considered for valid interpretation of this voltage
measurement. That is,

E-850 =Eon– IR

The criteria for steel, a potential of -850 mV CSE obtained with current applied, is
based on negligible IR drop or eliminating the IR drop from the measurement.
Consideration should be given to the specific structure and its environment in determining
if IR drop is negligible prior to employing this criterion. The IR drop is usually negligible
when the current density and the resistivity is low.

2.11.2 100 mV polarization

From laboratory experiments and data obtained from successfully operating

cathodic protection systems, it has been determined that a minimum of 100mV of
polarization on a structure should provide adequate cathodic protection. The 100mV
criteria is applicable for metals other than steel and with reference cells other than copper-
copper sulfate.

The 100 mV polarization criterion can be applied by either starting with the known
corrosion potential or the polarization structure potential. This criterion is based on the
difference between these two potentials. The IR drop must be eliminating from the

24
 measured “on” potential to determine the polarized potential. For a structure not
cathodically protected, the measurement technique may involve measuring the corrosion
potential first. Then, current is applied unit the structure is polarized. Current is then
interrupted momentarily in order to measure the polarized potential.

Chapter 3
Experimental Methodology

3.1 Introduction
This chapter provides the comprehensive steps through which this work has been
proceeded to its result. A portable model of ICCP is made to evaluate the process of
protection given to a structure by means of impressed current.

3.2 Impressed current cathodic protection model

A mild steel pipe specimen is taken to cathodically protect it from corrosion and the
process is demonstrated in a model by creating an environment around it. The important
parameters related to this study are listed below.

3.2.1 Selection of material

Mild steel small pipe has been used as pipeline specimen in cathodic protection
model of the underground gas pipeline. Generally, in underground gas pipelines, mild steel
is preferred to use due to their feasible properties according to the service. Mild steel is
basically the most commonly used steel by companies. As in underground gas pipelines
tough and strong material is needed, which can bear high pressures inside and outside.
This is also a cheapest steel and can be found in almost every steel product made. The
reasons it is so popular besides its low cost is that it is very hard, weld able, and a very long
lasting product. This type of steel contains a maximum of 0.29% carbon, and can be
magnetized and utilized in nearly any project that necessitates using a great amount of
metal. Corrosion protection techniques, especially cathodic protection systems are widely
used on mild steel which are found effective, as Sui southern Gas Company Ltd is also using
mild steel in underground gas pipelines.

25
3.2.2 Physical dimensions of structure

The structure consists of 2 pipes of equal length, welded together in form of L-

shaped. The physical dimensions are as follows:

 Total Length 1.5 ft.

 External Dia 47 mm
 Internal Dia 43.6 mm
 Wall thickness 3.4 mm

3.2.3 Current requirement

An important part of design calculations for impressed current cathodic protection

systems on existing structures is the total amount of current required per square meter
(called current density) to change the structure’s potential to -0.85 volt (NACE). The current
density required to shift the potential indicates the structure's surface condition.
The amount of current required for complete impressed current cathodic protection
can be determined two ways:
1) An actual test on existing structures using a temporary impressed current cathodic
protection setup.
2) A theoretical calculation based on coating efficiency.

26
 Current requirement strongly depends upon coating efficiency and current
densities. The efficiency of the coating as supplied will have a direct effect on the total
current requirement, as described in eq. 3.1

Is = S.A x C.D x 10-3 (1 – C.E) (3.1)

Where,
Is Current requirement
S.A Total surface area of protection in square meter
C.D Current density
C.E Coating efficiency
Current density depends upon the type of environment as shown in table 3.1.

Table 3-1: Current density with respect to different environment.

Environment Current density (mA/m2)

Soil (50 – 500 Ω.cm) 20 – 40

Soil (500 – 1500 Ω.cm) 10 – 20

Soil (1500 – 5000 Ω.cm) 5 – 10

Soil (over 5000 Ω.cm) 5

Fresh water 10 – 30
Moving fresh water 30 – 65
Brackish water 50 – 100

Sea-mud zone 20 – 30

3.2.4 Selection of power source and anodic material

It is used to generate electro-motive force (emf), which in turn provide electrons to

cathode (pipe to be protected). As the current requirement of the structure is not so high, so
we have used 6-volt battery as a power source.

27
 High silicon iron (HSI) is used as an anode. High silicon cast iron is an alloy of iron
having approximately 15% Silicon, which serves as primary alloying element. Chromium is
added to improve performance.

 HSI is mostly used in severe corrosive environments.

 Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) anodes operate in severe conditions,
frequently deep in the earth, where high silicon cast iron has proven to be dependable
and economical.

3.2.5 Material coating

Cold Applied Polyethylene Tape System

The Cold Applied PE Tape system consists of;

 a primer, which creates a uniformly smooth contact surface

 the actual anticorrosive layer

 the mechanical protection outer layer

When necessary, the PE tape coating system can be complemented with special
tapes to protect pipe fittings, bends and T's, girth weld coatings, and coating repair.

Pipeline Primer

The function of Pipeline Primer is to provide a bonding medium between the pipe
surface and the inner layer tape. It can be applied either manually or by machine.
Structure
The Pipeline Primer consists of butyl rubber, synthetic compound and a solvent-
gasoline.
Features
 Heavy duty adhesive
 Quick fry
 Conformable to irregular pipe
 Compatible with general coating system

28
 Anti-Corrosive Layer
The anti-corrosion tape/anti-corrosive layer is applied to assure a high bond to the
primed surface with excellent conformability characteristics. Its application should after
Primer and before Mechanical Protection Outer Layer.
Features
 It ensures an easy and fast coating application. It is applied when the temperatures of
the material and surface are at room temperature (i.e. cold), therefore no extra heat
needed.
 It ensures maximum guarantee of coating due to strong adhesion with to the metal.
 Excellent resistance to cathodic disbonding.
 It gives a long time performance of coating because of high electrical and chemical to

acids and alkalis and due to their high mechanical properties, which protect the pipe
from damages during the transportation and the installation.
Mechanical Protection; Outer Layer
The Outer-Layer Wrapping Tape is Cold applied tape coating system for corrosion
protection of Oil, Gas, Petrochemical, and Waste Water underground pipelines. The outer-
layer tape should be compounded so that it will be resistance to outdoor weathering.
Structure
It consists of butyl rubber and special blend of stabilized polyethylene.
Features
 Excellent adhesion to inner-layer tape and self-resistant to ultra-violet (UV) radiations.
 Can be applied over a wide temperature range.
 Good conformability and consistent uniform thickness.
 Easily applied with no special equipments.
 Compatible with common pipe coatings.
 Excellent resistance to cathodic disbonding.

3.2.6 Soil resistivity

Soil resistivity is the important factor in determining the current density. Soil
resistivity is a measure of how much the soil resists the flow of electricity. Soil resistivity

29
 can be adjusted by varying moisture content in an environment. Different soil resistivity
measurements can be obtained from different environments.

3.2.7 Assembling of components

Following components have been used to make a model of cathodic protection

system, in which protection of the structure is being processed.

Glass box

A glass box of (width = 1 feet, length = 2 ft., and height = 2 ft.) has been used to make
an electrochemical cell in it. All the other components are installed, that are soil, cathode
(pipe) and anode which are main requirements to have an electrochemical cell.

Soil (Dry & Moist)

A Dry soil has been taken and filled into the box up to 1 foot. Dry soil is taken due to
the advantage of changing environment of the system, through changing its moist level.
Moist can be increased by adding water into the soil.

Small Pipe as specimen (L shape)

Tape coated small pipe (1.5 ft. Long) is buried in the soil in a way that one end of
pipe is shown on the surface. A cable, which is connected with the pipe through Cad
welding, is coming up to the surface. Cathode cable is connected to the negative (-) terminal
of power source.

Anode (High silicon iron)

High silicon iron (Anode) is buried in soil at some distance but, near to the pipe. A
cable, which is connected to the anode is coming up to the surface. Anode cable is connected
to the positive (+) terminal of power source.

CP cables and wires

For joining the Cathode (pipe) and anode with the DC power source, CP cables are
used with other connecting wires.

D.C Power Source (6 Volt Battery)

30
 A 6 volt battery as a DC power source is used to provide DC current to the system.
Positive (+) terminal is connected to the anode and negative (-) terminal is connected to the
cathode which is pipe itself.

Voltmeter

A permanent digital voltmeter has been installed to show the voltage given to the
system. Voltmeter has three wires, one is output wire that is used to check voltage of the
power source when connected to the positive (+) terminal of it, and other two wires are
negative (-) and positive (+) which are connected to the battery terminals.

Potentiometer

This is very important device, by which we can change the voltage that is given to
the system. There are three terminals of potentiometer, one is positive (+) output of the of
the power source while other two are negative (-) and positive (+) inputs of the power
source. Positive (+) output of the potentiometer is the main supply wire in which potential
is changed and given to the system according to the system.

Power Switch

It is used to On/Off the power supply to the system. It is fitted in positive (+) wire of
the system. Power switch is applicable during PSP (pipe-to-soil potential) testing, when we
need off potential of the system.

3.2.8 Executing the system

After the instalment of the ICCP system, monitoring should be done. In order to
monitor the system we have to give the required voltage input to the structure. Pipe to soil
potential is checked to have the results.

3.2.8.1 Power source voltage

It is the continuous voltage which is given, from power source to the structure. This
voltage is given on the basis of different calculations.

31
3.2.8.2 Pipe-to-soil potential

The potential of a pipeline at a given location is commonly referred to as the pipe-

to-soil potential. It results from the corrosive electrolytic reaction between the buried pipe
and its surrounding soil (the electrolyte). We have taken pipe-to-soil potential of our model
when started the system to check whether our structure is protected or not. On and Off
potential has been taken in PSP test.

3.3 Field work and measurement

Cathodic protection systems must be tested on a regular basis. This testing will
ensure that cathodic protection is being achieved, identify any adjustments or repairs required, and
maintain regulatory compliance. To ensure continued corrosion protection of the asset, regular,
scheduled testing of cathodic protection systems enables appropriate preventive maintenance that:

 Ensures the cathodic protection system is operating properly

 Prevents corrosion damage to the structure
 Minimizes the cost of future repairs to the CP system
 Ensure regulatory compliance

3.3.1 Soil resistivity test

In common practice, the four pin or wenner method is used which was invented by
wenner to find out the soil resistivity of larger area in great depth. The operations might
involve the four pins buried in the ground, current is being applied to outer pins and the
voltage drop is measured in between the inner pins. The resistivity largely depends upon
current drop and the spacing between the electrodes which is approximately equal to depth
of the test.

3.3.2 Holiday inspection

Coating is of significant importance in protection of any structure against corrosion.

Any flaw or discontinuity in coating will appreciate corrosion to occur. The discontinuity

32
 originates due to entrapment of air particles in between the coating. Holiday inspection is
used to detect any discontinuity, pin hole or any minor flaw in coating. Holiday testing
allows the detection of even smallest coating flaws invisible to the naked eye. There are
various techniques and equipment available for holiday detection.

3.3.3 Line Detection:

Line detector is a device especially design to identify the buried or underground

pipelines. An instrument, line detector, is used to detect the pipeline location. This
instrument consists of a transmitter and a receiver. One terminal of transmitter is
connected with battery and the other is connected with the pipeline. Transmitter gives the
A.C current in pipeline to transmit a magnetic field. The other component, receiver, receives
the signals and tends to stop its beep when frequency is matched.

33
 Transmitter Receiver

3.3.4 Pipe-to-soil potential survey

Potential surveys are made to assess the magnitude of corrosion of pipelines and
detect special areas and spots where the degree of corrosion is severe.

The potential difference between the metallic surface of the structure (pipe) and
electrolyte (soil) that is measured with reference to an electrode in contact with the soil. It
is known as pipe-to-soil potential (PSP). A pipe-to-soil potential is a measurement taken
with the voltmeter connected in parallel in circuit. The external circuit resistance of this
measurement is high, so a high input resistance is required to avoid “shunting” too much
current from the structure and therefore achieving imprecise measurement.

The differences in structure-to-soil potentials observed at various intervals along a

pipeline indicate the voltage drop in the soil between the test points. This means that
galvanic current will flow through the soil between the anodic and cathodic points, the
magnitude of current flow depending on the resistivity of soil and` the voltage drop in the
galvanic cell. When enough counter-current is provided to a corroding section of pipeline to
exactly cancel out the galvanic current, the pipe-to-soil potential to the anodic points will be
equal to the pipe-to-soil potential to the cathodic points, and the voltage drops between the
points would be zero.

It is accepted by the corrosion engineer that a structure will be under completely

cathodic protection, if the pipe-to-soil potentials at all point on that structure is maintained
at a minimum level of -0.85volts.

Pipe-to-Soil potential should be observed by a potentiometer, which draws no

current, or a high resistance voltmeter, which draw only a small current. A Cu-CuSO4
electrode is used for the reference contact with the soil, and there must be direct contact
with the structure. To make a pipe-to-soil potential test observation, the negative (-)
terminal of the voltmeter is attached to the Cu-CuSO4 electrode. The positive (+) terminal
of the voltmeter is attached to and/or placed on the test point (TP). As the pipe is in

34
 underground, so it’s very time consuming and uneconomical to dig out the soil every time
you are willing to take the pipe-to-soil potential. Therefore, for the sake of simplicity, a test
point is made by joining a wire through cad welding at any point on the pipe (cathode).

The plug end of the copper sulphate electrode is then placed firmly against the moist
soil at a position relative to the top of the buried pipe. If the soil is dry, it will be necessary
to spill just a little water onto the ground (1/2 cupful) in order to ensure good contact
between soil and the electrode. The pointer of the voltmeter then will indicate the pipe-to-
soil potential at that particular point on the pipeline.

3.3.5 Closed Interval potential

A closed interval potential is taken to check the integrity of coating between two test
posts at a distance of at least (1 – 5 m). It is similar to pipe-to-soil potential but the only
difference is that it is taken on short distances (i.e. 1 – 5 m), while pipe-to-soil potential is
taken at every test posts about at a distance of 500 – 1000 m. CIP survey helps us to
determine the potentials of every point of the structure, and whether any defect or flaw in
the structure at a particular point is present or not. Also, to conform that the potential is in
acceptable limit and are following the NACE standard.

3.3.6 Direct current voltage gradient

35
 Due to advancement of technology, modernized techniques have been evolved and
DCVG is one of these techniques used in underground or buried pipelines for monitoring the
effectiveness of coating by using direct current source. The main aim of DCVG is not only to
detect or identify the defect or discontinuity in a structure but also reveals the size of
discontinuity. Direct current voltage gradient is a method of influential current pickup at
coating holidays. The direct current voltage gradient system consists of an analog strap-on
voltmeter, connection cable, and two probes with electrodes filled with water. This
technique is accomplished by installing a current interrupter in an existing rectifier unit or
by using a temporary cathodic protection system. The interrupter is installed in series in
either lack of the DC output of the rectifier or by installing it in the AC circuit. The
interrupter is set to cycle at a very fast rate with the ON period less than the OFF period,
such as a 1/3rd second ON and 2/3rd second OFF.

This short cycle allows for a quick deflection measurement by the analog voltmeter
as shown below;

The

analog voltmeter is a very sensitive meter with the ability to adjust the input impedance and
the scale with which the meter is displaying the data. Deflection of less than 1 mV is easily
noticeable on this voltmeter. In addition, the needle has ability to deflect in both the positive
and negative direction from the zero point which assist in determining the direction the
current is flowing in the soil.

36
 The survey method consists of measuring the “ON” and “OFF” potentials at all
encounter test points, valves, and risers to determine the signal strength (i.e difference
between ON and OFF readings). The numerical potential difference is the signal strength. An
example can be seen below,

ON potential = -1.45 V

OFF potential = -0.95 V

Signal strength = 1.45 – 0.95 V

0.5 V or 500 mV

While walking along the pipeline route the probes are used as walking sticks making
sure one electrode tip is in contact with the grounds at all times. One probe is always kept
near the pipeline centerline while the other is held literally at 1 to 2 m. where there is no
coating defect, the analog voltmeter needle does not register movement. When a coating
defect is approached a noticeable swing can be observed on the voltmeter at the same rate
as the interrupted switching cycle. The amplitude of the needle swing will increase as the
defect is approached and decreases when passed. Centering the defect is achieved by
marking the approximate location of the defect at the area where the maximum amplitude
is indicated.

Advantages of direct current voltage gradient

 Suitability to complex piping arrangements and in congested city areas, where a

“modest” amount of stray current interference can be expected
 High accuracy in locating defects
 Usually involve no travelling wires
 Can be used in combination with other techniques
 In principle requires only a single operator

3.3.7 Alternating current testing and mitigation

Increased difficulty in obtaining utility right-of-way and the concept of utility

corridors have brought many underground structures and pipelines in particular, into close

37
 proximity with electric power transmission and distribution systems. The electromagnetic
field created by the alternating current expands and collapses and changes direction 120
times per second.

Alternating current mitigation for pipelines can be designed, installed, and

maintained to minimize the induced voltage on the system. This can be accomplished by
installation of grounding techniques, such as grounding rods attached to the pipeline with
decouplers for DC isolation and linear zinc ribbon.

3.3.8 Corrosion coupons

Accurately monitoring of corrosion rates in any environment is critical when viewed

in terms of the maintenance and repair cost is associated with corrosion and material
failure. The corrosion coupons can be used to evidence that cathodic protection is working
and to analyze the internal pipeline corrosion rate. Coupons are made of the same metals as
that of the protected structure. These coupons are weight carefully beforehand, and then
electrically connected to the protected structure. After a known exposure time, they are
removed and weighted. Corrosion rate is the weight loss per time.

3.3.9 Residual analysis

To witness the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors residual analysis are common

phenomena; in which water samples are collected from all crude storage tanks or pipeline
network station and tested in laboratories. The main purpose is to measure the quantity of
water. If more water is present it indicates less effectiveness of corrosion inhibitor and

inject inhibitor into the structure.

38
 Chapter 4
Results and Discussion

4.1 ICCP calculations

In this section we will discuss and calculate the different parameters required for
ICCP system. There are different calculations which depend on each other. Following
measurements have been taken in this regard.

4.1.1 Soil resistivity

As discussed in previous chapter that soil resistivity plays a key role in determining
the requirement of total current for the protection of any structure. If we have a dry soil
with a low moisture content, it will show high resistivity. And high moisture content in the
soil will decrease the resistivity. Change in soil resistivity will change the current density.
Different environment with varying resistivity and current densities are shown in the table
below;

Environment Current density (mA/m2)

Soil (50 – 500 Ω.cm) 20 – 40

Soil (500 – 1500 Ω.cm) 10 – 20

Soil (1500 – 5000 Ω.cm) 5 – 10

Soil (over 5000 Ω.cm) 5

Fresh water 10 – 30
Moving fresh water 30 – 65
Brackish water 50 – 100

Sea-mud zone 20 – 30

39
4.1.2 Coating Efficiency

Three layer poly ethylene coating has been coated on the structure. The best
method of external coating for steel pipes that are to be buried under ground is
polyethylene coating. When compared with bitumen coating and epoxy coating, PE coating
has three main distinctive advantages:

- Mechanical and chemical properties are far better.

- Polyethylene coating can withstand higher temperatures than bitumen coating.

- Electrical insulation is much better

Based on the above study and structure’s length, environment, better handling, and
coating efficiency can be assumed.

Coating efficiency is considered = 80%

4.1.3 Current density

Current density can be assumed by analyzing soil resistivity of the environment.

Different soil resistivity indicate different current densities. Here we have assumed two
different current densities according to the two different resistivity of the environments.

Current density (at soil resistivity of <1000 Ωcm) = 15mA/m 2

Current density (at soil resistivity of <500 Ωcm) = 30mA/m 2

4.1.4 Current requirement

Current requirement is calculated by using surface area and current density.

Current requirement depends upon the current density, if current density is varied due to
the change in environment current requirement will be varied simultaneously. Current
requirement is calculated below on different current densities;

40
When current density is 15 mA/m2:

Structure dimensions:

Total length (L) 1.5 ft. (45.72 cm)

Diameter (D) 47 mm (0.47cm)

Surface area = π x D x L

S.A = (3.14) x (0.047) x (0.4572)

S.A = 0.067 m2

Is = S.A x C.D x 10-3 x (1 – C.E)

Where,

Is Current requirement

S.A Surface area

C.D Current density

C.E Coating efficiency

Is = (0.067) x (15 x 10-3) x (1 – C.E)

Coating efficiency (C.E) = 80 %

Is = 0.201 mA

When current density is 30 mA/m2:

41
 Structure dimensions:

Total length (L) 1.5 ft. (45.72 cm)

Diameter (D) 47 mm (0.47cm)

Surface area = π x D x L

S.A = (3.14) x (0.047) x (0.4572)

S.A = 0.067 m2

Is = S.A x C.D x 10-3 x (1 – C.E)

Where,

Is Current requirement

S.A Surface area

C.D Current density

C.E Coating efficiency

Is = (0.067) x (30 x 10-3) x (1 – C.E)

Coating efficiency (C.E) = 80 %

Is = 0.402 mA

4.1.5 Pipe-to-soil potential

It must be confirmed that pipelines and other buried metal structures is protected
cathodically against corrosion. This is generally done in impressed current systems by
taking pipe-to-soil potential measurements at test posts along the pipe and in galvanic
systems by checking the supply of current from the sacrificial anode to the structure it is
protecting.

42
 We have calculated the different PSPs of the system to satisfy the NACE standards
and providing accurate current to the system so that, it could be confirmed to be protected.

Different PSPs are given below;

Natural potential

This is the potential taken out of the system naturally, when it is on neutral
condition.

Natural potential of the system = -550mV

On-potential

After taking the natural potential, that was -550 mV, the system was started. Current
was given to the system and On-potential was calculated using a reference electrode of
Cu/CuSO4.

On-potential of the system = 1133 mV

Off-potential

Off-potential of the system was calculated when the system polarized. This is also
called instant-off potential because it is taken instantaneously for just a few mili-seconds.

Off-potential of the system = 925 mV

4.2 Field Measurements

We did some field work at different transmission pipelines system at SSGC and took
various readings regarding monitoring of an ICCP system. These results have been shown below.

4.2.1 Pipe-to-soil Potential

These are the readings of pipe-to-soil-potential which were taken at different test
posts (T.P) of 12” high pressure main ACPL transmission pipeline. As most of the readings
were in the range of NACE criteria, we can say that the variations of PSP readings

43
 throughout the transmission line show that there are coating defects several points but the
pipeline was under protection. Table – 4.1 shows various PSP readings at several test posts:

Table 4-1: Location: 12” High Pressure Main ACPL

KMP in km PSP in V

0.00 1.146

1.500 1.15
5.000 1.172

5.500 1.069

6 1.152
7 1.193

7.651 1.118
10.026 1.01

12.008 1.16

12.5 1.13

13 1.08

13.5 1.07

14 1.15

18 1.23

19 1.19

23 0.99

24 1.28

25 1.34

30.5 1.501

4.2.2 Closed Interval Potential Survey

Closed interval potential (CIP) survey was performed on SSGC pipeline in 1 km (i.e.
from one test post to the other) to check the integrity of that pipeline and to analyze the

44
data obtained from it. The following readings were taken from this survey which was quite
satisfactory according to the protection criteria.

Table 4-1: CIP survey data of 12” main pipeline on 1 km

Distance in ft. PSP in V
0 1.215
03 1.206
06 1.206
09 1.208
12 1.209
15 1.207
18 1.213
21 1.215
24 1.216
27 1.219
30 1.218
33 1.221
36 1.223
39 1.222
42 1.225
45 1.226
48 1.225
51 1.227
54 1.228
57 1.227
60 1.227
63 1.229
66 1.225
69 1.223
72 1.221
75 1.224
78 1.223
81 1.226
84 1.225
87 1.225
90 1.224
93 1.220
96 1.219
99 1.219
102 1.216
105 1.218
108 1.217
111 1.219
114 1.219

45
117 1.213
120 1.219
123 1.216
126 1.217
129 1.214
132 1.213
135 1.213
138 1.215
141 1.211
144 1.210
147 1.215
150 1.215
153 1.211
156 1.213
159 1.210
162 1.209
165 1.209
168 1.208
171 1.207
174 1.206
177 1.207
180 1.208
183 1.206
186 1.204
189 1.204
192 1.203
195 1.202
198 1.201
201 1.199
204 1.199
207 1.197
210 1.196
213 1.198
216 1.196
219 1.195
222 1.194
225 1.193
228 1.195
231 1.193
234 1.196
237 1.194
240 1.190
243 1.192
246 1.189
249 1.188

46
 252 1.190
255 1.192
258 1.191
261 1.187
264 1.185
267 1.184
270 1.182
273 1.178
276 1.175
279 1.177
282 1.179
285 1.178
288 1.178
291 1.177
294 1.174
297 1.175
300 1.172
305 1.171

4.3 Graphs

Graph 4.1: PSP graph of 12” High Pressure Main ACPL

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
PSP in V

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
KMP in km

47
Graph 4.2: CIP graph of 12” High Pressure Main Pipeline

1.24
1.23
1.22
1.21
1.2
PSP in V

1.19
1.18
1.17
1.16
1.15
1.14
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Distance in ft.

48
 Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

Corrosion can be very severe problematic in most of the underground structures

and can cause a heavy loss and destruction. Most of the corrosion protection methods are
limited with the area, and in galvanic anode protection only small area can be protected,
because there is less current requirement. Impressed current cathodic protection system
can be very applicable to protect the long transmission pipelines over kilometers, where
current requirement is very high.

Choice of appropriate material for a specific environment, coating, and installing

ICCP system, corrosion damage can be controlled effectively. Selection of anodic material
also impacts the cathodic protection system. High silico iron (anode) can be more suited for
a impressed current cathodic protection system.

Coating effectiveness is very important factor in minimizing the current

requirement of the system. It can be the primary protection of the structure. From different
surveys, efficiency of coating and the ICCP method has been proved well performing. Better
coating can be very economical for the ICCP system and it can be long lasting.

Different environments shows variation in the parameters that influences the

cathodic protection process. Soil resistivity at different soil environments shows varied
current densities that influences the current requirement of the system. Environment
where soil resistivity is maximum would be economical for installing impressed current
cathodic protection system, because of low current requirement. High current requirement
is un-economical for the ICCP system.

ICCP system should be installed on the criteria of NACE standards for obtaining the
healthier results. NACE standard (RP O169) potential must be maintained -850 mV, in order
to protect the structure.

49
5.2 Recommendations

On the basis of study and experimental results, which have been effectively carried
out, the following recommendations can be considered for upcoming work.

ICCP system must be installed on any underground steel pipeline, this would be the
well suited method to overcome the corrosion destruction process.

Coating is essential on the structure before applying cathodic protection system on

it. Three layer polyethylene coating can be very efficient to the underground pipeline structure.

High silicon iron (Anode) would be well matched for the impressed current cathodic
protection technique.

At high resistivity environment ICCP technique would be economical and valid for
long time, for underground steel structure.

Additional studies can be made on the influence of lifetime of the anodes on the
economy of the ICCP process.

50
 References

 Peabody’s control of pipeline corrosion second edition

 Corrosion engineering Mars G. Fontana
 Pipeline corrosion and cathodic protection Marshall. E.
 http://www.cathodic-protection.com/measurements
 http://www.matcor.com/services/cathodic-protection-testing/
 www.corrosionpedia.com/topic/
 www.corrosion-doctors.org/Pipeline/
 http://www.corrosion-club.com/.htm
 www.pipelinemaintenance.co.uk
 www.alphaleak.com

51