Chloride Erosion-Corrosion of Oilfield Piping

Background: A client contacted KnightHawk Materials Lab to have a failure analysis performed
on some oilfield pipping that failed due to through thickness pitting corrosion after less than
one year in service. An NDT inspection found severe wall thinning throughout the well’s pipping
and identified the corrosion damage mechanism as CO2 corrosion.

Figure 1: Macrophotograph of Pitting, Gouging, and Green Corrosion Deposits with Inset
Showing SEM Micrograph of Salt Crystals in the Pits

Summary: The failure of the pipes was caused by salt water/chloride induced erosion corrosion.
X-ray diffraction testing revealed Akageneite, which is a chloride-containing iron oxide often
formed when steel is exposed to salt water. SEM/EDS of the corrosion pits revealed significant
deposits of crystallized NaCl (Figure 1). Process data revealed that the well was producing water
to oil at a ratio of approximately 9:1, resulting in an abundance of salt water in the system. The
chloride pitting (Figure 1) caused by the salt water then increased the turbulence of the flow,
which allowed the oil/water/sand slurry to remove the Akageneite and to expose fresh steel,
which then continued to corrode, leading to the very fast erosion corrosion of the material.
Take Away: Though field inspections and first impressions have value, it is important to conduct
full laboratory testing, especially in complex environments with multiple possible causes for
failure. In this case, though the damage did macroscopically appear to be consistent with
CO2 corrosion, the process data indicated that there was very little CO2 present. Thus, the real
cause of the failure was only determined through laboratory analysis.
© 2020 KnightHawk Engineering. All Rig

TLE Tube Failure

Background: TLE inlet tubesheet tube failure associated with localized material loss. A
metallurgical failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure mechanism.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of Tube-Tubesheet Damage and As-Received Sample Depicting

Through Cracking

Figure 2: SEM Micrographs and EDS Analysis (wt.%) of Maximum Thickness Loss Regions
Summary: TLE tube-tubesheet failure was associated with excessive localized metal loss due to
high temperature erosion and metal dusting. Carbide phases at the tubesheet ID known to
facilitate metal dusting were observed. Inlet gas flow accelerated metal loss. High levels of
carbon were detected via EDS analysis. A flaky oxide scale on the shell side suggested film
boiling due to improper cooling. Scale forming elements like Ca, Mg, Al were also detected at
the maximum thickness loss regions.

Take Away: Temperature excursions coupled with improper cooling can lead to premature
failures of TLEs. The microstructural changes in the material due to thermal exposure can
further facilitate the loss of material under synergistic mechanisms of metal dusting and
erosion.

TLE Tube Failure

Background: TLE inlet tubesheet tube failure associated with localized material loss. A
metallurgical failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure mechanism.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of Tube-Tubesheet Damage and As-Received Sample Depicting

Through Cracking
 Figure 2: SEM Micrographs and EDS Analysis (wt.%) of Maximum Thickness Loss Regions

Summary: TLE tube-tubesheet failure was associated with excessive localized metal loss due to
high temperature erosion and metal dusting. Carbide phases at the tubesheet ID known to
facilitate metal dusting were observed. Inlet gas flow accelerated metal loss. High levels of
carbon were detected via EDS analysis. A flaky oxide scale on the shell side suggested film
boiling due to improper cooling. Scale forming elements like Ca, Mg, Al were also detected at
the maximum thickness loss regions.

Take Away: Temperature excursions coupled with improper cooling can lead to premature
failures of TLEs. The microstructural changes in the material due to thermal exposure can
further facilitate the loss of material under synergistic mechanisms of metal dusting and
erosion.
 SCC of Stainless Steel Floating Flange Spool Piece
Background: Cracks were detected on floating flange spool piece during routine inspection
using snoop liquid test. A metallurgical failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure
mechanism.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection and NDT of As-Received Flange Samples Depicting Cracks

Figure 2: SEM Micrographs Revealing Intergranular Attack Along

the Grain Boundaries
Summary: This flange failure was associated with stress corrosion cracking attack under a
polythionic acid environment. The floating flange was used for loading methyl mercaptan into a
rail car storage tank and possibly a gasket leak led to exposure of wet HXSOY when reacting
with atmospheric moisture. The carbide precipitation at the grain boundaries facilitated
intergranular attack but transgranular attack was also observed. The precipitates observed on
the microstructure of the spool material, suggests the material was exposed to sensitization
temperatures, which could have occurred during manufacturing.

Take Away: Wet exposure to polythionic acid (HXSOY) during operation, coupled with
microstructural degradation of stainless steels can make them susceptible to localized corrosion
attack.

Corrosion Failure of a Spool Piece

Background: A pipe spool piece that was operated at 75 PSI and temperatures between 80 and
90 oC experienced numerous leaks. Plant operations noted that the leaks tended to occur
during or immediately following acid cleaning of the spool piece interior. After each leak, the
pipe was repaired with a fiberglass wrap and placed back in service. KML was contracted to
determine the cause of the repeated leaks in the pipe.

Figure 1: Photograph of the Inside of the Spool Piece with Surface Features and Non-Service
Water Level

Summary: The failure of the spool piece was the result of erosion corrosion at the water line.
When not in operation, the spool piece was allowed to partially drain, resulting in a water line
within the spool (Figure 1). Corrosion rates along this line were very high, resulting in significant
material removal. Where the spool piece narrowed in diameter, the constriction of flow
resulted in increased interaction between the fluid and the spool surface, causing the flow to
remove the corrosion products from the surface and continuously expose clean metal surfaces
which then continued to corrode. The combination of the high corrosion rates when not in
service and the erosion when in service led to rapid through thickness corrosion of the spool
piece. Additionally, when not in service, the poor water quality led to the precipitation of thick
calcium carbonate and iron oxide layers (the columnar deposits at the bottom of the pipe in
Figure 1). The removal of these deposits by acid washing exposed the holes that had formed in
the metal surface, leading to leaks during or immediately following the acid washes.

Take Away: When operating a pipe intermittently it is important to try to prevent partial
drainage of the pipe if possible. If that is not possible then corrosion resistant materials and
close control of water chemistry are necessary in order to prevent significant corrosion
damage.

Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion of a Nozzle Pipe

Background: A nozzle pipe with welds to flanges at either end experienced a leak during a
routine maintenance check before use. The nozzle was constructed of 304 stainless steel and
was located on a tank that saw intermittent use and was then cleaned with water and left
empty until it’s next use. Due to this practice, the client thought that the cause of the leak
might be chloride SCC, and contracted KML to perform a failure analysis on the nozzle.

Figure 1: Photograph (Left) and Optical Micrograph (Right) of the Failed Nozzle Pipe Showing
the Sensitization of the Microstructure, Pitting, and Intergranular Corrosion

Summary: The failure of the nozzle was the result of sensitization of the stainless steel
microstructure and subsequent intergranular corrosion, resulting in deep pitting and through
thickness corrosion of the nozzle pipe material. Sensitization of stainless steel refers to the
precipitation of chromium carbides on the grain boundaries and occurs at temperatures
between approximately 970 and 1470 oF (example shown in Figure 1). The presence of these
carbides allows for intergranular corrosion of the steel, resulting in pitting and eventual failure
of the material, as can be seen in Figure 1. This intergranular corrosion and cracking can occur
in environments where stainless steel would not normally be subject to corrosion.

The sensitization of the microstructure in this case was caused by improper welding
procedures. This can be seen by the location of the pitting, which occurred adjacent to the
welds, and also by the microstructural changes and changes in the surface coloration of the
steel near the weld areas, as highlighted in Figure 1.

Take Away: Improper welding or heat-treating procedures in stainless steels can cause
sensitization of the microstructure that greatly increases the susceptibility of the steel to
corrosion, resulting in corrosion failures in environments where stainless steel would not
normally be subject to corrosion.

Fatigue Failure of Through Hardened Gear Teeth

Background: TLE inlet tubesheet tube failure associated with localized material loss. A
metallurgical failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure mechanism.

Fatigue Failure of Through Hardened Gear Teeth

Figure 2: SEM Micrograph of Manganese Sulphide Inclusion in the Fatigue Crack Region
Summary:
The failure of the gear teeth was caused by the presence of manganese sulfide (MnS) inclusions
leading to fatigue cracking and brittle overload of the through hardened gear teeth. Inclusions
were found in the fatigue crack regions which EDS revealed to be manganese sulfide (MnS)
streamers. These inclusions serve as fatigue crack initiation locations and are known to be
highly detrimental to the fatigue properties of through hardened steels. In a through hardened
gear there is very little ductility or toughness, so once a fatigue crack was initiated at the
inclusions the failure of the gear teeth was very likely.
Take Away:
Steel quality is critical to the longevity of materials, especially high strength materials.
Metallurgical analysis of the gear teeth was able to identify the presence of inclusions in the
steel that were detrimental to the material properties and led to the failure of the gear.

Braided Hose Rupture

Background: Drop in internal pressure was experienced during operation due to failure of the
braided hose. This hose operated at a discharge pressure in the order of 150-250 psig with
dynamic fluctuations.
 Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received Braided Hose Showing Longitudinal Crack and
Mechanical Damage on the Surface

Figure 2: Fractography of Crack Observed on the Braided Hose Showing Typical Fatigue
Failure Features

Summary: The braided hose failure was associated with crack formation and propagation under
fatigue. In the course of the investigation it was determined that the hose had been misaligned
and exposed to undesirable compressive loading during installation, which correlated with the
buckling of the corrugated tube section. The mechanical surface damage observed indicated
interaction between the corrugated section and the braided wire jacket during buckling. This
interaction facilitated local thinning, bulging, and crack initiation and propagation under
dynamic operational pressure conditions.

Takeaway: Improper installation, permanent deformation of material can significantly lower

the fatigue strength of the component and cause premature failures.
 Crack Propagation in a Compressor
Background: A client had a compressor distance piece fail in a catastrophic manner, leading to
an internal root cause failure analysis. To successfully perform the internal analysis, the client
needed to know the origin of the crack, and the manner in which the crack propagated through
the distance piece. KML was contracted to provide this information as part of the client’s
internal root cause investigation.

Figure 1: Optical Micrograph (Left) and SEM Micrograph (Right) of Signs of RCF on the Bearing
Balls

Summary: The failure of the compressor distance piece was the result of fatigue. Rubbing
damage on various fracture surfaces of the compressor revealed that certain cracks had formed
while the compressor was still operational. By studying the extent and severity of the rubbing
damage, KML was able to determine that the compressor distance piece failed as a result of
crack initiation at a stress riser caused by looseness in the compressor. The crack then
propagated as shown in Figure 1, and the increased looseness of the compressor caused by this
crack led to initiation of secondary and tertiary cracks, which in turn began to propagate.
Finally, sufficient crack propagation led to the final overload failure.

Take Away: By observing the fracture surface features, it is possible to track crack propagation,
even through very large failures and multiple initiation locations. KML is capable of performing
this work, either as part of an internal investigation or as part of a root cause failure analysis
performed by KHE.
 Flange Cracking and Leakage
Background:
Cracks were observed on AISI 304 stainless steel flange during NDT inspection near the welded
region associated with a leakage. A failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure
mechanism(s) and assess causes.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received Flange Samples Depicting Cracks

Figure 2: Optical Micrographs Revealing Intergranular Attack Along the Grain Boundaries

Figure 3: Typical Intergranular Failure Observed in Scanning Electron Microscopy

Summary:
This flange failure was associated with intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) attack
under caustic environment. Often times during welding operation due to thermal exposure
these type of stainless steels are subjected to sensitization temperatures in the heat affected
zone. This can lead to deleterious precipitation of Cr-carbides along the grain boundaries that
makes the material susceptible to intergranular corrosion and/or stress corrosion attack.

Take Away:
Thermal exposure during operation, faulty heat treatment, welding etc. can cause
microstructural degradation of stainless steels making them susceptible to localized corrosion
attack.
Motor Shaft Failure
Background: A 2400 HP 900 RPM motor that drives a Triplex pump failed. A metallurgical
failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure mechanism.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Recevied and Sectioned Motor Shafts

 Figure 2: SEM Micrographs of Shaft Fracture Surface Depicting Striations

Summary: The motor shaft failure was associated with rotational bending fatigue initiated due
to stress concentration at the keyway. Striation spacings suggest failure occurred under a low
stress high cycle fatigue conditions.

Take Away: Stress concentrations in shafts such as those due to keyways or changes of surface
facilitate fatigue failure under normal operating conditions.

Rolling Contact Fatigue of Ball Bearings

Background: A fire occurred in a pump unit at a lubrication factory. The pump failed due to
increased vibration that was traced back to the bearings. The client wanted to determine the
cause of the increased vibration within the bearings.

Figure 1: Optical Micrograph (Left) and SEM Micrograph (Right) of Signs of RCF on the Bearing
Balls
Summary: The failure of the ball bearings was due to the onset of rolling contact fatigue within
the bearings. Figure 1 shows an optical micrograph of a white etching region (WEL) on the left
and an SEM micrograph of spalling (the removal of material) on the bearing surface on the
right. The WEL is one of the first and most characteristic signs of the onset of RCF. Though it is
not fully understood what microstructural changes cause the layer to have the distinct light
etching appearance seen in the figure, it is recognized as being a telling sign of RCF. The spalling
seen in the SEM micrograph is the likely cause of the increased vibration in the bearings.
Further analysis revealed that the bearing material had significant inclusions which likely served
as stress risers and increased the rate at which RCF progressed in the bearings.
Spalling in RCF is caused by the initiation of fatigue cracks due to the RCF that can either be
initiated at the surface or have sub-surface initiation. If the cracks are initiated at the surface,
then pits begin to form in the material, and as these pits grow they become spalled regions. If
the cracks initiate below the surface, then they travel through the material until they reach the
surface and then larger amounts of material are removed, resulting in spalling.

Take Away: Increased vibration in bearings can lead to catastrophic failure of the equipment. A
metallurgical examination of the bearings can reveal the damage mechanisms leading to the
failure, and provide insight into how to successfully correct the problem.

Cracked Hastelloy U Bend

Background: Cracking of C 276 U bend samples exposed to Sodium Methlaminobutyrate, 60%
Sodium Hydrosulfide, and 40% Water with operating temperature between 210-435 °F.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received U Bend Sample

 Figure 2: Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopic Examination of U Bend Cross-sections

Summary: This U bend tube damage was associated with environmentally assisted cracking
likely due to hydrogen sulfide. High levels of S were detected on the crack fracture surface. Ni-
Cr-Mo alloys have been found to be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in aggressive
conditions viz. T>200 °C, acidic pH, and presence of hydrogen sulfide. Take Away: Even in
alkaline pH the stress corrosion attack can possibly occur on Ni-Cr-Mo alloys in presence of
hydrogen sulfide and operating temperatures higher than 200 °C.
Take Away: Temperature excursions coupled with improper cooling can lead to premature
failures of TLEs. The microstructural changes in the material due to thermal exposure can
further facilitate the loss of material under synergistic mechanisms of metal dusting and
erosion.

© 2020 KnightHawk Engineering. All Right

 Gearbox Shaft Failure
Background:
Snap failure of a new gearbox shaft was experienced after a very short time in service. A failure
analysis was conducted to identify the failure mechanism(s) and assess possible causes.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received Gearbox Shaft

Figure 2: Optical and SEM Micrographs of the Shaft Material and Fracture Surface
Summary: TLE tube-tubesheet failure was associated with excessive localized metal loss due to
high temperature erosion and metal dusting. Carbide phases at the tubesheet ID known to
facilitate metal dusting were observed. Inlet gas flow accelerated metal loss. High levels of
carbon were detected via EDS analysis. A flaky oxide scale on the shell side suggested film
boiling due to improper cooling. Scale forming elements like Ca, Mg, Al were also detected at
the maximum thickness loss regions.

Take Away: Temperature excursions coupled with improper cooling can lead to premature
failures of TLEs. The microstructural changes in the material due to thermal exposure can
further facilitate the loss of material under synergistic mechanisms of metal dusting and
erosion.

End Cap Failure

Background: The end cap of a large scale pipe tester failed below its load rating. A metallurgical
failure analysis was conducted to identify the failure mechanism.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received Failed End Cap

 Figure 2: SEM Micrographs and EDS Analysis (wt.%) of Maximum Thickness Loss Regions

Summary: The end cap failure was associated with sulfide stress corrosion induced initial
cracking at the ID near the fillet radius. This initial fracture surface region showed intergranular
cracking. A first order approximation Fracture Mechanics calculation, assuming a semielliptical
internal surface crack at the failure load conditions, indicates the initial sulfide stress corrosion
crack induced a sufficient stress intensification to break the end cap. The small fillet radius
(~1/32”) facilitated the formation of the stress corrosion crack by inducing a stress
concentration in the order of 2 to 3 times the nominal stress at the cross-section. The stress
intensification at the crack of tip controls stress corrosion crack propagation until failure occurs
when the fracture toughness of the material is exceeded. Take Away: An initial stress corrosion
cracking attack in a localized region can lead to castrophic failure of the component normal
operating loads below the rated capacity of a component.
Take Away: Temperature excursions coupled with improper cooling can lead to premature
failures of TLEs. The microstructural changes in the material due to thermal exposure can
further facilitate the loss of material under synergistic mechanisms of metal dusting and
erosion.
 Roller Bearing Failure
Background: The roller bearing of a magnetic drive agitator experience failure after only 24
days of service. The bearing seats inside a magnetic drive housing with a double shield.

Figure 1: Close-up View of as Received Bearing Damage

Figure 2: Inner Ring Race Misalignment and Contamination Features

Summary: The failure of the magnetic drive bearing was associated with excessive
contamination that led to misalignment and subsequent cage failure. The accumulation and
spread of contamination on the inner and outer ring races likely induced misalignment of the
inner ring that led to the eventual breakup of the cage. A small amount of process material
leaked into the bearing housing. No evidence of any significant wear was observed on the
contact surfaces of the bearing races and balls.

Take Away: Even small amounts of contamination a roller bearing can lead to unexpectedly
significantly reduced lifetime.

Failure of an I-Beam
Background: A 40’ long I-beam cracked longitudinally within the web region The cracked I-
beam is one of the guide tracks of adrill stem top drive of a drill rig derrick structure. The I-
beam is a W10x45 A572 Grade 50.

Figure 1: Longitudinal Crack in I-Beam

Figure 2: Fatigue Striations and Dimples at the Center of Fracture Surface

Summary: The failure mechanism of the cracked I-beam is low cycle high stress fatigue.
Fatigue striations were clearly seen on the fracture surfaces together with dimples. Dimples
indicate a ductile failure mechanism. The relatively thick fatigue striations, the presence of
dimples on the fracture surface, and permanent bending of the web region where the crack
formed, indicate high loading conditions. High dynamic bending stresses were generated by
the normal contact force between the rollers of the direct drive system and track guide
surface of the I-beam. Compressed and elongated grains on the microstructure at the track
guide side edge also indicate a high normal contact force. Takeaway: High dynamic contact
loads can result in low cycle fatigue failures.
Take Away: Temperature excursions coupled with improper cooling can lead to premature
failures of TLEs. The microstructural changes in the material due to thermal exposure can
further facilitate the loss of material under synergistic mechanisms of metal dusting and
erosion.

Reboiler Tubes Leak

Background: Leakage in H2S reboiler tubes was experienced with significant pitting observed
on the tubes. Reboiler operates under steam pressure and temperatures.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received Reboiler Tube and Tubesheet

Figure 2: Scanning Electron Microscopic Examination of Reboiler Tube Sections

Summary: This reboiler tube damage was associated with erosion-corrosion in the presence of
wet H2S gas. Presence of moisture accelerates the corrosion attack of H2S on carbon steel type
materials. The corrosion products formed are non-adherant and porous which does not provide
protection against corrosion attack.

Bubble formation associated with boiling erodes the material at a faster rate locally causing
pinholes. Process related steam flow also played a significant role in this reboiler damage.
Pinhole and severe erosion-corrosion was observed at the hottest region and near the liquid
level where pressure was lower than at the surface. The combined effect of high temperature,
lower pressure, and less dense heavies promoted localized vigorous bubbling.

Take Away: Presence of water/water vapor in the H2S environment can cause accelerated
corrosion of carbon steel type material. The process conditions viz. flow induced turbulence
and creation of localized hot spot can cause severe erosion-corrosion.

High Pressure Instrument Tubing Failure

Background:
An instrument tubing in a non-corrosive propylene service experienced failure. The tube is 0.5
and operates at ~ 1500 psi and less than 80 °F. Since the tube is in a non-corrosive service and
there appears to be very little evidence of any sort of corrosion/environmental cracking.

Figure 1: Macroscopic and Microscopic View of Fracture Surface of Failed Tube

 Figure 2: Tube Material Microstructure.

Summary:
The high pressure instrument tubing failed due to fatigue. Evidence of fatigue includes the
presence of crack initiation, propagation and final ductile overload regions, rubbing, and
striations on the fracture surface. The final overload regions clearly show dimples which are
associated with ductile failures. Fatigue striations were also observed at micro- cracks formed
at the OD in this region. The presence of inclusions/impurities dispersed throughout the
microstructure and at the crack initiation region suggests these might have facilitated the
failure. Finally, since crack initiation started at the intrados of the 90° bend where compressive
residual stresses are present after forming the bend, large amplitude fatigue loads are most
likely associated with this failure.

Take Away:
High pressure lines can fail quickly fatigue during dynamic upset conditions.

Nitrate Stress Corrosion Cracking of a Furnace Shell

Background: Extensive cracking was detected in a plain carbon steel furnace shell. The
refractory of the furnace was approximately 10 inches thick and, for the first 30 years of the
furnace’s operation, the furnace did not have any NOx control measures in place. The cracks on
the furnace shell all seemed to be near locations where thermal stresses during start up and
shutdown would be maximized, and the furnace had been cycled several times per year for its
entire operational life. The client contracted KnightHawk Materials Lab to conduct a
metallurgical failure analysis of a section of the furnace wall, and stated that they suspected
that the failures might be related to thermal fatigue.
Figure 1: Optical Micrograph (Left) and SEM Micrograph (Right) of Intergranular Cracking and
Corrosion in a Polished Cross Section of the Furnace Shell

Summary: The failure of the furnace shell was caused by nitrate stress corrosion cracking, and
not by thermal fatigue. The presence of stress corrosion is clear from the crack branching (left
image in Figure 1) and the intergranular nature of the cracking (right image in Figure 1). There
are relatively few mechanisms that result in intergranular failure of low strength plain carbon
steel, and of those mechanisms, the only one likely to take place in a furnace shell is nitrate
SCC. However, for nitrate SCC to occur there has to be a source of nitrates, and that is where
the lack of NOx control measures is important.

The NOx that was produced by the burners for the first 30 years of operation had partially
condensed on the I.D. of the furnace shell and reacted with the insulation to form magnesium
and sodium nitrate salts. Then, when the furnace was cycled and cooled to below the dew
point, the surface of the metal was wetted and the nitrate salts entered into solution, resulting
in the formation of a stress corrosive environment. Upon startup, the areas of maximum stress
were the areas where thermal stress was at a maximum, and so the stress corrosion cracking
occurred most prominently in these areas.

Take Away: Nitrous oxide deposits on carbon steel surfaces can lead to intergranular SCC of the
metal, especially when the metal is routinely cycled through the dewpoint. Despite the initial
appearance of the failures (thermal fatigue) a detailed metallurgical analysis was able to
determine that the actual cause of the cracking was corrosion related.
 ©

Cast Stainless Steel Impeller Failure

Background: Severe corrosion damage was experienced in the lines carrying water in and out of
the scrubbers. Impeller was operating at 125-165° F temperature in environment containing
ammonium sulfate, sulfuric acid, and ammonia with chlorides and at pH between 1.8-3.0.

Figure 1: Visual Inspection of As-Received Cast Impeller

Figure 2: SEM Micrographs of the Cavitation Damage on Cast Impeller

Summary: This impeller failure was associated with severe erosion-corrosion assisted cavitation
damage. In general, cast stainless steels materials possess excellent corrosion resistance.
However, in this case the change in cross-section of the impeller likely caused turbulent
conditions, whicih coupled with thpresence of calcium hypochlorite and sulfuric acid in the
system, caused erosion-corrosion and cavitation damage. Uniform thinning with cavitation was
observed on the impeller blades.
Cavitiation is a typical damage mechanism in high-velocity fluid environments which
experiences pressure change creating boiling conditions at lower temperatures. Collapsing
bubbles produced during boiling on the material surface generates shock waves that causes
material removal.

Take Away: The presence of Cl- ions in a stainless steel system, in conjunction with the high-
velocity fluid flow, can cause severe erosion-corrosion damage. Pressure fluctuations in the
process that create boiling conditions, accelerate material removal through a cavitation
mechanism.

020 KnightHawk Engineering.

Metal Dusting of Bolts

Background: A client contacted KnightHawk Materials Lab requesting an urgent analysis of
failed bolts found during a turnaround. The bolts had relatively flat fracture surfaces that
appeared to have been caused by fatigue cracking, but were severely corroded (shown in Figure
1). In addition, the process was known to have problems with metal dusting.

Figure 1: Photograph of the Fracture Surfaces of the Bolts

 Figure 2: SEM Micrograph of Pitting of the Bolt Threads

Summary: The failure of the bolts was the result of metal dusting corrosion which led to the
formation of long pits in the threads (Figure 2). Extreme carburization and small surface and
sub-surface layers of nearly pure C, as shown by EDS, confirmed the presence of metal dusting.
The resulting pits served as stress risers which likely spawned a progressive cracking mechanism
(e.g. fatigue). However, due to the extreme corrosion damage to the fracture surface, the
presence of such a mechanism could not be definitively confirmed.

Take Away: Metal dusting is a highly damaging corrosion mechanism that occurs in certain
extreme environments. Metallurgical analysis of the failed parts can identify the presence of
early stages of metal dusting in the material.

Overload Failure of UHMWPE Seals

Background: A client contacted KnightHawk Materials Lab with multiple failures in polymer
seals in a mobile, low temperature piping system. KML was hired to determine the cause of the
failure within the polymer jackets of the seals in order to extend their service life.

Figure 1: Brittle Fracture Surface (Left) and Ductile Fracture with Feathering (Right) of Two
Different UHMWPE Seals
Summary: The failures of the UHMWPE seals were caused by sudden overload events. There
was no sign of fatigue damage or chemical/mechanical degradation of the polymer. The
overload events led to the formation of two distinctly different types of fractures in seals that
were installed in two different locations, with one seal failing in a brittle fashion (left image in
Figure 1), while the other seal failed in a ductile fashion (right image in Figure 1). This difference
in fracture mode was the result of differing levels of constraint on the seals. The seal that failed
in a brittle fashion was more heavily constrained and thus did not have the ability, from a
fracture mechanics perspective, to fail in a ductile fashion. When the system was less
constrained, the natural ductility of the UHMWPE led to a ductile overload failure instead, as
evidenced by the other seal.

Take Away: While ductile materials are generally expected to fail in a ductile fashion, it is
possible for constraints on the system to force even a highly ductile material into a brittle
fracture mode. Thus, understanding the system and the fracture mechanics that drive the
failure can be critical in understanding how and why a fracture progresses the way it does.

Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon and Stainless Steel

Background: A client contacted KnightHawk Materials Lab when a long section of steam piping
fell to the ground releasing steam. Subsequent inspection found widespread cracking of both
carbon and stainless steel piping in the steam system.

Figure 1: Macrophotgraphy of the Fractures of Stainless Steel (Top) and Carbon Steel
(Bottom)
 Figure 2: Optical Micrographs of Transgranular Cracking in Stainless Steel (Left) and
Intergranular Cracking in Carbon Steel (right)

Summary: Caustic stress corrosion cracking (SCC) was the cause of the cracking in each of the
pipes. More specifically, the branching nature of the cracks, the transgranular cracking in
stainless steel and intergranular cracking in the carbon steel, are the expected fracture modes
of those materials due to caustic SCC. Further, the presence of large amounts of Na and O on
the fracture surfaces as evidenced by EDS also supports the conclusion that SCC caused the
cracking.

Take Away: There are relatively few types of SCC that affect both carbon and austenitic
stainless steels, but through fractographic and process analysis, it is possible to identify the type
of SCC that is affecting a system and take the appropriate actions to prevent it in the future.

Field Testing for Early Detection of Creep Damage

Background: A client contacted KnightHawk Materials Lab to have some quench exchanger
piping analyzed during a turnaround. Because the temperature control in the units had been
historically unreliable, the client wanted to have the piping analyzed in the field to determine if
early stage creep degradation had occurred.

Figure 1: SEM Micrographs of a Damaged (Left) and Undamaged (Right) Exchanger Pipe
Summary: KnightHawk performed field metallography to pull replicas of the exchanger pipe
microstructures and took field hardness data. Although the majority of the pipes were in good
condition, the data from some pipe samples indicated a need for replacement due to
microstructural changes and decreases in hardness associated with creep damage. Specifically,
the pearlite (shown undamaged on the right in Figure 1) had degraded through a process called
spheroidization (shown on the left in Figure 1), and the hardness had decreased by a
statistically significant amount, which correlates to a weaker material.
Take Away: There are a wide range of nondestructive testing techniques available to quantify
damage after an upset, or even to check on critical systems during routine maintenance or
turn-arounds. Use of these techniques can save time and money, by identifying and addressing
problem areas when convenient (e.g. during a turnaround) rather than causing downtime or
forced outages.