Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

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Cretaceous extensional and compressional tectonics in the Northwestern

Andes, prior to the collision with the Caribbean oceanic plateau
S. Zapata a,b,c,⁎, A. Cardona d, J.S. Jaramillo a, A. Patiño a, V. Valencia e, S. León a, D. Mejía a,
A. Pardo-Trujillo f, J.P. Castañeda a
a
Facultad de Minas, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Cr. 80 # 65-223, Medellín, Colombia
b
Corporación Geológica ARES, Calle 44A N. 53-96, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
c
Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
d
Departamento de Procesos y Energía, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Cr. 80 # 65-223, Medellín, Colombia
e
School of Earth and Environment, Washington State University, Pullman, United States
f
Instituto de Investigaciones en Estratigrafía-IIES, Universidad de Caldas, Calle 65 N° 26-10, Manizales, Colombia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Cretaceous units exposed in the northwestern segment of the Colombian Andes preserve the record of exten-
Received 29 December 2017 sional and compressional tectonics prior to the collision with Caribbean oceanic terranes. We integrated field,
Received in revised form 8 October 2018 stratigraphic, sedimentary provenance, whole rock geochemistry, Nd isotopes and U-Pb zircon data to under-
Accepted 10 October 2018
stand the Cretaceous tectonostratigraphic and magmatic record of the Colombian Andes. The results suggest
Available online 22 November 2018
that several sedimentary successions including the Abejorral Fm. were deposited on top of the continental base-
Handling Editor: R.D. Nance ment in an Early Cretaceous backarc basin (150–100 Ma). Between 120 and 100 Ma, the appearance of basaltic
and andesitic magmatism (~115–100 Ma), basin deepening, and seafloor spreading were the result of advanced
Keywords: stages of backarc extension. A change to compressional tectonics took place during the Late Cretaceous
Northern Andes (100–80 Ma). During this compressional phase, the extended blocks were reincorporated into the margin, closing
Paleogeography the former Early Cretaceous backarc basin. Subsequently, a Late Cretaceous volcanic arc was built on the conti-
Cretaceous nental margin; as a result, the volcanic rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex were unconformably deposited
Extension on top of the faulted and folded rocks of the Abejorral Fm. Between the Late Cretaceous and the Paleocene
Convergent margins
(80–60 Ma), an arc-continent collision between the Caribbean oceanic plateau and the South-American conti-
Provenance
nental margin deformed the rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex and shut-down the active volcanic arc. Our
results suggest an Early Cretaceous extensional event followed by compressional tectonics prior to the collision
with the Caribbean oceanic plateau.
© 2019 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction accretion of exotic terranes, changes in the relative plate-convergence

Accretionary orogens are characterized by continuous long-lived
subduction systems and the alternation between extensional and com-
pressional tectonics (Cawood et al., 2009; Royden, 1993; Uyeda and
Kanamori, 1979). The accretion of oceanic and continental terranes re-
sults in a complex superposition of multiple sedimentary, magmatic,
and deformational events (Cawood et al., 2009).
The tectonic evolution of the Northern Andes is considered a typical
accretionary orogeny related to different phases of extension and com-
pression, in a subduction system active since the Jurassic (Ramos, 1999;
Restrepo and Toussaint, 1991; Spikings et al., 2015). The change be-
tween contrasting geological configurations have been related to the
⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Potsdam, Institute of Earth and Environmental
Sciences, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
E-mail address: szapata@uni-potsdam.de (S. Zapata).
rates, and variations in the slab subduction angle (Cochrane et al.,
2014b; Kerr et al., 1996; Nivia et al., 2006; Restrepo and Toussaint,
1988; Spikings et al., 2015; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013; Zuluaga
et al., 2015). However, the tectonic mechanisms and the precise tempo-
ral constraints of these extensional and compressional phases remain
controversial (e.g. Nivia et al., 2006; Restrepo et al., 2009; Spikings
et al., 2015).
The Cretaceous tectonic reconstructions proposed for the
Northern Andes can be divided into two opposite models summa-
rized in Fig. 2. The first model proposes continuous compression re-
lated to the Early Cretaceous accretion of at least one oceanic
terrane. This accretionary event was followed by the growth of a
Late Cretaceous volcanic arc along the continental edge of the NW
South American margin (Spikings et al., 2015; Toussaint and
Restrepo, 1996; Villagómez et al., 2011; Villagómez and Spikings,
2013). The second model proposes the existence of an Early

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2018.10.008
1342-937X/© 2019 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
208 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

Cretaceous extensional continental arc coeval with the formation of
a backarc basin (141–115 Ma) (Kennan and Pindell, 2009; Nivia
et al., 2006; Spikings et al., 2015; Villagómez et al., 2011). Both
models suggest the collision of one or more oceanic terranes with
the continental margin between the Late Cretaceous and the Paleo-
cene (80–60 Ma).
In this contribution, we present new field observations, sedimentary
provenance, geochemical, U-Pb data from the Early Cretaceous volcano-
sedimentary record and from the Permo-Triassic continental basement
exposed between 5°53′N and 5°30′N, in the western flank of the Central
Cordillera, in the Colombian Andes. These results together with pub-
lished data are used to reconstruct the Cretaceous tectonic evolution

Atlantic Ocean GP

SNM
SP

SMF
SM

OPF
RFS
GF

CPB
CC
MV
EC

CV Fig. 2

WC

200 km
RFS

Paleogene plutonic rocks

Romeral fault zone
(Quebradagrande C. and Arquía C.)
Late Cretaceous plutonic rocks
Abejorral Fm and other
CR siliciclastic Cretaceous rocks
Eastern Cordillera basin
Allochthonous oceanic basement
Jurassic igneous rocks
Continental basement

Fig. 1. Geological provinces of the Northern Andes. The black square shows the location of the geological map presented in Fig. 2. WC: Western Cordillera; CC: Central Cordillera; EC:
Eastern Cordillera; CR: Cordillera Real; CV: Cauca Valley; MV: Magdalena Valley; GP: Guajira Peninsula; SNM: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; SP: Serrania de Perija; SM: Santander
Massif; CPB: Choco-Panama Block; GP: Garrapatas Fault; RFS: Romeral Fault System; OPF: Otu-Pericos Fault; SMF: Santa Marta Fault.
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226
of the Colombian Andes. Our model suggests an extensional tectonic re-
gime during the Early Cretaceous and constraints the time of the transi-
tion into a Late Cretaceous compressional regime coeval with arc
magmatism. This transition to compressional tectonics was responsible
for the onset of the North Andean compressional tectonic settings, prior
to the collision with the Caribbean plateau.
2. Geological framework
The Cretaceous tectono-stratigraphic record of the Colombian Andes
is exposed along the three main Cordilleras and the intervening river
valleys (Cauca and Magdalena Valleys) (Fig. 1). To the east, the Magda-
lena Valley and the Eastern Cordillera include up to 2 km of Berrasian to
Aptian marine siliciclastic rocks deposited in extensional basins
(Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006) with limited magmatic activity
(Vasquez and Altenberger, 2005). These marine siliciclastic sequences
are overlain by fine-grained siliciclastic rocks and carbonates deposited
in a shallow platform environment. These fine-grained rocks were de-
posited during a tectonically-quiescent stage after the Albian (Villamil
and Pindell, 1999). Subsequently, the stratigraphic record suggests a
change to transitional-deltaic and fluvial depositional environments.
This change from marine to deltaic and fluvial deposition has been
linked to a Late Cretaceous collisional event, between the Great Arc of
the Caribbean and the NW of the South American margin (Erlich et al.,
2003; Escalona and Mann, 2011; Gomez et al., 2003).
The sedimentary record in the Central Cordillera includes discontin-
uous exposures of Lower Cretaceous siliciclastic rocks deposited on top
of a pre-Cretaceous metamorphic and igneous basement (Martens et al.,
A) Spikings et al. 2015 and Villagómez et al. 2013
190 - 145 Ma Jurassic arc
145 - 130 Ma
130 - 115 Ma Quebradagrande arc
Silvia Pijao San Jerónimo
115 - 100 Ma Fault Fault
Quebradagrande
collision
100 - 90 Ma
Spikings et al. 2015 and Villagómez et al. 2013
90 - 80 Ma
75 - 70 Ma, Western Cordillera collision
Cauca Almaguer
Fault
Fig. 2. Tectonic models proposed for the Cretaceous evolution of the Northern Andes. (A), Compressional tectonic scenario, modified from Spikings et al. (2015), Restrepo and Toussaint
(1988), and Villagómez et al. (2011). (B), Extensional tectonic scenario, modified from Villagómez et al. (2011), Spikings et al. (2015) and Nivia et al. (2006).
209
2012; Maya and Gonzalez, 1995; Vinasco et al., 2006) (Fig. 1). The Cen-
tral Cordillera siliciclastic successions are characterized by coarse-
grained rocks deposited in fluvial-deltaic environments overlain by
finer grain lithologies deposited in marine conditions. These sedimen-
tary units were deposited between the Berrasian and the Aptian, as
the fossil record suggests (Gomez et al., 1995; Gomez et al., 2002;
González, 2001; Quiroz, 2005) (Fig. 1).
These sedimentary rocks are grouped in several units including the
Abejorral Fm., Valle Alto Fm., Aranzazu-Manizales Complex; and the
San Luis, Berlín, la Soledad and Segovia sediments (Gomez et al., 1995;
González, 2001; Quiroz, 2005). These units have been related to differ-
ent tectonic settings including a passive continental margin (Gomez
et al., 2002; Pardo-Trujillo et al., 2002; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1996),
a backarc basin (Nivia et al., 2006) (Fig. 2B), and a foreland basin
(Spikings et al., 2015; Villagómez et al., 2011) (Fig. 2A).
The Central Cordillera metamorphic basement is composed of low to
medium grade meta-sedimentary rocks intruded by Permo-Triassic
granitoids and amphibolites; these metamorphic rocks are grouped in
the Cajamarca Complex (Gómez et al., 2015; Maya and Gonzalez,
1995). The Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and the metamorphic base-
ment of the Central Cordillera are intruded by several intermediate-
felsic plutonic bodies (Fig. 1), including the Antioquia Batholith and
the Altavista Stock. These intrusives have yield U-Pb crystallization
ages between 90 and 63 Ma (Correa et al., 2006; Ibañez-Mejia et al.,
2007; Leal-Mejia, 2011; Villagómez et al., 2011).
Different deformed Permo-Triassic to Cretaceous metamorphic and
volcano-sedimentary rocks are exposed at the western segment of the
Central Cordillera and along the Cauca Valley. These units are limited
B) Spikings et al. 2015, Villagómez et al. 2013 and Nivia et al. 2006
160- 145 Ma
145- 130 Ma
Abejorral rift
125- 100 Ma
Quebradagrande rift
100 - 80 ma
Basin closure
Late Cretaceous plutonic rocks
Quebradagrande Complex
Abejorral Fm.
Western Cordillera
Allochthonous oceanic basement
Arquía Complex
Jurassic igneous rocks
Continental basementt
210 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

by the faults of the Cauca-Romeral Fault System (RFS) (Figs. 1 and 3)
(González, 2001; Maya and Gonzalez, 1995; Restrepo and Toussaint,
1988; Vinasco Vallejo and Cordani, 2012).
The San Jerónimo fault (SJF) separates the pre-Cretaceous metamor-
phic basement of the Central Cordillera from the Cauca Ophiolitic Com-
plex and the Quebradagrande Complex (Alvarez, 1983; Borrero et al.,
2012; Maya and Gonzalez, 1995; Pardo-Trujillo et al., 2011;
Villagómez et al., 2011) (Figs. 1 and 3). The Cauca Ophiolitic complex
is composed of several discontinuous fault-bounded bodies compose
of gabbroic plutons, basaltic pillow lavas, and ultramafic rocks; which
have been considered as fragments of a dismembered ophiolitic com-
plex. The age of this ophiolite has been assumed as Cretaceous due to
its close relation with the Quebradagrande Complex (Alvarez, 1983;
González, 1980; Maya and Gonzalez, 1995).
The Quebradagrande Complex includes a series of discontinuous N-S
trending deformed basaltic to dacitic lavas and pyroclastic rocks inter-
bedded with mudstones, chert, conglomerates and lithic sandstones
(Gomez-Cruz et al., 1995; Gomez et al., 2002; Restrepo-Moreno et al.,
2009). The age of the Quebradagrande complex has been constrained
between 97 and 120 Ma based on fossil occurrences and two U-Pb zir-
con ages from a tuff and a dioritic intrusive (Cochrane et al., 2014b;
Villagómez et al., 2011). However, younger Campanian-Maastrichtian
fossil ages have also been reported in several localities suggesting a
more complicated accumulation history (Gomez et al., 2002;
González, 1980) (Fig. 3). Tonalitic and gabbroic plutonic bodies intrud-
ing the volcanic rocks of the Quebradagrande have U-Pb crystallization
ages between 78 and 90 Ma (Jaramillo et al., 2017; Villagómez et al.,
2011). Previous tectonic models have related the Quebradagrande

A B
Jaramillo et al. 2017

SJF

CAF Fig 2B

Fig 4

CAF

Cambumbia
SPF Stock

Pacora
Stock
SJF

Miocene and Quaternary units

Paleogene plutonic rocks
Late Cretaceous plutonic rocks
SPF

Quebradagrande Complex
F

Cauca Ophiolithic Complex

SJ

Abejorral Fm. and other

siliciclastic Cretaceous rocks
Arquia Complex
Western Cordillera allochthonous
oceanic basement
Pre-Cretaceous continental basement
U-Pb geochronology Stratigraphic sections in Fig. 5 Upper Cretaceous fossils
Geochemestry Lower Cretaceous fossils

Fig. 3. (A). Simplified geological map of the Cauca Valley, the map includes published Cretaceous fossil locations (Gomez et al., 2002; González, 2001; González et al., 1988). Black boxes
indicate the location of the study area and the location of the data presented in Jaramillo et al. (2017); (B) geological map from the study area modified from Modified from Gómez et al.
(2015) and González (1980); stars represent the collected samples, and the numbered boxes represent the location of the stratigraphic sections presented in Fig. 5. The black box indicates
the location of the mapping area presented in Fig. 4. SJF: San Jerónimo Fault; SPF: Silvia Pijao Fault; and CAF: Cauca-Almaguer Fault.
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226
Complex and the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex to the formation of a back-
arc basin or to an accreted oceanic arc (Cochrane et al., 2014b; Nivia
et al., 2006; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1996; Villagómez et al., 2011)
(Fig. 2).
The Silvia Pijao Fault (SPF) separates the Quebradagrande complex
on the east from different Triassic granitic rocks, including the Pacora
and the Cambumbia Stocks. Also west of the SPF have been documented
Early Cretaceous high to middle-pressure metamorphic rocks grouped
in the Arquía Complex (Bustamante et al., 2011b, 2011a; Cochrane
et al., 2014a; Maya and Gonzalez, 1995; Ruiz-Jimenez et al., 2012;
Vinasco Vallejo and Cordani, 2012). The Triassic granites have been con-
sidered as remnants of the continental margin separated during the
opening of a back-arc basin (Nivia et al., 2006) (Fig. 2B). The Early Cre-
taceous metamorphic rocks of the Arquia Complex have been consid-
ered as a part of a subduction/accretion complex formed during the
growth of the Quebradagrande oceanic arc (Cochrane et al., 2014a;
Spikings et al., 2015) (Fig. 2A).
Finally, the Cauca Almaguer Fault (CAF) separates the units em-
bedded within the Romeral Fault System from the Cretaceous rocks
from the Western Cordillera (Aspden et al., 1987; Barrero, 1979;
Kerr et al., 1997) (Figs. 1 and 3). The Western Cordillera basement in-
cludes mafic rocks interbedded with deep-marine sedimentary rocks
deposited during the formation of an Early Cretaceous oceanic pla-
teau, in a position southwest of the present day position. The
volcano-sedimentary basement of the Western Cordillera was in-
truded by oceanic arc plutons during the Late Cretaceous (Escalona
and Mann, 2011; Rodriguez and Zapata, 2013; Villagómez et al.,
2011; Weber et al., 2015; Zapata, 2009). This oceanic plateau col-
lided with the northwestern margin of South America between the
Late Cretaceous and the Paleocene (Bayona et al., 2011; Escalona
and Mann, 2011; Hincapié-Gómez et al., 2018; Pindell et al., 1998;
Spikings et al., 2015) (Fig. 2).
3. Methods
Geological mapping was carried out in an area of ~60 km (Fig. 4).
Representative samples from the Quebradagrande Complex, Abejorral
Fm., Cauca Ophiolitic Complex, and the Cajamarca Complex were col-
lected for petrography, U-Pb zircon geochronology, whole rock geo-
chemistry, and Nd isotopes. Complementary cartographic observations
and sampling were also conducted up to 50 km south of this area
(Fig. 3B).
3.1. Conglomerate clast counting and sandstone petrography
Conglomerate clast counting was performed following the ribbon
counting method (Howard, 1993). Clasts b 2 cm in size were excluded
from the analysis results are presented in Table 1. 300 points were
counted in sandstone samples following both the Gazzi-Dickinson and
the Indiana methods (Dickinson, 1985). Additional high-resolution pet-
rographic discrimination of quartz was performed according to the
methodology proposed by Basu et al. (1975). Petrographic results are
presented in Table 2.
3.2. U-Pb geochronology
U-Pb geochronology samples include Granitoids from the Cajamarca
Complex and volcanic and siliciclastic rocks from the Quebradagrande
Complex and the Abejorral Fm. After cathodoluminescence imaging,
the Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
(LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb analyses were conducted at Washington State Uni-
versity. The analyses were conducted at Washington State University
using a New Wave Nd:YAG UV 213-nm laser coupled to a Thermo
Finnigan Element 2 single collector, double-focusing, magnetic sector
ICP-MS at WSU. Operating procedures and parameters were similar to
those of Chang et al. (2006). Laser spot sizes and repetition rates were
211
30–20 μm and 10 Hz, respectively. U and Th concentration were moni-
tored by comparing to NIST 610 trace element glass.
In the case of the zircons recovered from magmatic rocks, the analy-
ses were conducted after reviewing cathodoluminescence (CL) analysis,
and zircon rims and well-defined cores were used to constrain the zir-
con crystallization history (Valencia et al., 2005). In detrital samples,
only the cores of the grains were analyzed to avoid complex zircon his-
tories (Gehrels et al., 2006).
For all samples, probability density plots and weight-average ages
were obtained with ISOPLOT 3.62 (Ludwig, 2007). For the detrital sam-
ples, only the grains with discordance b 20% and errors b 5% were con-
sidered. The volcanic ages were obtained using the grains with the
lower errors and avoiding inherited ages. The maximum depositional
ages were calculated using a weighted average age from the three youn-
gest zircons that overlap at 2 sigma (Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009). An-
alytical results are presented in Table A1.
3.3. Whole-rock geochemistry
Whole rock chemical analyses were conducted in volcanic and
plutonic rocks from the Abejorral Fm. and the Cauca Ophiolitic Com-
plex. Samples were analyzed with an inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (ICPMS) at Acme Analytical Laboratories Ltd. in
Vancouver, Canada. A 0.2 g aliquot was weighed into a graphite cru-
cible and mixed with 1.5 g of LiBO2 flux. The crucibles are placed in
an oven and heated to 1050 °C for 15 min. The molten sample was
dissolved in 5% HNO 3. Calibration standards and reagent blanks
were added to the sample sequence. Sample solutions were aspi-
rated into an ICP emission spectrograph (Jarrel Ash Atom Comb
975) for determining major oxides and certain trace elements (Ba,
Nb, Ni, Sr, Sc, Y and Zr), while the sample solutions are aspirated
into an ICP-MS (Perkins–Elmer Elan 6000) for determination of the
trace elements, including rare earth elements. The Results are pre-
sented in the Table A2. Standard SO-8 were measured (Table A3)
with standard deviations of 0.01 for TiO 2 , 0.753 for Nb and 0.739
for Y.
3.4. Nd isotopes
The analyses were done on a Thermo-Finnigan Neptune
multicollector system at Washington State University in Pullman, and
the results are presented in Table 3. The procedures for sample prepara-
tion and Nd dilution can be found in Gaschnig et al. (2011). The Sm and
Nd isotope analyses followed procedures described in Vervoort and
Blichert-Toft (1999). Sm concentrations were corrected using
147
Sm/152Sm: 0.56081, and Nd was corrected for mass fractionation
using 146Nd/144Nd: 0.7219 and normalized using the Ames Nd standard
(±0.000020 2σ average reproducibility). The εNd values were calcu-
lated using present-day values of 143Nd/144Nd: 0.512630 and
147
Sm/144Nd: 0.160 for CHUR (Bouvier et al., 2008).
4. Field observations and petrography
Most of the units within the study area record various stages of duc-
tile and brittle deformation, which resulted in highly deformed rocks.
The main characteristics of four major units are described from the
east to the west as follows (Fig. 4).
4.1. Gneisses, granitoids, and schists
Gneisses and schistose rocks with an NW-SE foliation were mapped
within the study area (Fig. 4). The gneissic rocks include two different
foliated metagranitoids locally known as the Pantanillo and Abejorral
gneisses. These gneisses are composed of quartz (4–56%), plagioclase
(6–10%), K-feldspar (10–15%), and different amounts of muscovite
and biotite with minor sillimanite (24–12%) defining the main foliation.
212 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

Fig. 4. Geological map and cross-section of the mapping area. White and black stars denote the sample location. SJF: San Jeronimo Fault.

The Abejorral and the Pantanillo gneisses have yield Permo-Triassic U- + feldspar schist with muscovite + quartz + feldspar schists. Both
Pb zircon crystallization ages (Vinasco et al., 2006). The schists include units are included in the Cajamarca Complex (Maya and Gonzalez,
centimetric to decametric intercalations of chlorite + amphibole 1995), which is the oldest basement of the Central Cordillera.

Table 1
Results of conglomerate clast counting analysis.

Unit Quartz (%) Sandstones (%) Mudstones (%) Chert (%) Metamorphic (%) Plutonic (%) Volcanic (%)

Lower Abejorral Member 85 0 14 0 0 0 0

Upper Abejorral Member 32 16 16 0 25 2 9
Quebradagrande Complex 6 45 5 26 1 0 17
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226 213

Table 2
Sandstone framework analysis. Qm: monocrystalline quartz; Qsed: polycrystalline sedimentary quartz; Qpd: polycrystalline diffuse quartz; Qpf: polycrystalline foliated quartz; Qct: chert;
Pl: plagioclase; Fk: orthoclase; Lsl: sedimentary lithic siltstone; Lsl: sedimentary lithic mudstone; Lmm: muscovite metamorphic lithic; Lmb: biotite metamorphic lithic; Lmc: chlorite
metamorphic lithic; Lma: amphibolitic metamorphic lithic; Lmn: gneissic metamorphic lithic; Lh: hypabyssal lithic; Lvf: felsic volcanic lithic; Lvv: vitreous volcanic lithic; Msc: muscovite;
Cl: chlorite; Px: pyroxene; Bt: biotite; Hm: heavy minerals; opaques; Qp2–3: polycrystalline quartz 2–3 grains; Qp + 3: polycrystalline quartz N3 grains; Qn: non-undulatory quartz; and
Qund: undulatory extension quartz.

West Lower Abejorral Member Upper Abejorral Member Quebradagrande

Abejorral Complex

SL-046 SZ-009F SZ-009a AP-005 SZ-009e SZ-009h AP-034 AP-036 SZ-022 SZ-027 JPC 002 JPC012

Qm (%) 54 39 40 59 70 42 27 23 58 49 68 58
Qsed (%) 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 9 6
Qpd (%) 0 2 1 5 3 4 15 15 1 7 0 0
Qpf (%) 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 7 0 0 0 0
Qpoli 9 24 25 11 18 17 11 9 1 21 0 0
(%)
QCt (%) 0 26 15 2 3 11 16 6 0 2 0 0
Pl (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 5 19
F (%) 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lss (%) 7 0 0 1 0 0 6 11 0 1 0 6
Lsl (%) 8 0 0 0 0 0 6 1 0 0 0 0
Lmm (%) 3 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 2 1 0 5
Lmg (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
Lmb (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0
Lmc (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 0
Lma (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0
Lmn (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0
Lp (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1 0 0
Lvf (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Lvv (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0
Lvi (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 1 0 0
Msc (%) 6 5 16 11 5 12 1 0 25 6 12 3
Cl (%) 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
PX (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0
Bt (%) 0 2 0 0 0 10 1 0 7 6 0 0
Hm (%) 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Op (%) 3 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 6 4

High resolution quartz analysis (Basu et al., 1975)

West Abejorral Lower Abejorral Member Upper Abejorral Member Quebradagrande

Complex

SL-046 SZ-009F SZ-009a AP-005 SZ-009e SZ-009h AP-034 AP-036 SZ-022 SZ-027 JPC 002 JPC012

Qp2–3 (%) 6 18 17 7 9 20 1 6 1 15 4 4
Qp + 3 (%) 7 38 32 17 18 23 61 58 4 24 3 6
Qn (%) 6 31 23 27 29 34 16 11 82 40 23 75
Qund (%) 81 13 27 49 44 23 22 25 13 21 71 16

4.2. Abejorral Formation
Due to the discontinuous nature of the field exposures and the over-
imposed deformation (i.e. folding and faulting), we were not able to
measure a continuous stratigraphic section within the study area. How-
ever, the more representative lithologies of this formation were
mapped, sampled, described, and correlated with more continuous pub-
lished stratigraphic sections, in equivalent structural positions outside
of the study area (Figs. 3B and 5).
Siliciclastic rocks of the Abejorral Formation can be divided into
two informal members. (1) The Lower Abejorral Member includes
thick to very thick (0.5–3 m) tabular beds of structureless matrix-
supported and poorly-sorted conglomerates, with pebble-sized
rounded clasts and a medium-grained sandy matrix, with quartz
as the most abundant component. This member rests on top of
the Abejorral gneiss on the east and is overthrusting the schists of
the Cajamarca Complex in the west (Fig. 4). (2) The Upper
Abejorral Member is mainly composed of thin tabular beds of
black mudstones with planar lamination, interbedded with thin
levels of medium to fine-grained muddy sandstones and metric
levels (1–5 m) of tabular beds of black chert and siliceous
mudstones. A series of andesitic lava flows and pyroclastic beds
are interbedded with the sedimentary rocks of the Upper Abejorral
Member. Additionally, several metric-scale sub-volcanic rocks
were observed intruding mudstones of the Upper Abejorral
Member. These volcanic rocks exhibit porphyritic and
glomeroporphydic textures. Plagioclase is euhedral and is replaced
by carbonates. The pyroxenes are replaced by chlorite.

Table 3
Sm-Nd isotopic composition of the Cretaceous igneous rocks from the Central Cordillera.
147
Sample Sm (ppm) Nd (ppm) Sm/144Nd Error abs 143
Nd/144Nd Error abs ε(0) T1 (Ma) ε(T1)

SL-0013 3.02 8.95 0.20430 0.000007 0.513149 0.000008 10.12 100 10.027
JS-050 0.82 1.7 0.29200 0.000024 0.513215 0.000007 11.41 100 10.318
DM-017 1.65 3.89 0.25760 0.000004 0.513164 0.000008 10.41 100 9.679
JS-023 1.41 3.69 0.23090 0.000004 0.513133 0.000007 9.812 100 9.420
SZ-012 1.9 6.95 0.16531 0.513046 8.115 112 8.563
214 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

~50 km ~3 km ~5 km
A) Section 1 B) Section 2 C) Section 3 D) Section 4 ~30 km E) Section 5
Quebrada Honda stratigraphic section Rio Pozito stratigraphic section Guayaquil stratigraphic section Monteverde stratigraphic section Quebrada Arenosa stratigraphic section
Gomez et al.1995

Lithology
Thickness
Grain size Grain size

Lithology
Lithology

Lithology
Thickness

Grain si ze Grain size

Lithology
Thickness
Thickness
Grain size

Thickness
(m)
(m)

(m)

(m)
vcS

(m)
mS

Cobb
Pebb
Gran
Clay

vfS

vcS
mS

Cobb
Pebb

vcS
vcS

Gran

vcS
Silt

Clay

vfS

mS
mS

mS
Cobb
Cobb

cS

Cobb
Pebb
Pebb

fS

Pebb
Gran
Gran

Clay

Gran
Clay

vfS

Clay
vfS

vfS
Silt

Silt
Silt

cS
cS

fS
fS

200

2000

250
200
200
100
1500

Marine shelf
Albian

Marine shelf

Marine shelf
200
150
100
Marine shelf

1000

150

Proximal alluvial
100 50

Proximal alluvial

Proximal turbiditic fans

50
500
Shoreface

50
50
0

Berrasian

10 0
0

0
0

Upper Abejorral Member (110 - 100 Ma). Lower Abejorral Member (130 - 110 Ma).
Chert and siliceous Medium-Fine sandstone Mudstone
mudrock Coarse sandstone Conglomerate

Ammonites Bivalves Plant remains Cross stratification Trough stratification Planar lamination

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic sections of the Abejorral Fm. and correlatable sedimentary formations north and south of the studied region. The locations of the stratigraphic section are presented in
Fig. 3B. The stratigraphic columns are arranged from north to south. The distances between the sections are indicated on the top of the figure.

Deformational structures within the two members include asym- fabrics. The gabbros are massive and texturally heterogeneous, vary-
metric folds with rounded hinges accompanied by several NW in- ing from fine-grained to pegmatitic. They are composed of plagio-
verse fault planes dipping to the northeast (Fig. 4). clase (28–59%) and augite pyroxene (9–33%), which ophitic and
This informal subdivision between Lower and the Upper members subophitic textures and opaques (1–5%). The pyroxene is replaced
can also be applied to the published stratigraphic sections, north and by amphibole (hornblende or actinolite). Plagioclase composition is
south of the study area (Gomez et al., 1995; Gomez et al., 2002; labradorite (An50-An60) but is commonly replaced by pumpellyite
González, 1980; Quiroz, 2005) (Figs. 3B and 5). Within these strati- and epidote. Intrusive relations with the basaltic rocks and the mica-
graphic sections, the Lower Member is composed of oligomictic ceous schist of the Cajamarca Complex are marked by the presence of
quartz-conglomerates interlayered with sandstones and is unconform- small dikes, silicification, and crystal size variations near the
ably accumulated on top of metamorphic rocks of the Cajamarca Com- contacts.
plex; abundant plant remains have been described within this The volcanic rocks are composed of clinopyroxene (35%) with
member. The Upper Member is composed of fine mudstones and variolitic and ophitic textures commonly replaced by amphibole,
minor siltstones, which include Aptian-Albian gastropods and ammo- saussuritized plagioclase (39%) with labradorite composition (An55)
nites (Gomez et al., 2002; González, 1980) (Fig. 5). embedded within an aphanitic matrix (6%). The clinopyroxenes exhibit
ophitic textures, whereas olivine (3%) is highly altered to serpentine,
4.3. Cauca Ophiolitic Complex calcite and chlorite.

This unit is composed of discontinuously exposed gabbroic 4.4. Quebradagrande Complex

serpentized peridotites and basaltic rocks in fault-contact with
volcano-sedimentary rocks from the Quebradagrande Complex The volcanic and sedimentary rocks from the Quebradagrande Com-
(Fig. 4). This faulted contact is characterized by local mylonitic plex crop out in the western segment of the study area in the Campanas
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226 215

creek (Fig. 4). Based on the dominant lithology a volcanic and a sedi-
mentary member can be discriminated. The volcanic member is mainly
composed of andesitic and basaltic lava flows locally autobrecciated,
with interbedded agglomerates (Fig. 6D). These volcanic beds exhibit
porphyritic and glomeroporphiric textures, with plagioclase and pyrox-
ene as phenocrysts in a crystalline or vitreous matrix. Black to gray lam-
inated beds of mudstones are intercalated with these volcanic rocks.
Locally these units are found as proto-mylonites and mylonites, with
neoformed chlorite and white mica surrounding feldspar
porphyroclasts. The sedimentary member is composed of thick beds of
sedimentary breccias, coarse-grained to fine-grained conglomeratic
sandstones, interbedded with thinner beds of laminated black and
gray mudstones.
4.5. West Abejorral Fm.
In the west of the studied area in the Campanas creek, the volcanic
rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex are unconformably overlaying
a succession of black shales, chert, very fine grain sandstones, and lava
flows. Aptian-Albian fossils have been recognized in the shale levels of
this succession (González, 1980) (Fig. 4).
Towards the west, this succession has fault contacts with the Triassic
plutonic rocks of the Pacora and Cambumbia stocks (Fig. 3B). Farther
south similar successions of mudstones, sandstones and basaltic rocks
with Albian-Aptian fossils have been described (Alvarez, 1983)
(Fig. 3B). These rocks have been included as part of the Quebradagrande
Complex (González, 1980; Maya and Gonzalez, 1995). However, the de-
scribed angular discordance with the Quebradagrande Complex and the
temporal constraints suggest that this unit is correlatable with the
Abejorral Fm.
5. Conglomerate clast counts
Clast counts were performed in conglomeratic beds of the Lower and
the Upper Abejorral Members and in the Quebradagrande Complex
(Fig. 6A, Table 1). The Lower Abejorral Member includes pebble-sized

Sandstones and
A) Clast Counts Quartz conglomerates Chert
Metamorphic rocks Mudstones Volcanic rocks
Quebradagrande

Upper Abejorral

Lower Abejorral

0%
Polycrystalline quartz 100%
(2-3 crystal units per grain)
B) Q C) Q D)
Int aton
or

Quartz arenite
eri

95
Cr

Subarkose

hic
Sublitharenite
ne al

orp
l
nti on
nta

75

tam
Co nsiti

Non-undulatory

Undulatory
me
ic
Feldspathic

quartz
quartz
Tra

ton

igh
Plu

m-h
ft
pli

diu

hic
ose

Lith

tU

Me

orp
Litharenite
c Ark

en
aren

tam
ose

sem
ite

me
Lithi
Ark

Volcanic Rifted Margin

Ba

Low

F 3:1 1:1 1:3 L F L Polycrystalline quartz

Upper Abejorral Lower Abejorral Quebradagrande (>3 crystal units per grain)
West
Abejorral Member Member Complex

E F LV

Qm

Px
LM

500 um
500 um

Fig. 6. (A), Clast counts from the Abejorral Fm. and the Quebradagrande Complex; (B), sandstone classification after Folk (1980); (C), rifted margin provenances after Garzanti et al. (2006);
(D), quartz classification after Basu et al. (1975); (E), polarized thin section from the Upper Abejorral Fm., sample Ap-009e. Lm: metamorphic lithic and Qm: monocrystalline quartz; (F),
polarized thin section from the Upper Abejorral M., sample SZ-027. Lv: volcanic lithic and Px: pyroxene.
216 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226
rounded clasts composed of mudstone (15%) and milky colored quartz
(85%). The Upper Abejorral Member is characterized by a more diverse
clast composition including milky quartz (32%), sandstones (16%),
schistose and gneissic rocks (25%), andesites (9%), and plutonic lithics
(2%). The massive angular breccias of the Quebradagrande Complex in-
clude sandstone (45%), chert (26%), and volcanic fragments (17%), as
well as low contents of milky quartz (6%), mudstones (5%) and mica-
ceous schists (5%).
6. Sandstone petrography
Sandstones from the Lower Abejorral Member are poorly to very
poorly-sorted, medium to coarse-grained, with angular to subangular
grains in a clay matrix (5–15%). Compositionally, the sandstones are
classified as quartz-arenites (Fig. 6B and E). They include abundant
phyllosilicates such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite (7–23%) and
high contents of mono and polycrystalline quartz (N80%) (Fig. 6B and
C). The high-resolution discrimination of quartz after Basu et al.
(1975) shows the presence of monocrystalline quartz with undulatory
extinction and polycrystalline quartz clasts with more than two grains
(Fig. 6D).
Sandstones of the Upper Abejorral Member are fine to medium-
grained, with rounded to subrounded grains in a clay matrix
(≤15%) and are classified as sub-lithoarenites and lithoarenites
(Fig. 6B). Compositionally, the samples include sedimentary lithic
(quartz-arenites and mudstones up to (15%), metamorphic lithics
(micaceous schists, 8–30%), and lower quartz contents (50–80%)
compared to the Lower Member (80–100%). In the quartz type dis-
crimination diagram after Basu et al. (1975), the Abejorral Upper
Member shows affinity with both metamorphic and plutonic sources
(Fig. 6D, Table 2).
A sandstone sample from the West Abejorral Fm. is characterized by
poor to moderately sorted material with rounded to subrounded grains
and 10–12% of 7 matrix. Compositionally, the sample is classified as a
sub-litharenite (Fig. 6B), with mono and polycrystalline quartz charac-
teristic of low to high-grade metamorphic rocks (Basu et al., 1975;
Bouvier et al., 2008) (Fig. 6C).
We analyzed two sandstone samples of the Quebradagrande
Complex. They are fine-grained sandstones, with angular to highly
angular spherical grains, moderately sorted and matrix content be-
tween 5 and 8%. Compositionally, they are classified as subarkose
and lithic arkose (Fig. 6B) and are characterized by the presence of
plagioclase (5–19%), sedimentary quartz (6–9%). In the quartz type
discrimination diagram after Basu et al. (1975), the Quebradagrande
Complex shows affinity with both metamorphic and plutonic
sources (Fig. 6D, Table 2).
SL-057, Pacora Stock.
295
n=52
285
275
265
255
245
Mean Age= 260.5 ± 4.7 Ma 100 um
235
Fig. 7. U-Pb zircon ages and cathodoluminescence images acquired from Pre-Cretaceous basement west of the Silvia Pijao Fault.
7. Geochronology
7.1. Pre-Cretaceous basement
U-Pb zircon ages were obtained from igneous rocks located in the
westernmost segment of the RFS, immediately west of the Abejorral
Formation, the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex and the Quebradagrande
Complex (Fig. 3B). A total of 52 individual zircon crystals from the
Pácora Stock were analyzed (sample SL-057, Fig. 7). Crystal sizes varied
between 30 and 160 μm, with length/width ratios between 1:1 and 1:2.
Most of the zircon crystals are characterized by oscillatory and zoned
cores with rim overgrowths. Whereas, a portion of the grains is charac-
terized by single oscillatory zoning patterns. Th/U ratios are between 0.2
and 1.55, which is typical of zircons formed in igneous environments
(Rubatto, 2002). Twenty-one zircon crystals yielded a weighted age of
260.5 ± 4.7 Ma (MSWD: 5.2), which we interpreted as the time of igne-
ous crystallization of the sample (Fig. 7). Zircons with older ages of
530 Ma, 660 Ma and 1210 Ma ages are considered inherited crystals
(Table A1).
Sample SG-013 is a granodiorite collected from the Cambumbia
Stock (Fig. 3B). Thirty-eight analyzed zircon are characterized by sizes
between 50 and 170 μm and are predominantly prismatic with
length/width ratios between of 3:1 and 2:1. CL images showed single
oscillatory zoning patterns. Th/U ratios are between 0.2 and 0.7; these
values are characteristic of igneous zircons (Rubatto, 2002). This rock
yielded an age of 232.9 ± 1.2 Ma (MSWD: 1.8), which is considered to
be the magmatic crystallization age (Fig. 7). Zircons cores older than
332 Ma, 355 Ma, and 983 Ma are considered inherited ages (Table A1).
7.2. Lower Abejorral Member
U-Pb data was obtained from two detrital samples of quartz sand-
stones and a quartz-conglomerate (Fig. 4). A total of 207 single grain
U-Pb ages were obtained from the sample PAN-1. The age distribution
is characterized by a major Triassic population of ca. 241 Ma, with
minor Jurassic (153 Ma), Paleozoic (537 Ma) and Mesoproterozoic
ages (1006.5 and 1189.5 Ma). The youngest population has an age of
149.5 ± 2.7 Ma (Fig. 8). For sample SZ-008, a total of 94 single grain
U-Pb ages were obtained. The age distribution is characterized by
minor Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic age populations (955 and
1168 Ma) and a major Permian peak (275.8 Ma), which is the youngest
population (Fig. 8).
7.3. Upper Abejorral Member
Three samples of medium-grained lithic sandstones were analyzed
(Fig. 9). A total of 89, 140 and 104 individual U-Pb ages were obtained
SG-013, Cambumbia Stock.
244
n=38
240
236
232
228
224
220
Mean Age= 232.9 ± 1.2 Ma 100 um
216
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226 217

PAN - 1, Lower Abejorral M. SZ-008, Lower Abejorral M.

Max.Dep : 149.5 +/- 2.7 Ma 241.5 Max.Dep : 236.1+/- 3.45 Ma
275.8
n=207 n=94

40
277.5
241.5
153
275
30
30
184.5

127.5
20 153 20

537 1006
10 10 954 1167.6
1189

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (Ma) Time (Ma)

SL-046, West Abejorral. JPC-002, West Abejorral.

Max.Dep : 488.1+/- 18 Ma 265
n=92
Max. Dep : 253.3+/- 4.6 Ma
n=107
556
536
160
40 20
265
30 1066

20
10
1050
10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time (Ma) Time (Ma)
Archean - Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic Paleozoic-Triassic
Neoproterozoic Jurassic
Mezoproterozoic (1250 - 800 Ma)
a) (350 - 800 Ma)
a) (350 - 200 Ma)
a) (200 - 150 Ma)
a)
(3000 - 1250Ma)
a)

Lower
er Creta
etaceous
eous Aptian-Albian Coniacian-Santonian
(150 - 110 Ma)
a) (110 - 90 Ma)
a) (90 - 80 Ma)
a)

Fig. 8. U-Pb detrital zircon ages acquired in samples from the Lower Abejorral Member and the West Abejorral Fm.; detrital populations are presented for each sample.

from samples AP-33, PAN-2 and SZ-023, respectively. All three samples
are characterized by Early Cretaceous zircon U-Pb age populations of
123.5 Ma (sample AP-33), 103.9 Ma (sample PAN-2) and 104.3 Ma
(sample SZ-023) (Fig. 9). Older zircon U-Pb ages include relatively sim-
ilar populations of Premo-Triassic (271.25 Ma and 249 Ma), Paleozoic
(463, 512, 520, and 535 Ma). As well as and Paleoproterozoic (1052,
1205, and 1225 Ma), and Archean (3122 Ma) detrital populations
(Fig. 9).
7.4. Volcanic rocks of the Upper Abejorral Member
Zircons from two andesites interlayered with sandstones and mud-
stones of the Upper Abejorral Member and one porphyritic intrusive
layer were analyzed (Fig. 4). A total of 28 zircon crystals were analyzed
from the andesite sample (SZ-012) (Fig. 10). Zircons are between 30
and 250 μm in size. Prismatic zircons have length/width ratios of 3:1.
CL images showed a single oscillatory zoning pattern, characteristic of
an igneous origin (Vavra et al., 1999). Th/U ratios are between 0.2 and
0.6, these values are characteristic of magmatic zircons (Rubatto,
2002). Twenty-two zircon crystals from this sample yielded a weighted
mean age of 103.1 ± 1.5 Ma interpreted as the crystallization age
(Fig. 10). Older ages in zircon cores are Triassic (225 Ma and 238 Ma)
and Paleozoic (411 Ma) and are interpreted as inherited ages
(Table A1).
Sample SZ-018 is an andesitic tuff intercalated within the Upper
Abejorral Member sedimentary rocks (Fig. 4). Zircon crystal sizes are
between 30 and 100 μm, with a length/width ratio of 2:1 for the
prismatic crystals. The zircons showed complex zoned patterns includ-
ing homogeneous and oscillatory zoning, with Th/U ratios between 0.09
and 0.85. Inherited zircon crystals have ages between 343 Ma and
2240 Ma. The youngest Cretaceous zircons (n: 27) yielded a weighted
mean age of 111.5 ± 7.9 Ma interpreted as the magmatic crystallization
age (Fig. 10).
Sample SZ-011 is a weathered sample that preserves igneous por-
phyritic textures and intrudes the mudstones and fine-grained sand-
stones from the Upper Abejorral Member (Fig. 4). Zircon crystals sizes
are between 50 and 300 μm, with length/width ratios of 3:1. CL images
revealed oscillatory zoning patterns. The Th/U ratios are between 0.2
and 0.6, which is characteristic of magmatic zircons (Rubatto, 2002;
Vavra et al., 1999). 16 zircons yielded a weighted mean U-Pb age of
103.5 ± 1.8 Ma interpreted as the magmatic crystallization age (Fig. 10).
7.5. West Abejorral Fm.
We analyzed two sandstones and one andesitic lava from this unit,
which is overlain in angular discordance by the volcanic rocks of the
Quebradagrande Complex (Figs. 3 and 4). A total of 92 single grain U-
Pb ages were obtained from a quartzose sandstone (sample SL-046),
the age distribution is characterized by major Neoproterozoic age pop-
ulations of ca. 556 Ma and 1050 Ma and less abundant Proterozoic to Ar-
chean ages (2000–3500 Ma) (Fig. 8). Sample JPC-002 is also a quartzose
sandstone. A total of 107 individual zircon U-Pb ages are between 160
and 3339 Ma with major peaks at 160, 263, 535, and 974–1223 Ma
(Fig. 8).
218 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

AP-033, Upper Abejorral M. SZ-023, Upper Abejorral M.

124.8 154.7
Max.Dep : 123.5+/- 2.3 Ma Max.Dep : 104.3 +/- 2.2 Ma 105 271.25
n=89 n=104

10
124.8 105
462.8 12
271.2 255.5

8 519.7

6 8
5
1051.7
1205.1
4 512.2 1162
1846 1764 3122
4
2

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (Ma) Time (Ma)

PAN-2, Upper Abejorral M. JPC-008, Quebradagrande C.

Max. Dep : 103.9 +/- 2.8 Ma
Max.Dep : 84.0+/- 0.5 Ma
261.8
n=77
n=140 103.5 249
18
261.8
276
103.5
535.5 30
239.4
10 249
81.2
1225.5 20
1062
6
10 81.2 1016.4
1759.5 561.4

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (Ma) Time (Ma)
Archean - Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic Paleozoic-Triassic
Neoproterozoic Jurassic
Mezoproterozoic (1250 - 800 Ma)
a) (350 - 800 Ma)
a) (350 - 200 Ma)
a) (200 - 150 Ma)
a)
(3000 - 1250Ma)
a)

er Creta
Lower etaceous
eous Aptian-Albian Coniacian-Santonian
(150 - 110 Ma)
a) (110 - 90 Ma)
a) (90 - 80 Ma)
a)

Fig. 9. U-Pb detrital zircon ages acquired in samples from the Upper Abejorral Member and the Quebradagrande Complex; detrital populations are presented for each sample.

Sample M9 is andesitic lava interlayered with the analyzed sand-
stones from the West Abejorral Fm. (Fig. 4). Zircon crystal sizes are be-
tween 50 and 150 μm, with length/width ratios between 2:1 and 3:1. CL
images revealed a simple oscillatory zoning pattern. Th/U ratios are be-
tween 0.31 and 0.86. Ten zircons yielded a weighted mean age of 115.7
± 7.7 Ma, which is considered to be the maximum age of crystallization
(Fig. 8). Inherited zircon crystals yielded Cretaceous and Jurassic ages
(130 to 184 Ma) (Table A1).
7.6. Quebradagrande complex
crystallization age. Older ages in zircon cores yielded Cretaceous and
Proterozoic ages considered inherited zircon ages (Fig. 10).
Sample SL-029 is a dacitic crystal-rich tuff interlayered with fine to
medium-grained sediments from the Quebradagrande Complex
(Fig. 3). Zircons have crystal sizes between 60 and 130 μm, with
length/width ratios of 2:1. CL images revealed simple oscillatory zoning.
Th/U ratios varied between 0.1 and 1.1, which are characteristic of igne-
ous zircons. This rock yielded a U-Pb zircon age of 85.7 ± 0.4 Ma from 86
zircon crystals (Fig. 10), which is interpreted as the age of crystalliza-
tion. Older ages in zircon cores with Cretaceous, Paleozoic and Protero-
zoic ages are considered inherited.

Sample JPC-008 is a quartzose sandstone from the sedimentary
member of the Quebradagrande Complex (Fig. 4). A total of 77 individ-
ual zircon U-Pb ages have ages between 81 Ma and 2700 Ma, with age
peaks at 81, 239, 262 Ma and 1020 Ma (Fig. 9). The youngest detrital zir-
con age population had a weighted mean age of 84.0 ± 0.5 Ma, which is
considered the maximum depositional age.
The sample JPC-13 corresponds to an andesitic lava from the
Quebradagrande Complex (Fig. 4). Zircon crystals have sizes between
50 and 170 μm, with length/width ratios between 2:1 and 3:1. CL im-
ages revealed a single oscillatory zoning pattern and Th/U ratios are be-
tween 0.3 and 2.1, which are typical of igneous zircons (Rubatto, 2002).
This sample yielded a U-Pb zircon weighted mean age of 83.2 ± 0.7 Ma
obtained from 63 zircon crystals, which is considered the magmatic
8. Geochemistry of volcanic and plutonic rocks
Major and trace element geochemistry of the igneous rocks from of
the Upper Abejorral Fm. and rocks of the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex are
presented in Table A2. Lost on ignition values from the analyzed sam-
ples are around 3.6%. Therefore, we have used immobile trace elements
(Pearce, 2008) to avoid the possibility of major element and trace ele-
ment mobility during hydrothermal or low-grade metamorphism.
8.1. Upper Abejorral Member
Samples from the Upper Abejorral Member are characterized by
SiO2 values between 56.84% and 60.35% with total alkali values (Na2O
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226 219

Fig. 10. U-Pb mean zircon ages acquired in the volcanic rocks of the Upper Abejorral Member and the Quebradagrande Complex. Cathodoluminescence images are presented for each
sample.

+ K2O) between 4.18% and 4.99% and are classified as andesites. Fe2O3
values are between 4.89% to 5.07% and the magnesium number (Mg#)
between 43.3 and 49.1, which are typical of rocks derived from calc-
alkaline magmas. Trace element diagrams from these samples also fol-
low an intermediate–calc-alkaline trend in the immobile element
ratio-based Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti and V vs. Ti discrimination diagrams
(Fig. 11A and B).
Rare earth element (REE) abundances are characterized by a weak
enrichment in Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE), with (La/Sm)n ratios
between 1.07 and 1.37, a relatively flat trend of the Heavy Rare Earth El-
ements (HREE), with (Gd/Yb)n values between 1.09 and 1.19, and a
negative Eu anomaly between 0.81 and 0.83 (Fig. 11C). Multi-
elemental diagrams normalized to the primitive mantle are
characterized by enrichment in the Large Ion Lithophile Elements
(LILE) and a well-defined depletion in High Field Strength Elements
(HFSE), including a negative anomaly of Nb and Ti (Fig. 11E). These sig-
natures are characteristic of mantle-derived rocks formed in convergent
margins, as is also suggested by the calc-alkaline character of the ana-
lyzed samples and the tectonic setting discrimination diagrams
(Fig. 11B).
8.2. Cauca Ophiolitic Complex
In contrast to the intermediate composition of the volcanic rocks of
the Upper Abejorral Member, the volcanic and plutonic rocks of the
Cauca Ophiolitic Complex are characterized by a more basic
220 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

500
A B

AB l)
d F ima
Alkali

an rox
rhyolite

0.500

ites

BB b-p
Phonolite 400

Bonin

BA Sla
(&

F al
Rhyolite

)
d ist
AB
Trachyte

BB sla R
V(ppm)

IAT

an b-d
BA nd MO
Dacite e
nolit
r ipho 300
Teph
0.050

Trachy

(a
andesite
Zr/Ti

site
Ande ndesite
ltic a 200
Basa
0.005

Alkali 100 Quebradagrande C. from

Foiditic Rodriguez et al. (2016)
basalt
Basalt Quebradagrande C. from
Jaramillo et al. (2017)
0.001

0
0.01 0.10 1.0 10 0 5 10

Nb/Y Ti(ppm)/1000
100 100
C D

Sample/REE Chondrite
Sample/REE Chondrite

10

1 1

0.1 0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

100 100
E F
Sample/MORB

Sample/MORB

10 10

1 1

0.1 0.1

0.01 0.01
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb
10.4 12
G 10
H Andesites Upper
Abejorral member
DM Ophiolitic gabbros
8
Cauca Ophiolitic gabbros
6 Ophiolitic Ophiolitic basalts
Complex
Ophiolitic basalts
9.6 4
ε Nd

Jurassic arc
ε Nd

2
0
CHUR

-2
9.0
-4
-6

-8
8.4
0 100
0.2 0.6
(La/Sm) n
1.0 1.4 Age (Ma) 200 300

Fig. 11. (A), Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti rock classification diagram (Pearce, 1996); (B), Ti versus V tectonic discrimination diagram after Shervais (1982). (C), Rare Earth Element (REE) patterns
normalized to Chondrite (Nakamura, 1974) from the analyzed volcanic rocks; (D), Rare Earth Element (REE) patterns normalized to Chondrite (Nakamura, 1974) from the analyzed
plutonic rocks; (E), NMORB normalized multi-elemental patterns of the analyzed volcanic rocks (Pearce et al., 1984); (F), MORB normalized multi-elemental patterns of the analyzed
volcanic rock (Pearce et al., 1984); (G), εNd vs. L/Sm as a monitor of crustal input; (H), εNd values from the analyzed Cretaceous volcanic and plutonic rocks (This study) compare
with εNd values from the Jurassic continental arc (Cochrane et al., 2014a; Bustamante et al., 2017; Quandt et al., 2018).

composition and higher TiO2 contents (0.42–0.47% versus 0.66–3.22%) vs. Y diagrams, the rocks are tholeitic basalts with a single sample
(Fig. 11A). The eight volcanic rocks presented SiO2 values between within the field of andesites (Fig. 11A).
43.87% and 52.57% with total alkalis values (Na2O + K2O) of 1.91% to REE elements are characterized by negative to horizontal trends in
5.35%, which are both characteristic of basalts. Fe2O3 values ranged be- the LREE (Fig. 11C), with (La/Sm)n ratios between 0.37 and 1.07 and a
tween 5.29% to 15.84% and Mg# between 25.5 and 69.6, suggesting that flat trend in the HREE with (Gd/Yb)n between 0.97 and 1.26. Samples
these rocks experienced differentiation. In the Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti and the Zr also show a weak Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*: 0.86 to 1.05), with one sample
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226
being characterized by a strong Eu anomaly. The multi-elemental dia-
gram normalized to the primitive mantle showed that the lack of Ti or
Nb anomalies with HFSE contents was similar or less abundant than
N-MORB (Fig. 11E).
The 13 gabbroic samples are characterized by SiO2 values between
48.17% and 50.50% and total alkalis (Na2O + K2O) between 2.23% and
4.87%, which classifies them as gabbros and gabbro-diorites
(Middlemost, 1994). MgO and Fe2O3 varied between 7.03% and 10.09%
and 5.51% to 11.83%, which is also characteristic of a tholeitic trend.
Basic and tholeitic patterns are seen in the Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti (Fig. 11A).
The REE patterns of the gabbroic rocks are characterized by deple-
tion in the LREE (Fig. 11D), (La/Sm)n between 0.37 and 0.94, flat trends
in the HREE with (Gd/Yb)n between 0.97 and 1.19, and a negative to
strongly positive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*: 0.92 to 2.9), which can be attrib-
uted to plagioclase fractionation. A slightly negative Nb and a flat trend
in the Ti anomaly characterized most of the samples in the multi-
element patterns. These trends are characteristic of convergent margins
with limited sediment and fluid inputs (Fig. 11F).
Both the gabbroic and basaltic rocks of the Cauca Ophiolite Complex
are characterized by a tholeitic character, a N-MORB REE trend, and
weak Nb and Ti anomalies suggesting that these rocks may have formed
in a distal position in relation to the slab (Dilek et al., 2007; Pearce,
1996; Taylor and Martinez, 2003).
REE and trace element geochemical characteristics from the volcanic
rocks of the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex bear strong similarities with the
results of other volcanic rocks associated analyzed by Rodríguez et al.
(2016), farther south, which are characterized by MORB to E-MORB sig-
natures; and with less evolved Cretaceous samples reported by
Jaramillo et al. (2017) to the north (Fig. 11B, C, and E).
8.3. Whole rock Sm-Nd isotopes
The Sm-Nd isotope composition for both the volcanic and plutonic
rocks from the Upper Abejorral Member and the Cauca Ophiolitic Com-
plex are presented in Table 3. Initial Nd isotope values were calculated
from a U-Pb crystallization age of 112 Ma for the Abejorral Formation
(sample SZ-018). For the samples from the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex,
we assumed the same 100–112 Ma age of the Abejorral Fm. (see
Discussion section).
The sample of the Upper Abejorral Member is characterized by an
initial εNd(t) of +8.6. The volcanic rocks of the Cauca Ophiolitic Com-
plex also presented εNd(t) values of +10.0, which are similar to the
three gabbroic rocks from this unit, which yielded initial εNd
(t) between +9.4 and +10.32 (Fig. 11H). These values plotted close to
the depleted mantle field, which suggests that older crustal input is
not significant.
The plot of the La/Sm ratios vs. εNd values from the Cretaceous sam-
ples can be used to monitor differentiation or increase of the sedimen-
tary input. The values from the Cauca Ophiolitic complex do not fit in
any trend. Although, when the value of the Upper Abejorral Member
is considered, a trend can be identified. Therefore, it's possible to suggest
that magmatic processes associated Upper Abejorral Fm. may record the
presence of some crustal input.
We also included Sm-Nd isotope results from the Jurassic continen-
tal arc rocks emplaced in pre-Jurassic continental crust (Bustamante
et al., 2016; Cochrane et al., 2014a; Quandt et al., 2018; Vinasco et al.,
2006). The Cretaceous units exhibit a stronger mantle component com-
pare to the Jurassic samples (Fig. 11H).
9. Discussion
9.1. Timing of sedimentation and magmatism in the western flank of the
Central Cordillera
The integration of field, petrographic, geochemical and geochrono-
logical constraints enables the discrimination of coherent Early
221
Cretaceous tectono-stratigraphic domains in the study area, which can
be used to reconstruct discrete tectonic environments that together
provide major insights on the geological evolution of the Northern
Andes. Zircon U-Pb detrital ages recovered from the Lower Abejorral
Member suggest that this unit is younger than ~150 Ma. Moreover,
the volcanic rocks and the detrital zircons of the Upper Abejorral Mem-
ber and the Western Abejorral succession were deposited age between
115 and 104 Ma (Fig. 2). The composition of the siliciclastic rocks and
their association with Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks suggest that the
West and the Upper Abejorral units were part of the same or similar
sedimentary basins.
Previous Aptian-Albian temporal constraints obtained for the
Quebradagrande Complex have been established based on the presence
of Albian-Aptian fossils and zircon U-Pb ages between 114 and 113 Ma
(Arévalo et al., 2001; Gerardo and Arango, 1975; Gomez et al., 2002;
Maya and Gonzalez, 1995; Villagómez et al., 2011). U-Pb samples with
Aptian-Albian ages seem to be more spatially related to the clastic
rocks of the Abejorral Fm. The Lower Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary
record described as part of the Quebradagrande Complex in previous
publications can be equivalent to the Upper Abejorral Member de-
scribed in this contribution.
Unfortunately, neither our efforts or previous ones have successfully
dated the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex. However, this ophiolitic complex is
characterized by deformation and metamorphism restricted to local
high strain zones and below the greenschist facies. In contrast, Triassic
mafic units are metamorphosed and associated with to s-type mica-
ceous granitoids which are also characterized by more negative εNd sig-
natures (Cochrane et al., 2014b; Spikings et al., 2015). A Jurassic
volcano-sedimentary protolith is also unlikely since these Jurassic vol-
canic rocks are also metamorphosed in the amphibolite facies (Blanco-
Quintero et al., 2014). More geochronological data is necessary; but nev-
ertheless, we favor a Cretaceous origin for Cauca Ophiolitic Complex
based on the close relation with the Cretaceous units discussed in this
contribution and the aforementioned arguments.
Late Cretaceous volcanic rocks with crystallization ages of 83–85 Ma
are unconformably deposited on top of the Early Cretaceous West
Abejorral Fm. This new Late Cretaceous volcanic crystallization ages in
rocks mapped as the Quebradagrande Complex suggest a younger mag-
matic record for this unit compare to the age proposed by previous au-
thors (Maya and Gonzalez, 1995; Nivia et al., 2006; Spikings et al., 2015;
Villagómez and Spikings, 2013) (Fig. 10). These findings are consistent
with Upper Cretaceous fossil occurrences (Pardo-Trujillo et al., 2002)
(Fig. 3) and with U-Pb zircon ages from plutonic bodies north and
south of the study area (Jaramillo et al., 2017; Villagómez et al., 2011)
(Fig. 3B).
9.2. Sedimentary provenance
The Lower and Upper members of the Abejorral Fm. are character-
ized by the presence of micaceous schist, gneissic and quartz clasts in
the conglomerates and the presence of foliated polycrystalline quartz
and undulatory monocrystalline quartz in the sandstones. These prove-
nance modes suggest a metamorphic terrain as a primary source for
both members. The relations between the type of monocrystalline
quartz and the number of grains of polycrystalline quartz after Basu
et al. (1975) in the Lower Abejorral Member suggests that low-grade
rocks were a significant portion of this metamorphic source. Detrital zir-
con age populations in lower member include Triassic (231–246 Ma),
Permian (274 Ma), Devonian to early Paleozoic and Proterozoic ages.
These age populations are similar to the ages of the Permo-Triassic
and the Paleozoic basement rocks exposed in the Central Cordillera
and west of the SPF (Cochrane et al., 2014b; Martens et al., 2012;
Spikings et al., 2015; Villagómez et al., 2011; Vinasco et al., 2006)
(Fig. 3).
Conglomerates and sandstones from the Upper Abejorral Member
show a decrease in quartz content, an increase of siltstone fragments
222 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226

and the apparition of volcanic clasts (Fig. 6B and C). Detrital zircons also
have Permo-Triassic and Proterozoic populations and younger Aptian-
Albian maximum depositional ages (124–100 Ma) compare to the
lower member. These younger zircon populations are similar to the
age of the intercalated volcanic units suggesting a coexistence of
magmatism and sediment deposition. These results suggest that the
Permo-Triassic and Paleozoic basement exposed towards the eastern
and western limit of the Abejorral Fm. were the main metamorphic
sources of both members of the Abejorral Fm.
The Upper Abejorral Member was deposited in a basin with coeval
volcanism and sedimentary recycling of the coarse-grained Lower
Abejorral Member (Fig. 12C). The Upper Cretaceous sandstones and
conglomerates of the Quebradagrande Complex show mixed prove-
nance with sedimentary, volcanic and plutonic lithic fragments
(Fig. 6B and C). Detrital zircon populations include Permo-Triassic and
older ages similar to ages of the Central Cordillera basement (Fig. 9).
The presence of a Late Cretaceous detrital zircon age population (ca.
84 Ma) similar to the magmatic ages of the associated volcanic rocks
suggest basin filling coeval or posterior to the volcanic activity (Figs. 8
and 9).
9.3. Tectonic implications
Field observations, geochemical data, new temporal constraints,
stratigraphy and sediment provenance suggest that the Abejorral Fm.
records the development of one or several Early Cretaceous backarc ba-
sins along the South American margin (Figs. 12E and 13E). The climax of
this extensional event was recorded in these backarc basins during the
Albian-Aptian and preserved within the RFS and in the Central Cordil-
lera of Colombia.

A) 80 - 60 Ma
Z Z´ OPF Paleogene plutonic rocks
Caribbean plateau collision
Quebradagrande Complex
SPF
SJF Cauca Ophiolithic Complex
CAF
CC Late Cretaceous plutonic rocks
WC Upper Abejorral M.
Lower Abejorral M.
Arquia Complex
Oceanic Caribbean plateau
B) 100 - 80 Ma Jurassic igneous rocks
Backarc closure OPF
SJF Continental basement
SPF
Late Cretaceous arc

~40 km
~100 km

C) 110 - 100 Ma
Advanced backarc stage
OPF
SJF

? ?
?
D) 130 - 110 Ma
Backarc opening OPF
SJF

E) 180 - 130 Ma
Jurassic - Early Cretaceous volcanic arc and backarc

Fig. 12. Proposed tectonic evolution of northwestern South America in the Cretaceous (180–65 Ma). SJF: San Jerónimo Fault; SPF: Silvia Pijao Fault; CAF: Cauca-Almaguer Fault; WC: West-
ern Cordillera; and CC: Central Cordillera. Black arrows denote basement erosion and exhumation.
 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226 223

80°0'0"W 70°0'0"W 80°0'0"W 70°0'0"W 80°0'0"W 70°0'0"W

A) 80 - 60 Ma B) 100 - 80 Ma Proto-Caribbean C) 110 - 100 Ma

arc
Volcanic

10°0'0"N

10°0'0"N
10°0'0"N

SJF
Z Z´
OPF ?

SPF
Z´

F
Z

OPF

SJ
SJF

0°0'0"

0°0'0"
0°0'0" Z Z´
CAF

OPF
arc
Volcanic
Backarc
sea floor
spreading

80°0'0"W 70°0'0"W
80°0'0"W 70°0'0"W

D) 130 - 110 Ma E) 180 - 130 Ma

Quebradagrande Complex
10°0'0"N

10°0'0"N
Upper Abejorral Member

Lower Abejorral Member

t if
ra R
dille

Late Cretaceous volcanic arc

Cor
tern
Eas

Oceanic Caribbean plateau

Eastern Cordillera basin

Backarc basins
0°0'0"

Z Z
0°0'0"

Arquía Complex

Z´ Z´
Pre-Cretaceous basement
arc
Volcanic

Fig. 13. Conceptual paleogeographic model illustrating the evolution of northwestern South America during the Cretaceous (140 Ma–65 Ma), modified from the available regional models
(Burke et al., 1984; Jaramillo et al., 2017; Kennan and Pindell, 2009; Pindell et al., 2005; Spikings et al., 2015; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1996; Villamil and Pindell, 1999; Vinasco and Cordani,
2012).

The arrangement of the studied units resembles the geometry of an deltaic to a marine depositional environment between 125 and
inverted backarc basin. This geometry is defined by continental Permo- 100 Ma (Gomez et al., 2002; González, 1980; Quiroz, 2005). This transi-
Triassic blocks in the east and west boundaries of the Cretaceous tion is marked by an upward-fining and thinning pattern, the appear-
volcano-sedimentary strata (i.e. Pacora stock, Cambumbia stock, ance of interlayered chert, and the contrast in the fossil record
Abejorral gneiss and Pantanillo gneiss) (Cochrane et al., 2014a; between the Lower and the Upper Abejorral members (Fig. 5). The
Vinasco et al., 2006); several of these blocks were described and/or provenance of the Upper Abejorral member is characterized by conti-
dated in this contribution (Fig. 3). On both sides of the basin, sedimen- nental basement sources, reworked sedimentary sources and by the ap-
tary rocks from the Abejorral Fm. were deposited on top of the Permo- pearance volcanism coeval with the basin filling.
Triassic basement. In the middle of these continental basement blocks The limited enrichment of LREE recorded and the positive εNd
and the siliciclastic strata are the Ophiolitic remnants of the Cauca values of the volcanic rocks of the Upper Abejorral member (Fig. 11H)
Ophiolitic Complex; these suprasubduction ophiolitic rocks may be suggest that magmatic interactions with the continental crust were lim-
the result of seafloor spreading during advanced stages of the backarc ited, these observations are compatible with the existence of a thinned
extension (Figs. 12C and 13C). continental crust and a structural controlled magmatic emplacement.
We compiled several stratigraphic columns from the Abejorral Fm. This extended crust provided the space for fast emplacement of
in other localities and correlated them with the observations in the magmas at shallow depths, the volcanic rocks in the Upper Abejorral
study area (Fig. 3). These sections record a transition from fluvial- Formation were emplaced in an extended continental crust. The
224 S. Zapata et al. / Gondwana Research 66 (2019) 207–226
MORB to supra-subduction affinity of the Cauca Ophiolitic Complex may
represent more advanced stages of backarc basin extension character-
ized by the formation of oceanic crust (Figs. 12C and 13C).
The field relations, the provenance, the transition to marine condi-
tions, the apparition of syn-sedimentary volcanism and the geochemical
character of the ophiolitic remnants can be interpreted as the result of
the progressive development of a backarc basin. The development of
this basin was accompanied by the unroofing of continental horst blocks
on both sides of the basin (Figs. 12 and 13).
Continental extension and associated magmatism may have contin-
ued until the Albian (100 Ma) as suggested by the youngest magmatic
ages. This tectonic settings differs from previous models, which have
considered that during this time the backarc basin was closed due to
the accretion of an oceanic terrane or to major changes in the subduc-
tion zone (Cediel and Shaw, 2003; Cochrane et al., 2014b; Spikings
et al., 2015; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013) (Fig. 2). These previous
models were based on the lack magmatism after 114 Ma and on the co-
eval cooling/exhumation events in the Central Cordillera basement and
in the Arquía Complex. According to these models, the Abejorral Fm.
was deposited in a foreland basin. The data presented here show that
magmatism was active until 100 Ma; our data also suggest that basin
filling is more compatible with an extensional tectonic setting
(Figs. 12B and 13B). Therefore, published cooling ages may also be
interpreted as extensional-controlled horst exhumation.
Regional tectonic models for the western margin of South America
typically show an oblique convergence between South America and
the Pacific plate during the Early Cretaceous (Burke et al., 1984;
Kennan and Pindell, 2009; Pindell et al., 2005; Villamil and Pindell,
1999). Paleomagnetic data of Jurassic rocks and provenance analysis
on Oligocene strata indicate at least 500 km of northward displacement
of the Central Cordillera; this relative displacement took place during
the Meso-Cenozoic from a southern position (Bayona et al., 2010,
2006; Lamus Ochoa et al., 2013). The documented extensional phase
was coeval with the northern translation of the studied tectonic blocks.
Therefore, it is feasible that these backarc extensional and compres-
sional events had a strike-slip component responsible for the latitudinal
translation of these blocks and the subsequent reincorporation to the
margin in a different paleogeographic position (Figs. 12B and 13B).
Between 86 and 83 Ma, andesitic lava flows and coarse-grained sed-
iments of the Quebradagrande Complex were deposited in an angular
unconformity over volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Abejorral
Fm. This Late Cretaceous magmatic arc also includes intrusive facies
with ages between 90 and 80 Ma exposed north and south of the
study area (Jaramillo et al., 2017; Villagómez et al., 2011) (Fig. 3A).
This younger Quebradagrande Complex records the erosion of the
older siliciclastic rocks and post-date the closure of the former backarc
basin (Figs. 12B and 13B).
We proposed a transition to a compressive tectonic setting between
100 and 86 Ma. This compressive tectonic scenario was responsible for
the closure of the former backarc basin and the development of a new
Late Cretaceous volcanic arc. We also suggest that the large plutonic
province that formed the Antioquia Batholith in the Central Cordillera
and the Quebradagrande Complex were part of this Late Cretaceous vol-
canic arc (Figs. 12B and 13B). This transition between extensional and
compressional tectonic settings resulted in the onset of the compression
in the Northern Andes. Similar Early Cretaceous extensional tectonics
and Late Cretaceous compressional tectonics have been extensively
documented along the west South-American margin (Baby et al.,
2013; e.g. Jaillard and Soler, 1996; Jaimes and de Freitas, 2006; Martini
et al., 2013, 2011; Mora et al., 2009; Pindell and Erikson, 1993; Salfity
and Marquillas, 1994; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006; Tunik et al., 2010;
Viramonte et al., 1999).
After the deposition of the Quebradagrande Complex the northern
continental margin of South America collided with an intra-oceanic pla-
teau derived from the southeast Pacific as part of the Caribbean plate be-
tween the Late Cretaceous and the Paleocene (80–60 Ma) (Hastie and
Kerr, 2010; Kerr et al., 1997; Pindell and Kenan, 2009; Pindell et al.,
2005; Spikings et al., 2015; Vallejo et al., 2006; Van Der Lelij et al.,
2010; Villagómez et al., 2011) (Figs. 12A and 13A).
Previous models have interpreted the Cretaceous evolution of the
Colombian Andes as the result of local compressional tectonics due to
the accretion of exotic oceanic crust (Cediel et al., 2003; Van Der Lelij
et al., 2010; Pindell and Erikson, 1993; Spikings et al., 2015). In contrast,
in our model the transition from extension to compression took place
prior to the accretion of the exotic oceanic terranes between the Late
Cretaceous and the Paleocene. Additionally, the regional extension of
these extensional and compressional tectonic settings suggests that
the Cretaceous tectonic evolution of the Northern Andes was controlled
by plate scale Andean tectonics.
10. Conclusions
Integrated field, stratigraphic, provenance, geochemical, and geo-
chronological constraints of the Cretaceous sedimentary, volcanic and
plutonic rocks from the western flank of the Central Cordillera of
Colombia documents an extensional phase characterized by a transgres-
sive basin filling, sedimentary recycling, and volcanism during the Early
Cretaceous (150–100 Ma). The transition from extensional to compres-
sional tectonic settings closed this backarc basin during the Late Creta-
ceous (100–90 Ma). The volcanic rocks of the Quebradagrande
Complex and the Antioquia Batholith were formed in a Late Cretaceous
volcanic arc built on top of the deformed backarc basin. A final accre-
tionary event occurred between the Late Cretaceous and the Paleocene
due to the accretion of the Caribbean oceanic plateau. Our model docu-
ments the onset of Cenozoic compressional tectonics in the Northern
Andes prior to the accretion of the Caribbean plateau.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge COLCIENCIAS for the financial support to the
Corporación Geológica ARES within the program of “Fortalecimiento
Institucional” that granted Sebastian Zapata Henao with a scholarship.
Funding was also received from the National University of Colombia
projects 25452, 25340, 29182, 18593, 24208, and the Fundación para
la Promoción de la Investigación y la Tecnología del Banco de la
República de Colombia, project 3451. Germán Bayona, Gaspar
Monsalve, students from the EGEO research group and those from dif-
ferent courses of field geology in the National University of Colombia
are acknowledged for their discussions and help during fieldwork. We
acknowledge Paul Mann and the other anonymous reviewers for
reviewing this contribution and for all their helpful comments.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.gr.2018.10.008.
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