Professional Documents
Culture Documents
August 2011
by
Brandon L. Dean
144 Rita Road
Mankato, Minnesota 56001
bdean@gustavus.edu
ABSTRACT
The foundation of successful choral music education begins with the selection of
repertoire that is of artistic and pedagogical merit and appropriately fitted to the needs of the
ensemble. The limited resources presently available to beginning teachers and the relatively
selecting choral literature. Several recent studies on literature selection have uncovered pertinent
data related to processes and criteria used by narrow groups of music educators, yet these studies
stop short of suggesting a methodology that could prove useful to preservice and beginning
secondary choral music educators. This document presents a rubric-based methodology for the
evaluation of choral literature designed specifically for preservice and beginning choral music
educators.
The analytic rubric presented in this document is designed to determine the quality of the
core aesthetic characteristics of the composition and the inherent pedagogical value for use in
secondary choral music education. In addition to providing a detailed description and rationale
for each component of the selection rubric, the document includes a review of related literature
and musical examples that demonstrate effective utilization of the selection rubric. The
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To my wife, Ashley,
for her unwavering love and support.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my sincere appreciation to committee members, Dr. Ann Porter, Dr. Earl
Rivers, and Dr. Brett Scott, for their expertise and support they have provided throughout my
to the successful completion of this document. I am especially thankful to Dr. Peter Eklund,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, for his outstanding mentorship over the past ten years. And, I
am forever grateful to Mr. Weston Noble, Dr. Dennis Darling, Dr. Timothy Peter, and Dr. Sandra
Peter of Luther College. They inspired me to pursue music education and provided the tools to
Patricia Dean, my wife’s parents, Wayne and Diana Nielsen, and all my extended family
members. Without their patience and understanding, the completion of this terminal degree
would not have been possible. Most importantly, I am extremely humbled and unable to
properly express the incredible gratitude I have for my wife, Ashley, and son, Carter. Their love
and support has not wavered through the many joys and difficult challenges of the past three
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TERMS.............................................................................................................................x
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1
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APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................141!
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LIST OF TABLES
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LIST OF TERMS
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Retention of beginning teachers is one of the principal challenges facing music education
in the twenty-first century. The transition from preservice training to in-service teaching is often
overwhelming and the multitude of challenges facing new music teachers has contributed to the
rising attrition rate in recent years. The statistics are staggering: A recent study by Henke, Chen,
Geis and Knepper found that 20 percent of all beginning teachers leave the profession within
three years of service,1 and Richard M. Ingersol has reported that between 40 and 50 percent quit
teaching within five years.2 The diminishing number of college students completing preservice
music education degrees further complicates the problem of teacher retention. Approximately
11,000 new music teachers are needed to fill vacancies in the United States annually, yet only
about 5,500 new music educators join the profession each year.3 Those responsible for
recruiting, educating, and retaining future music teachers face a considerable challenge that
demands new methodologies, innovative tools, and a fresh approach to sustain music education
training preservice music educators, affirms that successful teaching experiences during the
initial years of professional placement will generate seeds for young educators to continue on the
path of career teaching. Furthermore, successful choral music education begins with the
selection of repertoire that is of artistic and pedagogical merit. Many leading choral music
educators share this opinion, including Hilary Apfelstadt, Director of Choral Activities at the
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1
Henke, R., Chen, X., Geis, S., & Knepper, P., “Progress through the teacher pipeline: 1992–93 college graduates
and elementary/secondary teaching as of 1997” (No. NCES 2000-152), Washington, D.C.: National Center for
Educational Statistics.
2
Richard M. Ingersoll, “The Teacher Shortage: Myth or Reality?,” Educational Leadership 60 (2003): 30.
3
Willie L. Hill, “The Teacher Shortage and Policy,” Music Educators Journal 89 (March 2003): 6.
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University of Toronto, who argued that “selection of repertoire is the single most important task
that music educators face.”4 In addition, Alfred J. Swan noted “making for ultimate success is
the choice of the material, since no amount of inspiration will overcome the obstacles presented
by compositions that are too difficult or that are generally ill-suited for amateur performers.”5
Selecting quality repertoire for use with secondary-level choral ensembles is a difficult
and multifaceted undertaking for novice and expert conductors alike. There are numerous
variables to consider, ranging from ensemble ability and concert programming, to budgetary
constraints and student appeal. These variables provide conductors with a wide variety of
repertoire options for study and performance, but also cloud the decision-making process.
Moreover, the selection of repertoire has a profound impact on the entire choral program, from
skill development and enrollment, to accolades and revenue. According to Don L. Collins, “the
choice of music literature reaches the heart of the choral music education program.”6 Given the
central role assumed by repertoire in the choral music education curriculum, what repertoire
should be selected for study and performance? And what resources are available to assist novice
teachers in selecting appropriate repertoire for their choral ensembles? Authorities in the field of
choral music education generally agree that the answer to the first question is subjective, yet
simple: quality music with pedagogical value. The answer to the second question is much more
difficult to ascertain.
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4
Hilary Apfelstadt, “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire,” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 19.
5
Alfred J. Swan, The Music Directors Guide to Musical Literature (New York: Prentice Hall, 1949): preface.
6
Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999): 52.!
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The arduous task of selecting choral repertoire is undermined by the lack of quality
resources available to preservice and beginning choral music educators. Resources frequently
cited by conductors as influential in the literature selection process include concert programs,
audio recordings, convention reading sessions, and lists of recommended repertoire. As a result
of the overwhelming volume of published choral repertoire, many repertoire lists are currently
available. Like a concert program or audio recording, a list is only the point of departure for the
larger burden of determining aesthetic and pedagogical value within a specific context. Even
thoroughly annotated repertoire lists or well-written program notes do not provide sufficient
the text, translation, voicing, key, formal structure and other characteristics is certainly an
important aspect of the selection process, however, it does not provide enough information to
There are a small number of other resources available that focus on the marriage of
quality literature and educational objectives, such as the “Teaching Music through Performance
in Choir” series by GIA Publications. This two-volume set features a wide-range of choral
material provides little assistance for the beginning conductor for selection of repertoire outside
the limited canon of the publication. Many choral method books address literature selection.
However, the discussions tend to be brief and often focus on concert programming rather than
Associate Director of Choirs at Milliken University, found that most choral conductors do not
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use a systematic approach based on specified values, but favor a more indiscriminate method.
“Directors tend to sift through possible selections using one or two criteria in order to reduce the
number of possible selections down to a manageable size. In most cases, directors then apply
other criteria to further refine their choices.”7 Another recent study of eleven nationally
The findings of these two studies underscore the significance of the problem with current
repertoire selection practices. Vague criteria, such as “quality” and personal affection, do not
objectively assess the value of art music in a meaningful way. Furthermore, variety is a criterion
that can only be used in a comparative context and does not assess the value of an individual
work. The selection criteria described above may work for experienced conductors who have
extensive knowledge of choral repertoire. However, novice teachers will likely struggle to find
repertoire that will enable them to refine their teaching skills while advancing the musicianship
of their students.
According to Forbes, “repertoire is the medium through which students begin the
development of discriminatory skills with regard to the qualitative elements in music, which in
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7
Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of High School Choral Directors,” Journal of Research in
Music Education 49 (2001): 117.
8
In this study conducted by Tracy Caldwell Hunsaker, “nationally recognized” was defined as choral conductors
whose high school ensemble performed at the 1999, 2001, 2003, or 2005 ACDA National Convention.
9
Tracy Caldwell Hunsaker, “Processes and Criteria of Nationally Recognized High School Choral Directors for
the Selection of Performance Literature” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2007): 111.
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turn leads to greater aesthetic awareness and sensitivity.”10 To sustain and improve the caliber of
choral music education in the twenty-first century, preservice and beginning teachers need
meaningful resources to aid the repertoire selection process. Concert programs, repertoire lists,
reading session materials, audio recordings, and best practices of outstanding conductors are
important resources, but they all fail to teach novice teachers how to categorically assess a given
work. The purpose of this document is to develop a rubric based on criteria of aesthetic and
pedagogical merit to aid preservice and beginning secondary choral music educators in the
From time to time, all choral conductors make repertoire decisions based on extra-
musical criteria, such as budgetary constraints, student appeal, contest requirements, concert
programs, student ability and so on. Many choral method books, refereed journal articles, and
dissertations have addressed the above-mentioned criteria and offered valuable insight for novice
choral music educators. In contrast, the scope of this document is limited to the assessment of
choral repertoire based on aesthetic and pedagogical criteria utilizing a generic, analytic rubric.
Once the aesthetic and pedagogical value of the work is determined, the conductor can then
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10
Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of High School Choral Directors.” Journal of Research in
Music Education 49 (2001): 112.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A number of highly respected music educators have contributed to the growing body of
literature pertaining to repertoire selection over the past four decades and the overwhelming
majority of these have cited repertoire selection as the most significant task in determining the
overall success of a choral program. In order to examine the breadth of extant literature related
to choral repertoire selection practices and criteria, the following review of related literature is
divided into three sections: (a) philosophical foundations of music education, (b) repertoire
Philosophical Foundations
Every decision in the choral music education process reaffirms the philosophical
ideology of the educator, regardless of whether these values are stated or unstated. Bennett
Reimer eloquently summarized this unique phenomenon, stating “every time a choice is made a
belief is applied.”11 The inherent value of music education, and in particular the ability to
facilitate growth in both technical and emotional arenas, has been cited by many prominent
music educators. According to David J. Elliott, vocal music can be expressive of human
emotions because it “can and does partake of the inherent emotional qualities of the human voice
and because music patterns can and do bear resemblances to expressive human gestures.”12 In
addition to providing opportunities for human expression, the study and performance of choral
repertoire can develop the understanding of feelings. In 1958, Leonard Bernstein summarized
the relationship between music and feelings in the first of his Young People’s Concerts:
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11
Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education (Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1989): 7.
12
David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press):
149.
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How do music educators select repertoire that will offer maximum opportunities for the
transformative experiences described by Bernstein? The first step is to designate repertoire for
study and performance based on their philosophical viewpoint. This decision is paramount in
determining the achievement of desired educational outcomes and the extent to which a
relationship between music and feeling will be cultivated. Many authorities in the field of music
education have noted the impact of a sharply defined philosophical ideology on music
instruction. In his book Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education, Elliott
Bennett Reimer also outlined the importance of an educational philosophy in his book, A
First, the individual who has a clear notion of what his aims are as a
professional, and who is convinced of the importance of these aims, is
a strong link in the chain of people who collectively make a
profession....The second reason for the importance of strengthening
individual beliefs about music education is that the understanding a
person has about the value and nature of his profession inevitably
effects his understanding of the value and nature of his personal life.15
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13
Leonard Bernstein, What Does Music Mean?, Young People’s Concert, January 18, 1958.
14
David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press,
1995): 9.
15
Bennett B. Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970): 5.
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Although many philosophical doctrines have influenced music education over the past
aesthetic and praxial philosophies are currently the most prominent viewpoints. Bennett Reimer
became the figurehead of the philosophy movement in the 1970s after the publication of his
book, A Philosophy of Music Education (1970). Reimer described an aesthetic philosophy that
became the dominant view for next thirty years, deeply influencing all aspects of music
education and teacher training. In recent years, David Elliott introduced a contrasting
philosophy that he labeled “praxial” in his book Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music
Education (1995). The praxial philosophy quickly gained favor in the field of music education
The term aesthetic was first used in the middle of the eighteenth century by the German
philosopher Alexander Baumgarten to signify the science of beauty.16 The term was first applied
to the arts in a series of twenty-seven letters collectively titled Letters upon the Aesthetic
Education of Man (1794) by J.C. Friedrich Schiller. A brief excerpt from Letter IX summarizes
Schiller’s thoughts:
Humanity has lost its dignity, but art has saved it, and preserves it
in marbles full of meaning; truth continues to live in illusion, and
the copy will serve to reestablish the model. If the nobility of art
has survived the nobility of nature, it also goes before it like an
inspiring genius, forming and awakening minds. Before truth
causes her triumphant light to penetrate into the depth of the heart,
poetry intercepts her rays, and the summits of humanity shine in a
bright light, while a dark and humid night still hangs over the
valleys.17
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16
Donald W. Crawford, “The Question of Aesthetics,” in Aesthetics and Arts Education, Ralph A. Smith and Alan
Simpson (Eds.), (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1991): 18.
17
J. C. Friedrich von Schiller, Letters Upon the Aesthetic Education of Man, Letter IX,
http://www.bartleby.com/32/509.html (accessed April 3, 2011).
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Schiller’s belief that beauty (aesthetic) was a vital tool for moving mankind forward, not merely
for enjoyment and recreation, paved the way for modern aesthetic education philosophers,
has shaped the entire field for the past four decades. Assessing Reimer’s impact on music
musicality within each individual and is not limited to the musically elite. Reimer supported the
selection of quality literature that promotes the emotional power of music and exposure to music
of other cultures. According to Reimer, “the most important role of music education as aesthetic
education is to help children become progressively more sensitive to the elements of music
which contain the conditions which can yield insights into human feeling.”19 Reimer also
advocated that music educators be familiar with the core values of music and comprehensively
teach it to students. For Reimer, the requirements of a “musical experience” included (a) the
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to the expressive nature of sounds, (c) a sensuous dimension, (d) a creative dimension, and (e) a
contextual/social dimension.
While there are many differences between the aesthetic and praxial doctrines, perhaps the
central division revolves around the definition of music in relation to the concept of doing.
According to Reimer, “music is the product of the labor of composers and performers...but all
those matters should disappear, leaving only the work in its pristine isolation, as sound with
value strictly as sound, separated from the worlds and experiences of the people who created
it.”20 In contrast, Elliott argued that “music is not simply a collection of products or objects.
The term praxial is derived from praxis, which was first used by Aristotle in his Poetics
and is defined as the practical application of learning. According to David Elliott, an important
distinction between aesthetic and praxial philosophies concerns the action of doing music:
Dr. Philip Alperson, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Louisville, first used the
term “praxial” was in 1991 for an article in the Journal of Aesthetic Education. In his article,
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20
Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education: Advancing the Vision (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003), 48.
21
David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press,
1995): 39.!
22
David J. Elliott, What Does Praxial Mean?, http://www.davidelliottmusic.com/musicmat/praxial.htm#top
(accessed March 23, 2011).
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must take into account, not only the history and kind of appreciation
appropriate to the musical work of art, but also the nature and
significance of the skills and productive human activity that bring
musical works into being, if for no other reason than the fact that the
results of human action cannot be adequately understood apart from
the motives, intentions, and productive considerations of the agents
who bring them into being.23
In addition to the importance placed on music making, Elliott advocated for a multidimensional
approach to the music curriculum through the actions of performing, improvising, composing,
arranging, and conducting, all of which are closely linked to musical listening. Elliott claimed
that “music making and music listening are unique and major ways of bringing order to
consciousness and, therefore, unique and major ways of achieving self-growth and self-
knowledge.”24 Throughout his book, Elliott argued that musical works involve many distinct
kinds of meanings, that musical understanding involves many closely related kinds of thinking
and knowing, and that the significance of music in human life can be explained in terms of many
The establishment of philosophical beliefs about the nature and value of music will
directly impact the decisions of how to teach, who to teach, and most importantly for this
document, what to teach. With a philosophical foundation firmly established, choral music
educators can begin the process of examining and selecting repertoire that will best facilitate the
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23
Philip Alperson, “What Should One Expect from a Philosophy of Music Education,” Journal of Aesthetic
Education Vol. 25, No. 3 (Autumn, 1991): 235.
24
David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press,
1995): 117.!
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countless avenues for cognitive, kinesthetic, and affective growth through the study and
performance of choral repertoire. The selection of repertoire, therefore, is one of the most
important decisions for a choral music educator. An examination of current repertoire selection
practices will better inform the novice choral conductor as to pertinent trends in the field.
generally limited to method books, refereed journals, and dissertations. Information related to
concert programming is by far the most voluminous topic addressed in method books. Authors
have frequently advocated for programmatic interest and variety, including contrasting historical
periods, cultures, styles, and genres. For example, Noble Cain (1942) called for educators to
program music from the past five centuries and suggested using one of three types of concert
programming: chronological, mood type, and contrast.25 Method book authors have also
For example, Robert L. Garretson suggested that conductors “select publications that fall into
three or more groups and have some definite literary or stylistic relationship to each other.”26
Choral method books that include information related to programmatic repertoire selection
include books by Noble Cain (1942), Walter Ehret (1959), Paul F. Roe (1983), Robert L.
Garretson (1970), Harold A. Decker & Julius Herford (1973), and Kenneth E. Miller (1988).
More important to the scope of this document are method books that specifically address
repertoire selection criteria, including texts by Miller (1979), Roe (1983), Lamb (1988), Decker
and Kirk (1988), Roach (1989), Garretson (1993), Hylton (1995), Brinson (1996), Collins
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25
Noble Cain, Choral Music and Its Practice (New York: M. Witmark & Sons Education Publishing, 1942): 123.
26
Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music, 7th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993): 254.
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(1999), and Phillips (2004). Each author presented a distinct collection of selection criteria and
In Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (1979), Kenneth
E. Miller divided his discussion of repertoire selection into four chapters: (1) Sources and
Guidelines for Selecting Choral Music, (2) Selection Music for Performance: Recommended
Compositions, (3) How to Maintain a Choral Library, and (4) Public Performance: Matching
Performers and Audience. With regards to the use of selection criteria, Miller argued:
After discussing the role of the conductor and where to locate choral repertoire, Miller listed the
following eighteen criteria as most important in the repertoire selection process: (a) conductor
appeal, (b) educational value of the text, (c) marriage of the text and music, (d) validity of the
edition, (e) text which is easily sung, (f) vocal range and tessitura, (g) musical interest,
(h) quality of vocal part writing, (i) appeal to singers and audience, (j) music highlights the
strengths of the ensemble, (k) significant addition to choral library, (l) correspondence between
the arrangement and original work (m) financial investment, (n) within the technical range of the
choir, (o) time needed to learn the music, (p) contribution to curricular goals, (q) availability of
In addition to advocating for repertoire to be selected from all style periods, Paul Roe was
one of the first method book authors to call for higher standards of repertoire. In Choral Music
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27
Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY:
Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 21.
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Education (1983), Roe stated that “a primary goal should be the teaching of musical taste to the
students. When this is the goal, trashy literature is unthinkable, for musicality and aesthetic
experiences cannot develop from contacts with the trite and cheap.”28 Roe emphasized that
selected repertoire should be well written within the context of its genre, including a sound
formal organization and expressivity. Roe also suggested the use of an “analytical outline” to
determine the quality of choral repertoire, which included: (a) harmonic structure, (b) texture, (c)
tonality, (d) text, (e) melodic style, (f) rhythm, and (g) form.
chooses. Each program is an indication of the depth of the conductor’s understanding as well as
a fairly accurate barometer of his choir’s capabilities.”29 In Choral Techniques (1988), Lamb
suggested four basic considerations when selecting choral repertoire, beginning with whether or
not the conductor can effectively teach the repertoire and if it represents a challenge to the
students. He also recommended selection of repertoire that can be successfully performed and
offers students an opportunity to learn about choral music.30 Lamb made note of several extra-
musical considerations before introducing his list of selection criteria, which included: (a) vocal
range of each part, (b) compositional craftsmanship, including an examination of the text and
part writing, (c) rhythm, (d) harmony, (e) appropriate for rehearsal time, (f) ease of
memorization, (g) arrangement reflects original intent, (h) programming considerations, and (i)
difficulty.
According to Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk, two of the most important elements
of any choral program are “the selection of music that evokes artistic expression, and the
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28
Paul F. Roe, Choral Music Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1983): 62.!
29
Gordon H. Lamb, Choral Techniques, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988): 172.
30
Ibid., 172.
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development of choral techniques that make the revealing of that artistic expression possible.”31
While many choral method books have emphasized programmatic concerns or compositional
construction, Decker and Kirk also examined developmental and pedagogical concerns in their
book, Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication (1988). The suggested repertoire selection
criteria included: (a) vocal and emotional maturity, (b) teaching-learning objectives, and (c)
artistic potential and artistic responsiveness. The authors noted “choral excellence is dependent
upon the conductor’s abilities to assess learning readiness; formulate attainable objectives
relating to skill development, cognition, and aesthetic responsiveness; teach that desired skills,
addition to addressing repertoire selection criteria, Decker and Kirk provided a useful guide to
is selection of the music, since the success of the program depends to a great extent on the
quality and the appropriateness of the music performed.”33 In Conducting Choral Music (1993),
Garretson encouraged the implementation of the following selection criteria: (a) text quality and
meaning, (b) music reflects meaning of text, (c) appropriate for age and maturity of students, (d)
appropriate to the technical facilities of the students, (e) voice parts are sufficiently interesting,
(f) authenticity of arrangements, (g) appropriate for allotted rehearsal time, and (h) contributes to
“comprehensive choral music education focuses on people and on music. The selection of the
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31
Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk (Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988): 150.
32
Ibid., 151.!
33
Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music, 7th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993): 252.
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music to be rehearsed and performed by a choral ensemble profoundly influences the quality of
the music education experiences provided to the singers.”34 The recommended repertoire
selection criteria included: (a) range and tessitura, (b) text, (c) voice leading, (d) accompaniment,
(e) harmony, (f) how the piece fits the choir, (g) educational implications, and (h) how the piece
fits the total program. Hylton concluded his discussion of repertoire selection criteria with a
According to Barbara Brinson, the selection of repertoire “comprises the very core of the
choral curriculum, and, because the choice of music has the potential to affect all else that
transpires during the entire year, decisions must be made with much thought and
consideration.”35 In support of her argument, Brinson dedicated an entire chapter of her book,
entitled Choral Music: Methods and Materials (1996), to the process of repertoire selection.
Brinson suggested eleven repertoire selection criteria, including: (a) potential for student growth,
(b) variety of musical styles, (c) director appeal, (d) range and tessitura, (e) quality of text, (f)
accompaniment forces and quality of writing, (g) quality of arrangement or transcription, (h) size
of the choir, (i) vocal maturity, (j) compositional texture, and (k) audience appeal.
In his book Teaching Choral Music (1999), Don L. Collins suggested the following four
repertoire selection criteria: (a) difficulty level, (b) sociological and cultural appeal, (c)
educational value, and (d) aesthetic value. Collins provided a brief description of each criterion,
along with a series of related questions for contemplation. He specifically argued for the
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Collins also noted the positive impact appropriate repertoire selection can have on classroom
discipline and student attitude. He concluded his discussion with an examination of repertoire
One of the most popular choral method books is Directing the Choral Music Program
(2004) by Kenneth H. Phillips. Phillips dedicated an entire chapter of the book to repertoire
selection and recommended using Walter Ehret’s selection criteria. Ehret’s criteria included the
integrity of the text and the quality of the music, with particular attention on: (a) quality, (b)
range and tessitura, (c) appeal to both the director and performer, and (d) contributions to a
balanced program. According to Phillips, “quality choral literature is available today from
numerous publishers. There is also much inferior literature, and the choral director must learn to
tell the difference. In general, the music of well-known and respected composers will be better
literature.”37
quite limited, the choral method books examined above provide a foundation of knowledge.
Many choral method books also contain valuable lists of suggested repertoire, including those by
Miller (1979), Decker and Kirk (1988), Lamb (1988), Roach (1989), Garretson (1993), Hylton
(1995), Brinson (1996), Collins (1999), and Phillips (2004). Also notable are method books that
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36
Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999): 359.
37
Kenneth H. Phillips, Directing the Choral Music Program (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004): 147.
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completely neglect the topic of repertoire selection, including those by Wayne R. Jipson (1972),
Gerald F. Darrow (1975), and Ray Robinson & Allan Winold (1976).
related to the repertoire selection processes of secondary choral music educators. For example,
Pamela K. Ogdin used a 52-item questionnaire to survey 200 secondary choral music educators
from the San Diego, California area.38 The questionnaire included seventeen repertoire selection
criteria and asked study participants to: (a) check which criteria they currently do use, (b) check
which criteria they felt should be used, and (c) select seven criteria and rank them in order of
importance. The results of the study indicated that the following criteria were deemed most
important to the study participants: (a) variety of musical styles, (b) students skill level at
entrance, (c) student growth, (d) difficulty level, (e) fundamental repertoire, (f) festival/contest
For her dissertation Literature, Music Education, and Characteristics of Selected Virginia
Beginning High School Choirs (1995), Rebecca R. Reames surveyed 263 high school choral
conductors in the state of Virginia using a 47-item questionnaire.39 The results of the survey
were compiled into eight categories: (1) demographic information, (2) organization of singers,
(3) repertoire selection criteria, (4) literature sources, (5) types of literature performed, (6)
program description, (7) developing sequential programs, and (8) recommended repertoire for
mixed choirs. Questions on the survey specifically related to repertoire selection criteria were
limited to whether the conductor used technical or aesthetic criteria for beginning choral
ensembles. Results of the study revealed that “the majority of teachers (87.9%) selected
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38
It should be noted that while the questionnaire was sent to 200 secondary choral music educators, only 97 teachers
responded (49%), and only 74 provided valid data (37%).
39
This study by Rebecca Reames only included participants who were members of the Music Educators National
Conference (MENC) and had a return rate of 80%.!
! 18!
!
beginning literature based upon both technical and aesthetic criteria. Only 8.3% of the teachers
reported that aesthetic criteria was the more important criteria, and only 3.8% of the teachers
reported that technical criteria was the more important criteria for choosing beginning high
school choir literature.” Reames also included a list of 96 works nominated by study participants
as having been successfully programmed for the beginning high school mixed choir.
Guy Forbes examined repertoire selection in his dissertation entitled The Repertoire
Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia, South
Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (1998). For his study, Forbes compared the literature
selection processes of “nominated” teachers who had significant teaching experience with “non-
nominated” teachers who had considerably less experience. The results of the study indicated
that nominated teachers select more classical and multicultural music than non-nominated
teachers. The study also revealed that non-nominated teachers also program more popular music
than the nominated teachers. Forbes noted “directors place more importance on criteria directly
related to the educational value of the music, with slightly less importance placed on the relative
technical and artistic performance difficulties inherent in the music. Other extra-musical factors
School Choral Directors for the Selection of Performance Literature (2007), Tracy Caldwell
Hunsaker interviewed eleven nationally recognized high school choral conductors for a
qualitative, phenomenological study on repertoire selection. The study also included related
topics, such as festival literature selection and systems for cataloguing potential literature.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
40
Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia,
South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1998): 153.
!
! 19!
!
Participants responded to sixteen interview questions that were developed from the following
1. What is the basic philosophy of a successful high school choral director regarding the
selection of performance literature?
2. From where did successful high school choral directors gain their knowledge of
literature selection?
3. What sources do successful high school choral directors use to find new literature?
4. What criteria are the most important to successful high school choral directors in
selecting performance literature?
5. What part does festival literature play in the selection of music for the whole year by
successful high school choral directors and what influences the choices for festival
literature?
6. Do successful high school choral directors have a system for cataloguing pieces they
discover and wish to incorporate into their programs in the future?
7. What factors influence the programming of concerts by successful high school choral
directors?
According to Hunsaker, “each director conveyed information which was unique to that
director, and each director conveyed information which was similar to most if not all of the other
directors.”42 For example, the majority of study participants used a general selection criterion
related to “quality,” but each cited different aspects of compositional design to designate a
quality work, such as good voice-leading, a marriage of music and text, or melodic interest. The
results of the study also indicated that several participants use personal affection as a major
selection criterion in the search of repertoire. According to Hunsaker “for some, the most
important criteria is quite simply whether they themselves love a choral work. They want to feel
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
41
Tracy Caldwell Hunsaker, “Processes and Criteria of Nationally Recognized High School Choral Directors for
the Selection of Performance Literature” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2007): 19.!
42
Ibid., 181.
! 20!
!
moved by a piece when they hear it in order to put the time into rehearsing it with their choirs.”43
Other important criteria identified by these nationally recognized choral conductors included
pedagogical value, the technical abilities of the ensemble, and variety of programming. While
many of the criteria discussed in the study were consistently applied by study participants,
Preservice Preparation
Despite the frequency with which repertoire selection is cited as the most critical aspect
of choral music education, current research suggests that undergraduate method classes do not
adequately prepare preservice conductors for the task. In 1983, Gerald R. Bolt surveyed 91 high
school choral directors, along with 32 music education instructors teaching at National
(Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah). The purpose of the study was to examine
whether preservice music educators were receiving the information necessary to make repertoire
selections for high school choral ensembles. Based on the results of his study, Bolt
recommended:
The impact of teacher education level on repertoire selection practices has also been
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
43
Ibid., 181.!
44
Gerald R. Bolt, “Choral Repertoire Selection Competency Development in Undergraduate Music Education
Curricula” (Ed.D. diss., Arizona State University, 1983): 212.
! 21!
!
studied. In his dissertation The Effect of Choral Program Size, Teacher Experience, and Teacher
Educational Level on the Selection of High School Music Literature (1991), Henry N. Dahlman
surveyed 148 high school choral conductors in the state of Missouri (25.7%) and found that
reported choices of representative choral music were significantly affected by choral program
size, teacher experience, and teacher education. Dahlman also found that “there exists a
hierarchy of selection criteria for teachers that is independent of selected variables of program
size, teacher experience, and teacher education.”45 Based on the results of the survey instrument,
Dahlman divided the twelve most important repertoire selection criteria into a hierarchy with
three distinct tiers. The first-tier criteria were: (a) teacher appeal, (b) teaching goals and
objectives, (c) musical quality, and (d) preparation factors. The second-tier criteria included: (e)
student appeal, (f) programming, (g) text, and (h) audience appeal. The third-tier criteria were:
(i) musical style, (j) accompaniment, (k) score design and clarity, and (l) cost.
The results suggested that teachers of diverse backgrounds generally use the same basic
criteria when selecting repertoire for high school choral ensembles. Dahlman speculated that the
qualitative assessment skills of choral conductors are established during the formative years of
preservice teacher training, although no quantitative data was presented in the study. Dahlman
! 22!
!
In her dissertation The Repertoire Selection Practices and Skills of Beginning Choral
Educators (2005), Laura D. Diddle found that personal performance background and
repertoire selection skills than method courses. Moreover, method courses ranked behind choral
conducting courses and student teaching experiences in the frequency of instruction related to
repertoire selection. “The majority of the respondents (45%) reported that they received
instruction related to repertoire selection in 2-3 class periods. Seventeen percent stated that they
received repertoire selection instruction during only one class period, and 13% claimed receiving
no instruction from their choral methods instructor on the task of selecting repertoire.”47 Diddle
also found that novice choral music educators “seldom” were provided opportunities to select
Conclusion
The literature suggests that music educators generally agree that the overall success of a
choral music program is dependent on the ability of the educator to make appropriate repertoire
musicianship, aesthetic taste, and pedagogical knowledge. Authorities have stressed the
selection processes of diverse groups of choral conductors, ranging from nationally recognized
teachers with significant professional experience to those beginning their careers. Other studies
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
47
Laura D. Diddle, “The Repertoire Selection Practices and Skills of Beginning Choral Educators,” (Ph.D. diss.,
University of South Carolina, 2005): 79.
! 23!
!
have examined the relationship between repertoire selection and specific demographics, such as
While a diverse set of selection criteria are discussed throughout the literature, the term
“quality” is regularly cited as integral to the process of literature selection. Despite the
consistent citation of the term in relation to literature selection, there is currently no extant
research related to “quality” as a criterion. Guy Forbes noted “in light of the importance the
experts place on quality as a criteria for repertoire selection, this appears to be a shortcoming in
educational research regarding repertoire selection.”48 How do music educators define quality?
What criteria are most important in the assessment of choral repertoire? The subjective nature of
qualitative assessment may prohibit definitive studies from being performed. However, the
literature reviewed suggests that preservice and beginning choral music educators are in need of
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
48
Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia,
South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1998): 47.
!
! 24!
!
CHAPTER THREE
AESTHETIC MERIT CRITERIA
According to Harold Decker and Colleen Kirk, “the human spirit responds to artistic and
musical stimuli...the conductor who values aesthetic responsiveness will select repertoire
judiciously. He or she will choose choral literature that can evoke aesthetic responses in varying
degrees, and will assess each work to ascertain its potential for aesthetic satisfaction....”49
Research indicates that one of the most important aspects of music education is the selection of
repertoire that meets a certain level of expectation in terms of its aesthetic quality, yet there are
few resources for preservice and beginning teachers. Leonard B. Meyer was one of the leaders
in the field of qualitative assessment and his work impacted generations of music educators. He
argued that one definitive theory of quality was simply not possible and strongly encouraged
various avenues of approach to the subject. Meyer also believed the difficulty of the task does
not excuse the musician from making an attempt to assess factors of quality.50
Most music educators would agree the evaluation of music is a highly subjective and
personal procedure. Recent research, however, has demonstrated that educators can come to a
reasonable agreement as to what is a good composition and what is not.51 Studies of this nature
are typically based on “consensus assessment,” which includes a number of judges providing
individual data that is analyzed for consistencies. Although consensus assessment is impractical
for the professional routine of a music educator, the fact that trained musicians can define quality
with reasonable consistency is an important development. How can preservice and beginning
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
49
Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk (Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988): 152.
50
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 225.!
51
Maud Hickey, “Assessment Rubrics for Music Composition,” (Music Educators Journal 85 No. 4,
1999): 26.
! 25!
!
choral conductors develop the skills necessary to assess the aesthetic quality of musical
repertoire? What type of assessment tool should be employed? What criteria should be
evaluated?
A rubric is one of the most common tools for evaluation in music education and is
particularly effective when evaluating qualitative criteria. According to Alan D. Rowe, “rubrics
are a critical link between assessment and instruction. They operationalize quality in our minds
so we can more effectively teach and lead.”52 An analytical rubric consists of multiple, separate
scales and yields a set of results. A generic, analytical rubric is particularly useful for its
flexibility and will work across any musical context regardless of genre, stylistic, or historical
context. Using multiple scales will enable music educators to pinpoint strengths and weaknesses
related to each criterion. An additional advantage to using a generic, analytical rubric is the lack
of hierarchical structure associated with separate scales. The music educator can prioritize
specific criteria according to the needs of the ensemble, or, if selecting literature for an entire
The repertoire selection criteria related to aesthetic merit presented in Table 3-1 are
largely based on the work of Acton Ostling. In his dissertation, An Evaluation of Compositions
for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit (1978), Ostling developed
a set of criteria based on the work of Leonard B. Meyer, applicable text books, and conservations
with prominent conductors. The remainder of this chapter will provide preservice and beginning
choral conductors with information related to assessing the aesthetic quality of choral repertoire.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
52
Christine Conley-Sowels, “Using Rubrics to Assess Authentic Student Learning,” Texas A&M Assessment
Conference, 21 March 2010.
! 26!
!
Criterion Description
Textual Integrity Assesses the integrity of the selected text, the relationship between the text and
musical setting, and the degree to which proper textual stresses are reflected.
Craftsmanship Assesses the craftsmanship with which the work is constructed, including formal
structure, melodic, harmonic and rhythmic appeal, textural variety and part
writing.
Predictability Assesses the balance between predictability and unpredictability.
Consistency Assesses the consistency of the work in terms of its style and quality.
Originality Assesses whether or not the work stands out as a distinctive artistic expression
and contains innovative musical devices within the framework of its historical
context.
Validity Assesses the degree to which the work transcends the historical or cultural
context within which it was created.
Textual Integrity
The repertoire selection rubric is not organized according to a hierarchal design, allowing
music educators the freedom to determine which criteria best fit curricular or programmatic aims
as necessary. Despite the flexible nature of the rubric, textual integrity will be paramount to
every work examined, as composers have historically used text as the impetus for choral
composition. While outfitting previously composed music with a new text was an acceptable
practice during certain historical periods, composers of choral repertoire have generally selected
the text and then crafted the music accordingly. Robert Shaw argued “in almost all instances the
composer had his text in mind when he began to compose, and that it therefore must be admitted
! 27!
!
to have had some directing influence.”53 Evaluating the integrity of the text and its musical
treatment is a critical step in assessing the aesthetic value of choral repertoire. The textual
1 2 3 4
The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of
inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity,
integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of
obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance.
between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant
musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the
musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting.
reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting
stress. stress. properly reflects textual
stress.
Three primary considerations in the assessment of textual integrity include (a) the
integrity of the subject matter, (b) the reflection of proper textual stress, and (c) the relationship
between text and music. Regardless of its secular or sacred disposition, the general nature of the
text is the first concern. Does the text elicit an emotional reaction? Does the text feature
figurative language or sound devices to create vivid imagery? Is the word choice vague and
repetitive, or is it focused and impressive? A useful, though frequently overlooked method for
examining the text is to extract it from the musical score by either writing it out by hand or
typing it with a word processor. This simple exercise will illuminate the text in a holistic manner
that is not easily observed within the context of the musical score. Examples 3-1 and 3-2
illustrate the practical value of writing out the text for qualitative assessment.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
53
Robert Block, ed., The Robert Shaw Reader, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 109.
! 28!
!
Eyes of shadow-water,
eyes of well-water,
eyes of dream-water.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
54
The translation of Water Night is by Muriel Rukeyser and the poem was adapted by Eric Whitacre.
! 29!
!
My wish for the sun, for the moon and the stars,
“May you always be there to guide me.”
And so in return for your magical light,
I will ever sing of your beauty.
While the subject matter of both poems share a similar scope, it is clear that the poetry of
Octavio Paz (Example 3-1) is superior with regards to poetic quality. The expressive and
colorful language immediately stimulates an emotional response in the reader. The poetic
rhetoric elicits poignant and graphic images, such as “night brings its wetness to beaches in your
soul.” The poetry also provides ample opportunities for formal classroom discussions or cross-
curricular activities. The poetry of Linda Spevacek (Example 3-2) is superficial by comparison,
lacking the depth of colors and imagery achieved in the work of Octavio Paz.
In addition to examining the integrity of the text, it is also important to assess the
relationship between the text and musical setting, as well as the treatment of textual stress.
Choral composers traditionally set out to create a symbiotic relationship between the text and
music and the degree to which the composer is successful will impact the value of the work in an
There are two elements to the musical setting of text. First there is
what is called prosody: that is, the manner in which normal word
accents and metrics are related to musical accents and metrics, how
they match or contravene each other....The other aspect is less
particular and detailed, but almost certainly more important. It has
to do on the one hand with the meaning of the text, with text as a
value - its idea content, the whole realm of emotion, aesthetic and
spiritual associations that surround and interpenetrate it–and on the
other hand, with the similar significances of the music itself
particularly as provided in its larger structure.55
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
55
Robert Block, ed., The Robert Shaw Reader, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 108.
! 30!
!
We first turn our attention to the concept of textual stresses, which Shaw labeled prosody.
When evaluating the text of a choral composition, it is important to analyze the syllabic
treatment of the musical setting within the framework of the musical phrase. Are the syllables of
the words given appropriate strong and weak functions? Do significant words receive evocative
or interesting treatment? In order to effectively communicate the message of the selected text,
the strong-weak relationship within individual words should be preserved or even enhanced by
the musical setting. Additionally, the grammatical syntax should also be reflected musically.
The familiar melody of the American folk song Shenandoah in Example 3-3 demonstrates
At the onset of the excerpt from Shenandoah, the eighth-note pick-up (“O”) functions as
a weak beat which spurs on the accumulation of energy as it moves to the downbeat of measure 1
(“Shen-”). This relationship acutely mirrors the strong-weak functions of the poetic language.
The pattern of a weak upbeat building energy towards a strong downbeat is maintained
throughout the excerpt, with one to three eighth-notes functioning as the upbeat. Observe that
the strong words (nouns, verbs), or the strong syllables of the strong words, are placed on the
prepositions, conjunctions and so on) are on the upbeats. Moreover, the individual words also
reflect the strong-weak relationship. For example, the natural syllabic stress of “rollin’” in
measure 3 is beautifully reflected with an upper-neighbor tone gently resolving down by step to
the dominant (C-sharp to B-natural). Finally, the unique rhythmic treatment of the word
“bound” in measure 7 strengthens the verb despite its metrically weak position.
! 31!
!
Example 3-3. The first verse of Shenandoah (Traditional American Folk Song)
Perhaps the most apparent difference between a chorus and an orchestra or wind
ensemble is the presence of text. Describing the impact of this difference, Elizabeth Green stated
“in choral music, the tangible emotion set by the words is heightened by the music. In
instrumental music, the emotional appeal relies upon the intangibility of the music itself.
Dynamics in choral compositions have an emotional basis. The emotion states the dynamic.”56
Green’s commentary speaks to the critical relationship between text and musical construction,
which is the final component of the textual integrity criterion in the rubric.
exceedingly abstract correspondence make this the most subjective aspect of the text criterion.
Moreover, assigning value to the relationship between text and music is one of the most
challenging and time-consuming aspects of assessing choral music. In his dissertation, Acton
Ostling noted “the problem of making value judgments in art is a difficult one since so many
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
56
Elizabeth A. H. Green, The Modern Conductor, 6th ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997): 220.
! 32!
!
Key questions to consider when evaluating the relationship between the text and music include:
What compositional devices are used to reflect the text? Does the musical style fit the subject
matter and rhetoric style of the text? Do the compositional decisions of key, meter, tempo,
dynamic, rhythm, range, and texture work together to enhance the textual expression? The
following examples demonstrate highly effective connections between text and musical setting.
Claudio Monteverdi’s second book of madrigals for five voices, published in 1590,
features his emerging predilection for text-painting. Example 3-4 from Ecco mormorare l’onde
illustrates the popular Baroque-era technique, depicting the leafy branches high above, as well as
the birds singing sweetly. Monteverdi begins by shaping the melody in a rising trajectory to
reflect the branches high above the ground (“e sovra i verdi rami i vagh’augelli”). Sweeping
melismas in the top two voices beautifully illustrate the word “cantar” (to sing) at the apex of the
phrase in measure 30. Of course, not all musical-textual relationships will be as apparent as the
Example 3-4. Excerpt from Ecco mormorar l’onde by Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
57
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 22.
!
! 33!
!
text-painting effects found throughout Ecco mormorar l’onde. Example 3-5 from Ave verum
Mozart composed this brief motet in June 1791, only a few months prior to his death.
The work encapsulates his profoundly expressive musical talent that he developed during his
short but brilliant life. The sacred text “Cujus latus perforatum unda fluxit et sanguine” (Whose
side was pierced, whence flowed water and blood) is reflected in tightly-drawn chromatic
counterpoint that flows seamlessly at the opening of the B section (see Example 3-5). The vivid
harmonies strike deep at the human emotion and few choral works concentrate so much affective
power into such a compact structure. Ave verum corpus is a timeless choral treasure, not only for
its beautiful melody and stirring harmonies, but for the deep connection between text and music.
Example 3-5. Excerpt from Ave verum corpus by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1765-91)
! 34!
!
Craftsmanship
The craftsmanship criterion examines the technical aspects of compositional design and
seeks to assess the quality with which the composer has structured the work. This criterion
harmonic and rhythmic appeal, textural variation and part writing. The manner in which these
fundamental components are combined greatly impacts the aesthetic quality of the work. The
assessment descriptors for the craftsmanship criterion can be seen in Table 3-3.
1 2 3 4
The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a
structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal
melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work
rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest
little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic,
texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic
writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work
concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and
performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The
demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing
approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful
performers. performers. understanding of the
vocal mechanism.
It is important to look for a logical and deliberate organization of the musical elements
when evaluating the “form” of a choral composition. Ostling makes a clear distinction between
“forms of music,” sonata for example, and “form in music,” which implies the composer has
organized the materials in a specific manner to produce a desired aesthetic response.58 The two
fundamental aspects of musical form are contrast and repetition. Repertory works that maintain
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
58
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 24.
!
! 35!
!
a fair degree of balance between contrast and repetition often result in a distinguished musical
form that peaks the interest of performers and audience members alike. A composition
containing too much contrasting material, or conversely too much repetition, can result in
musical stasis. It is also important to be cautious of overly predicable outcomes when examining
choral repertoire for formal construction. This is often the case in arrangements of popular
music that follow a standard construction of verse, refrain, verse, refrain, bridge, and refrain.
Example 3-6 is a diagram illustrating the formal analysis of A New Song by James
MacMillan (b. 1959). The work features a strongly articulated formal design with balance
between contrast and repetition. Although the work is set in a modified rondo form, MacMillan
varies the texture, scoring and accompaniment each time the thematic sections return in order to
maintain listener appeal and give the work a sense of forward motion.
Example 3-6. Formal Analysis of A New Song by James MacMillan (b. 1959)
Melody, harmony, and rhythm are the most tangible musical elements for the
choral conductors indicate that “personal affection” is an important criterion in the selection of
choral repertoire, they are generally referring to a connection they feel with the melodic,
! 36!
!
harmonic, and rhythmic content of the work. Composing elegantly constructed melodies over
Likewise, appealing rhythmic patterns, sudden bursts of syncopation and frequent changes of
meter can elicit a wide range of emotion in the listener. Kenneth Miller noted “if these elements
are sufficiently strong, then the music will almost certainly have sufficient intrinsic value.”59
Melody, harmony, and rhythm significantly contribute to the overall craftsmanship of a work and
at times the melody can be deceptively difficult to locate. For example, it may move rapidly
between voice parts, be placed in the accompaniment, or sounded in two or more voices
simultaneously. A technique that may prove useful to the conductor is to underline or highlight
the major melodic content prior to assessing the work.60 Examination of the following criteria
will help determine the quality of the melodic content once it has been identified: (a) style, (b)
phrase lengths, (c) articulation, (d) range and tessitura, (e) dynamic changes, and (f) problematic
passages.
The opening movement of Mass in G Major by Franz Schubert is one of the most
recognizable choral works in music history and a repertoire work for high school concert choirs.
One of the most prominent features of the movement is the well-crafted melody found in
Example 3-7. In this example, the lyric style is perfectly matched to the mostly conjunct motion,
the vocal range and tessitura demonstrate Schubert’s understanding of the voice, and there are no
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
59
Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY:
Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 26.
60
Ibid., 27.
! 37!
!
Example 3-7. Excerpt from Kyrie (from Mass in G Major) by Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
extremely difficult passages. In measures 8 and 10, sudden bursts of dotted rhythmic figures
contrast the sweeping lyricism of the opening seven measures, adding interest to the passage.
While the nature and significance of melody in choral repertoire has been relatively
consistent for centuries, the harmonic rhetoric used by composers has been subject to sweeping
changes across style periods and locations. According to Gordon Lamb, “the harmonic language
of a composer is due, in part, to his training, cultural heritage, and personal preference. Some
composers are most comfortable when composing within the bounds of tonality, while others are
equally as comfortable outside those bounds. There is no reason to doubt the validity of either as
long as the results are satisfying musically.”61 There is an incredibly diverse set of acceptable
harmonic standards in the Modern era and the task of assessing harmonic quality can be quite
progression of harmony provides the flow of the work. Harmonic progressions that are logical
and genuine will give the music a natural sense of forward motion, while those that are awkward
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
61
Gordon H. Lamb, Choral Techniques, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988): 181.
! 38!
!
or forced will give the music a sense of being contrived.62 It is particularly important to make
note of progressions that seem cliché, redundant, or have an artificial connection with the text.
Consider the following questions when examining the harmonic rhetoric of choral repertoire: Do
the harmonies progress in a logical and genuine manner that is appropriate for the style of the
work? Is the quality of the harmonic language consistent throughout the work? Does the
harmony enhance the setting of the text in a meaningful way? Examples 3-8 and 3-9
demonstrate harmonic motion that is genuine to the musical style of each work and enhances the
textual imagery. The excerpt from Mozart’s Ave verum corpus previously discussed (page 34)
Example 3-8 is a brief excerpt from The Last Words of David by Randall Thompson
(1899-1984), one of the leading American composers of the twentieth century. In this excerpt,
Thompson uses harmonic color to reinforce textual imagery in two distinct ways. First, the
uncommon chord progression by ascending whole-step dominates the tonal landscape, and
secondly, the harmonic rhythm is elongated from two beats per chord at the beginning of the
excerpt to four beats per chord at the climax of the phrase. Both of these subtle nuances further
underscore the visual image of the sun rising out of the darkness at the break of morning.
Although the chord progression is not traditional in the sense of the standard rules of
counterpoint in the common-practice period, the harmony stimulates an aesthetic response in the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
62
Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY:
Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 27.
!
! 39!
!
Example 3-8. Excerpt from The Last Words of David by Randall Thompson (1899-1984)
In Example 3-9 from The Andalusian Merchant, Thomas Weelkes utilizes a variety of harmonic
inflections to amplify the story of two tumultuous lovers. The work is firmly planted in the
Ionian mode at the opening of the madrigal but abruptly shifts to the Aeolian mode to depict the
“reports” of a volcanic island burning off the coast of Spain (Fogo). Weelkes further colors the
passage with slithering chromatic passages depicting the word “strangely.” These harmonic
mannerisms were quite popular in the late Renaissance era and demonstrate an effective
treatment of harmony.
In addition to melodic and harmonic appeal, rhythmic content is paramount to the quality
! 40!
!
Example 3-9. Excerpt from The Andalusian Merchant by Thomas Weelkes (ca. 1573-1623)
! 41!
!
obvious to the novice musician as melody and harmony, rhythm is equally important in
determining the quality and pedagogical value of any choral work. According to Miller, “choirs
examining the rhythmic components of the work, closely observe any patterns or other rhythmic
devices that appear to be a foremost quality of the piece.64 Composers frequently use recurring
rhythmic patterns to unify a choral work or to provide formal structure. In Example 3-10, Ernani
Aguiar (b. 1950) uses two distinct rhythmic motives throughout his setting of Salmo 150. The
dotted accompaniment figures found in the alto and tenor voices, as well as the scalar passage
found in the bass voice consistently provide formal structure to the work. Consider the following
questions when observing the rhythmic quality of a choral work: Does the rhythm enhance the
nuances of the text? Does the composer effectively vary the rhythmic patterns to maintain
appeal? Are there overly complicated rhythmic passages that will dominate the musical fabric?
Example 3-10. Unifying rhythmic motives in Salmo 150 by Ernani Aguiar (b. 1950)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
63
Ibid., 27.
64
Gordon H. Lamb, Choral Techniques, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988): 178.
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of the choir (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass) are equally as important as changes in a fully
orchestrated work. A well-crafted composition will use the selected forces in unique and
contrasting ways. For example, in his unaccompanied motet Locus iste, Anton Bruckner (1824-
96) changes the texture in measures 21-29 by reducing the scoring to soprano, alto and tenor. He
also moves from a primarily homophonic texture to a more linear polyphonic style with the
treble voices echoing the tenors after one bar, as illustrated in Example 3-11. The change in
texture lends appeal to the composition and provides structure to the tripartite form.
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The quality of the vocal part writing is the final aspect of the craftsmanship criterion to be
examined in the selection process. According to Miller, “maturity in understanding the physical
requirements of singing and maturity in understanding the music are both important, but too
often the lack of specific stress on matters related to the singing of the vocal line in a
composition prohibits musical performances from reaching the optimal level possible.”65
Assessing the technical demands of the vocal parts should include a thorough examination of the
vocal range, tessitura, intervallic content and the general appeal of each part.
The skill with which a composer sets the inner voice parts (alto and tenor) is often a good
indication of the care and attention used in crafting the composition. Do the inner voices have
interesting parts or do they simply fill out harmonies? Are there melodic intervals that will
require excessive amounts of rehearsal time and training? Do the voice parts generally remain
within the comfortable vocal range? Does the composer sufficiently vary the tessitura of the
vocal parts? Singing each vocal part individually during the evaluation process will often reveal
the general care with which the lines have been crafted. Example 3-12 (page 45) is a brief
except from a Hungarian folk song setting by Lajos Bárdos (1899-1986). The arrangement
demonstrates exemplary craftsmanship of the individual vocal parts. Each section plays an equal
role in the presentation of the folk melody and the accompanying material. It is obvious that the
work has been crafted with the technical and aesthetic capabilities of the human voice in mind.
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65
Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack,
NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 28.!
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Predictability
The third criterion in the repertoire selection rubric assesses the degree to which a choral
discussion about craftsmanship, a sufficient balance between repetitive and contrasting material
and unpredictable musical outcomes will result in a high degree of aesthetic quality. According
to Daniel G. Mason, “art of any profundity can be appreciated only slowly, gradually, in
leisurely contemplation. One must leave it and return to it, meditate upon it, entrust it to the
subconsciousness. One can not gulp it down like a cup of coffee at a cafeteria.”66 Mason’s
assessment warns that a direct approach with highly predictable musical outcomes will diminish
suggested, other aspects of the musical landscape must come to the forefront. Unanticipated
twists and turns in the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic fabric can defer and diffuse the sense of
motion towards a predictable musical goal. Sudden shifts of dynamic, articulation, texture,
tessitura and scoring can create unpredictable musical events that add significant intrigue to the
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66
Daniel G. Mason, “Artistic Ideas IV. Originality,” The Musical Times Vol. 13, No. 1 (January, 1927): 3.
67
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 24.
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work. According to Patricia O’Toole, “a good composition reveals a striving toward a musical
goal and the best pieces have unusual musical goals that are reached in a somewhat indirect way.
A predictable musical goal reached by the quickest, most obvious, or most direct route will not
also be appropriately predictable to achieve certain musical goals in a somewhat direct fashion.
A work that is wholly unpredictable and consistently fails to reward the listener through the
resolution of logical musical progressions will often result in frustration. Leonard B. Meyer
argued that “a work that establishes no tendencies will be of no value...if the goal is never
irrelevant diversions, then the value will tend to be minimal.”69 A quality musical work will
achieve a balance between the accomplishment and deferment of predictable musical goals. The
assessment descriptors for the predictability criterion can be seen in Table 3-4.
1 2 3 4
The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently
predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between
musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and
obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical
obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the
Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are
entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct
and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the
any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish
goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable
musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
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68
Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103.
69
Leonard B. Meyer, Music, The Arts and Ideas (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967): 26.
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It is beneficial to locate logical musical progressions and examine how the composer has
fulfilled or deferred resolution when assessing repertoire for predictability. The simple harmonic
music:
While most choral repertoire is much more interesting and complex than the harmonic
progression found in Example 3-13, the strong musical tendency evident in the example is
common in almost all Western tonal music. The listener is culturally conditioned to expect a
specific resolution of the cadential figure and anticipates the fulfillment of the harmonic motion.
When the composer elects to do something other than the anticipated resolution, interest is
accumulated and the complete understanding of a work is masked. Predictability has a direct
correlation with comprehension in that a work that is sufficiently unpredictable bears repeated
taken from the opening movement of Gloria (RV 589) by Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). In this
except, Vivaldi used the harmonic progression in measures 62 through 67 to generate an active
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70
Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103.
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lock on the dominant. To further heighten anticipation of a tonal resolution, Vivaldi inserted a
prolonged caesura before finally confirming expectations with one final statement of the primary
theme in the tonic key. Although the return of the tonic key and thematic material is certainly a
predictable outcome given the style period, Vivaldi’s unexpected use of the caesura provides
Example 3-14. Excerpt from Gloria (RV 589) by Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
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Harmonic progressions are one of the most common avenues by which composers
manipulate the fulfillment of predictable musical outcomes, but there are many other options as
well. Composers frequently use melody, rhythm, tessitura and scoring to establish balance
between predictable and unpredictable musical outcomes. An example of such treatment can be
seen in Dirait-on by Morten Lauridsen (b. 1943), which is one of the most frequently performed
works in the modern choral repertoire and well-suited for high school choirs. Lauridsen
seamlessly weaves together two melodic motives with a balanced proportion of imitative and
homophonic textures throughout the work. Examples 3-15 and 3-16 demonstrate how Lauridsen
used subtle variations in melody and scoring to influence the predictability of the work.
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Example 3-15. The original thematic motive of Dirait-on by Morten Lauridsen (b. 1943)
Example 3-16. Subtle melodic and scoring variations in Dirait-on by Morten Lauridsen
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Consistency
outstanding choral repertoire will exhibit consistency in style and quality from the beginning to
the end of the work. This is particularly important for large multi-movement works, but the
examined with regards to the sustained integrity of the musical components discussed in the
previous three criteria (textual integrity, craftsmanship, predictability) and the work should be
cohesive in its style. Patricia O’Toole stated “a good piece of music sounds like everything
belongs together and all sections are consistent in quality. Profound moments are not followed
by trivial ones.”71 The assessment descriptors for the consistency criterion are found in
Table 3-5.
1 2 3 4
The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently
demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the
skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the
regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards
quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The
frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably
trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial
passages.
Quality choral repertoire will contain enough similarities of style and sound to be
understood as a holistic unit regardless of its duration. For the purpose of assessing the aesthetic
value of a work, Ostling noted “style may be defined as describing a composition in terms of its
consistencies with, and differences from, other compositions relating to the historical periods of
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71
Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103.
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music. Any eclecticism reflected in the music must be justified by the artistic concept behind the
work, rather than existing as a chance happening....”72 This is not to imply that specific musical
styles, whether conservative or avant-garde, are more deserving of the “quality” designation.
Regardless of the nature of the selected musical style, it should be carried out for the duration of
According to Ray Robinson and Allen Winold, the study of style is “concerned first and
foremost with the expressive character and the structural nature of the music of a particular
period or style and the sound ideal through which these are realized. Furthermore it must always
be considered within the framework of the sociocultural conditions at the time the work was
written.”73 When evaluating a work for its musical style, it is not enough to look at the historical
period in which the work was composed and presume stylistic conformity. Often choral
repertoire will vary considerably from the style characteristics of a given period, reflecting
established traditions or breaking new ground. In his book on choral repertoire, Dennis Shrock
noted that “dates are only convenient markers; styles began and ended over a period of time, and
some genres adopted newer traits quickly while others held to older traditions. In general, the
choral genres were conservative and slow to adopt new stylistic trends.”74 Moreover, Leonard B.
Meyer argued that “an individual’s style of speaking or writing, for instance, results in large part
from lexical, grammatical, and syntactic choices made within the constraints of the language and
dialect he has learned to use but does not himself create. And so it is in music....”75
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72
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 28.!
73
Robinson, Ray, and Allen Winold, The Choral Experience: Literature, Materials, and Methods (Long Grove, IL:
Waveland Press, Inc., 1976): 323.
74
Dennis Shrock, Choral Repertoire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 355.
75
Leonard B. Meyer, Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1989): 6.
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The second aspect of the criterion is related to the sustained quality of the work in terms
of its technical merit. Analysis begins with an assessment of the first two criteria of the
repertoire selection rubric: textual integrity and craftsmanship. Examining these criteria should
have revealed any inconsistencies with the treatment of both music and text. Although certain
aesthetic moments may stand out to the performer and listener, an outstanding choral work will
maintain a high standard of quality and be free of lapses into trivial, futile, or unsuitable
passages.76 Consider the following questions when assessing the consistency criterion: Does the
composition contain characteristics that conform to a particular musical style? Are there specific
aspects of the work that do not conform to the style characteristics? Does the composer maintain
the style throughout the duration of the work? Are there momentary lapses of quality that result
in trivial passages? Madrigal (Op. 35) by Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924) will serve as a case study.
Gabriel Fauré is considered by some to be the most advanced composer of the pre-
Debussy generation in Paris and one of the great masters of French song. The stirring melodies
of his Madrigal (Op. 35) reflect Faure’s personal style that influenced future generations of
French composers. The work is a setting of a poem by Armand Silvestre that depicts the
perpetual battle of the sexes in a very tongue-in-cheek manner. Fauré reflects the humorous
nature of the text by using an exact quotation of the hymn Aus tiefer Noth (“Out of deep need”)
Madrigal bears no musical resemblance to the Renaissance genre implied by the title and
instead reflects the French art song tradition of the late Nineteenth century. The work features a
harp-like accompaniment that gently supports the lyric melodies alternating between paired
sections: the tenors and basses at first, followed by the altos and sopranos. The texture becomes
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76
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 27.!
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more dense as the composer accumulates energy for the admonishment to “love when you are
loved.” The paired voices return for the second half of the work, however, this time the
composer alternates between the altos and tenors as they publically air their frustrations with
each other. Cooler heads prevail as the dense independent voices are replaced with soothing
homophony in the final measures of the work. Examples 3-17, 3-18, and 3-19 illustrate the
Example 3-17. Fauré’s use of alternating paired voices to depict a dialogue between men and
women in Madrigal (Op. 35)
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Example 3-18. An increasingly dense texture marks the climax of the opening section of
Fauré’s Madrigal (Op. 35) for the text “love when you are loved”
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Example 3-19. The tension in the battle of the sexes in Fauré’s Madrigal (Op. 35) resolves
amicably with a simple homophonic texture and soothing accompaniment.
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Originality
composer Virgil Thomson cited (a) the ability of a work to hold one’s attention, (b) one’s ability
to recall the work vividly, and (c) the presence of a certain strangeness to the music as primary
indicators of musical quality.77 The “strangeness” Thompson noted was described as the
No doubt heavily influenced by his vantage point as a composer, Thomson’s criteria are each
centered around the concept of originality. Leonard Bernstein echoes Thompson’s sentiments
about originality, stating “any great work of art is great because it creates a special world of its
own. It revives and readapts time and space, and the measure of its success is the extent to
which it allows you in and lets you breathe its strange, special air.”78
The word origin stems from the Latin word oriri which means “to rise,” and refers to a
primal source. The wonderful imagery of a composition rising up from a primal location within
a composer speaks to the intrinsic nature of this criterion, making it perhaps the most difficult to
objectively quantify. Henry F. Gilbert noted that “only in those works of art where the quality of
originality, or being ‘different,’ is the result of the creative artist remaining true to the primal
sources of his inspiration is this quality of an authentic or real value.”79 The difference between
average and outstanding choral repertoire is often the originality, ingenuity or creativity
demonstrated by the composer. The assessment descriptors for the originality criterion are found
in Table 3-6.
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77
Virgil Thomson, The Art of Judging Music. (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1948): 7.
78
Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103.
79
Henry F. Gilbert, “Originality” The Musical Quarterly 5 (1): 1
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1 2 3 4
The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly
artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic
contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains
musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical
devices. devices. devices.
Western music is filled with mannerisms common to different composers within and
across historical periods. Throughout the common-practice period, for example, fundamental
principles governed the way in which harmonies progressed.80 The consistency with which these
principles were applied suggests that originality in harmony was not highly valued at the time.
Other common mannerisms from the period included a limited selection of musical forms, the
use of Alberti bass accompaniment figures, a limited selection of cadence types, and writing for
common ensembles. Despite the restrictive nature of such stylistic mannerisms, the common-
practice period produced many of the finest compositions in the history of music, including
works of incredible originality. According to H.V. Spanner, “composers, even among the
greatest, use clichés from the common stock, and yet they succeed in saying things which no one
When evaluating originality, it is important to consider whether or not the work (a) stands
out as a distinctive artistic expression in the given style period, and (b) contains innovative
musical devices within the framework of its historical context. Gilbert argued: “That a piece of
music should have its own message is to me such a primal consideration, that if it lacks this
distinctive quality of intrinsic and original character all other qualities which it may possess seem
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80
The common-practice period is roughly defined as 1700-1900 in Europe.
81
H.V. Spanner, “What is Originality?” The Musical Times (July 1952): 310.
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to me negligible.”82 Spanner also noted the role of individuality in the assessment of musical
quality, stating “each of us has something possessed by no one else. This distinctive quality may
be perceptible to the stranger at once, or it may be hardly to be discovered by any but those who
which a choral work reveals the individual expression of a composer is the first component of the
originality criterion.
devices and is not limited to a particular set of musical elements (melody, rhythm, orchestration).
In Now I Become Myself, for example, Gwyneth Walker (b. 1947) included whispering to
poignantly express the poetry of May Sarton (Example 3-20). In this excerpt, Walker used a
sudden change of timbre to dramatically portray a reaction to the poetic phrase “Hurry, you will
be dead before....” The startling effect profoundly expresses the emotion of the text and makes
this particular compositional device highly effective in this situation. Another example can be
found at the onset of Três Cantos Nativos dos Indios Kraó, a set of three Brazilian songs
arranged by Marcos Leite. The work begins with improvised sounds that combine to create the
acoustic atmosphere of a rain forest jungle, including rain, river, wind, and forest animals.
Creativity and innovation in music is a highly valued commodity in the Modern era and
discerning the difference between authentic and artificial originality can be difficult for
beginning choral music educators. Daniel G. Mason noted that “never has there been a time
when what may be called pseudo-originality has so flourished. Now the peculiar thing about
pseudo-originality is that it always aims at pleasing others rather than one’s self; it is the product
of what we have called ambition rather than of spontaneity; hence an unfailing mark of it is its
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82
Henry F. Gilbert, “Originality” The Musical Quarterly Vol. 5, No. 1 (January 1919): 1.
83
H.V. Spanner, “What is Originality?,” The Musical Times (July 1952): 310.
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Example 3-20. Gwyneth Walker (b. 1947) uses whispering to enhance textual expression in Now
I Become Myself.
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impatience, its desire for immediate and startling rather than remote and gradual effects. It
prefers novelty to beauty....84 A quality work of choral repertoire will utilize innovative
compositional techniques that are appropriate to the musical context, avoiding the superficial and
cliché.
Validity
A choral repertory work that exhibits a distinctive artistic expression (as described in the
preceding criteria) will often transcend the historical and cultural context in which the work was
conceived. For certain repertoire, the quality and aesthetic value of the work is understood long
after it was composed despite any contextual limitations. This is not to suggest that only works
that withstand the “test of time” should be regarded as having validity. Indeed, many modern
works or new editions of previously composed works also contain a high degree of validity.
When assessing musical validity, it is important to separate the aesthetic value of the work from
its historic relevance or the contemporary influence of the composer. The assessment descriptors
1 2 3 4 !
The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of
the work is completely the work is somewhat the work transcends its the work transcends its
dependent on its dependent on its the historical and the historical and
historical and/or historical and/or cultural significance to cultural significance to
cultural significance. cultural significance. a moderate degree. the fullest degree.
When assessing the validity of a choral work, it is important to first consider the
authenticity of the work within its historical or cultural context. A practical example may be
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84
Daniel G. Mason, “Artistic Ideas IV. Originality,” The Musical Times Vol. 13, No. 1 (January, 1927): 4.
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observed through the emergence of global music, which has been one of the most prominent
movements in choral music during the past several decades. The desire to diversify concert
programming through non-Western music traditions has greatly impacted the music publishing
industry. While much of the “multicultural” repertoire published and programmed today has a
moderate or high degree of validity, certain works are simply utilized to fulfill a specific niche.
a weak attempt to pay lip service to music that we do not understand and do not have the
While there is no question that all music is the product of culture, it is possible for
specific multicultural repertoire to transcend its cultural framework and become aesthetically
valuable to a global audience. Example 3-21 is the opening phrase of La Paloma, a traditional
Venezuelan folk song arranged by Cristian Grases (b. 1973). The arrangement blends
monophonic and homophonic vocal textures with guitar and percussion accompaniment to create
a striking adaptation of the original tune. The omnipresent melody and dance-like rhythms
capture the spirit of the traditional song and make it accessible to a global audience.
When assessing the validity of choral repertoire it is important to separate the historical
relevance of the work or the contemporary influence of the composer from the composition
itself. In his study, Ostling noted that a work should be evaluated “only on the basis of its
significance as a composition of serious artistic merit. Care must be exercised to prevent such
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85
Hilary Apfelstadt, “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire,” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 20.
86
Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria
of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 30.
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Example 3-21. Excerpt from the arrangement of La Paloma by Cristian Grases (b. 1973)
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may yield a considerably different style and quality than the rest of the oeuvre. Moreover, any
composer who produces more than a single work will achieve some degree of variance in terms
of quality, the degree to which depends on the ability of the artist. General assumptions
regarding the aesthetic merit of a work should not be made based on a composer’s extant
repertoire.
Summary
Based on the present research, it is recommended that the repertoire selection process
begin with a systematic evaluation of criteria related to aesthetic merit, including (a) textual
integrity, (b) craftsmanship, (c) predictability, (d) consistency, (e) originality and (f) validity. It
is also recommended that potential repertoire is assessed in the sequence presented in this
document, as certain criteria can only be evaluated once other relevant information is gathered.
For example, the consistency criterion takes into account information gathered from the textual
integrity, craftsmanship and predictability criteria. While information obtained from other
criteria will be needed in order to make an informed assessment, this does not indicate a
Recent research has demonstrated that a group of music educators can determine with
relative consistency the aesthetic quality of a given repertory work. The subjectivity of the
repertoire selection process comes when weight is applied to specific criteria. Is text the most
important criterion in choral music? Perhaps it is the originality of the composition or the beauty
of the melody? Of course there is not a “correct” answer to these questions, but that should not
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prevent music educators from developing the skills to assess the qualitative aspects of repertoire.
The first section of the repertoire selection rubric (Appendix A) provides preservice and
beginning choral music educators with a systematic method of assessing the aesthetic merit of
repertory works. In the next chapter, the focus will shift to the pedagogical concerns of the
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CHAPTER FOUR
PEDAGOGICAL MERIT CRITERIA
Repertoire is the vehicle through which students develop and refine their technical
abilities, as well as their cognitive understanding of music and its significance in our world. The
significance. According to Barbara Brinson, “first and foremost, students need to be better
singers and more intelligent musicians as a result of working on the repertoire chosen for their
music education.”87 Selecting repertoire that will maximize student growth is a complicated
matter, particularly for preservice and beginning choral music educators who lack experience
teaching musical concepts. What elements of music and music-making will students learn by
selecting particular repertoire? Does specific repertoire enhance opportunities for student
growth?
According to Hilary Apfelstatdt, “good music will meet the standard of teachability
because its content and expressive qualities will be sufficient to provide a basis for teaching
material. Provided that teaching strategies are appropriate, teachable music holds learners’
attention because it has substance.”88 By first assessing repertoire based on criteria of aesthetic
merit, we can narrow potential selections to those that match Apfelstatdt’s definition of
teachability and proceed to the second section of the repertoire selection rubric. The criteria of
pedagogical merit presented in Table 4-1 has been identified by leading authorities as the most
fundamental characteristics of the choral music education experience. The selected criteria will
examine the close relationship between repertoire selection and effective choral pedagogy.
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87
Barbara A. Brinson, Choral Music: Methods and Materials (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group, 1996): 74.
88
Hilary Apfelstadt, “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire,” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 20.
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Criterion Description
Breath Control Assesses factors related to the inhalation and exhalation process, including
length of musical phrasing, space between phrases and the tempo
Tone Quality Assesses the work for opportunities to develop resonance sensation and refine
proper vowel formation. The criterion also examines the work for its ability
stimulate the imaginations of the conductor and singers.
Intonation Assesses the work for opportunities to develop the audiation level of the
ensemble.
Rhythmic Integrity Assesses factors related to the application of count-singing. The criterion also
examines the rhythmic structure of the work as it relates to the development of
consistent tempo through physical movement and audiation.
Diction Assesses the work for opportunities to develop pronunciation and enunciation
skills, as well as the development of expressive intent through text declamation.
Music Literacy Assesses factors related to the development of music literacy, including the
compositional construction of the work and its ability to generate literacy-based
activities.
Breath Control
The most fundamental technique necessary for artistic choral singing is an actively
engaged breath. Efficient airflow, breath support and breath management will provide the
underpinning for beautiful singing and secondary choral music educators should select repertoire
to facilitate the advancement of vocal technique related to breath control. According to James
Jordan, “one of a conductor’s most influential tools in the rehearsal ‘arsenal’ is the breath. For
singers, breathing directly influences tempo, tone color, shape of phrase, ensemble dynamic, and
spiritual content of the tone.”89 A choral conductor who manages to harness the power of the
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89
James Jordan. Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 175.
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breath control in the choral setting. Phillips divided a pool of forty-four students into two
treatment groups, including an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group
was subjected to regular training on proper breathing techniques during the eighteen-week
rehearsal period, while the control group simply learned the repertoire. The results indicated
significant differences between the two groups. “The subjects in the experimental group
responded to training in such a way as to reflect a change in breathing from “chest” or clavicular
vocal intensity, and pitch accuracy.”90 The results of the study underline the significance of
breath control on artistic choral singing. Evaluating choral repertoire for opportunities to
develop breath control is a critical step in determining the educational value of the potential
work. The assessment descriptors for the breath control criterion are found in Table 4-2.
1 2 3 4
The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents
musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is
not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length
length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities
abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The
The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the
phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo
not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for
for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process.
the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
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90
Kenneth H. Phillips, “The Effects of Group Breath-Control Training on the Singing Ability of Elementary
Students,” Journal of Research in Music Education 33 (1985): 179.
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exercises and activities during the warm-up stage of a rehearsal. Teaching corporate breath
management within the context of choral repertoire, however, can significantly enhance
students’ understanding of the techniques and increase the potential for knowledge transfer.
Moreover, many leading authorities in the field have argued against the use of isolated breathing
exercises. Harry Wilson noted “the procedures of breathing in singing should not precede or be
separated from the act of phonation and diction. Singers who become overly breath conscious to
the detriment of establishing resonance and habits of diction, seldom sing artistically and
expressively.”91 Archie Jones argued “abstract breathing exercises are not particularly helpful in
developing the voice.” This is not to suggest that choral music educators avoid isolated
breathing exercises during the teaching process. However, selection of repertoire that facilitates
the development of breath technique is a powerful tool that should not be overlooked.
phrase lengths. Short phrase lengths will require less control over the breathing mechanism and
will be more manageable for novice singers. Conversely, long phrase lengths will require greater
control and present greater challenges. Many authors have cited the construction of musical
Howerton noted “the study of breath control should be approached through a consideration of the
phrase structure of the particular song chosen for use.”92 Harvey Grace argued “the habit of
good breathing is a natural result of good phrasing.”93 Example 4-1 from Sommarpsalm by
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
91
Harry Wilson, Artistic Choral Singing (New York: G. Schirmer, 1959): 175.
92
George Howerton, Techniques and Style in Choral Singing (New York: C. Fischer, 1957): 2.
93
Harvey Grace, The Training and Conducting of Choral Societies (London: Novello and Company, 1938): 47.
! 70!
!
Waldemar Ahlén (1894-1982) illustrates phrase lengths that will comfortably fit the technical
In addition to length of the musical phrases, it is important to examine the amount of time
available for inhalation. In Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal and Procedures, James
First, you must be able to open your body to prepare for the breath
to enter the body. This is perhaps the most difficult aspect of the
act of inhalation. Many conductors combine the first step of
opening the body with the second step: inhalation. The resultant
breath in what I refer to as a “Muppet breath” – the mouth opens
but air really doesn’t enter the body nor does it fall into a deep-
seated location in the body...when inhalation is activated by the
physical process of opening the body first and then breathing, then
air will simply and gently fall into the body.94
The multidimensional process of inhalation described by Jordan will typically take more time for
novice singers to execute than for those who are highly trained. When selecting repertoire for
secondary choral music education settings it is important to assess the amount of space between
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
94
James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 176.
! 71!
!
musical phrases, as well as the various tempo markings to determine if there is adequate time for
Repertoire that is highly rhythmical or set in a fast tempo will challenge novice singers to
properly complete the inhalation process and will often result in shallow (or upper clavicular)
breathing. On the other hand, repertoire with brief pauses between slow and sustained phrases
will also present challenges for the developing singer. The combination of a long phrase length,
moderately slow tempo and sustained articulation in Example 4-2 from Sicut cervus by Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina (ca. 1525-94) will require an advanced level of breath control for artistic
choral singing.
Example 4-2. Excerpt from Sicut cervus by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (ca. 1525-1594)
Tone Quality
One of the most unique aspects of choral music education is the incredibly diverse range
of sounds produced by modern ensembles. Paul Brandvik wrote “wherever you find two choral
directors, you find three opinions about choral tone.”95 This diversity has emerged from two
basic schools of thought that occurred simultaneously during the early part of the twentieth
century: the straight-tone school of F. Melius Christiansen (St. Olaf College), and the full-bodied
vibrato school of John Finley Williamson (Westminster Choir College). The ease and frequency
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
95
Paul Brandvik, “Choral Tone” in Up Front: Becoming the Complete Choral Conductor (Boston: E.C. Schirmer
Music Company Inc., 1993): 147.
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!
of travel in recent decades, as well as the prominence of nationally and internationally renowned
choral ensembles has dramatically increased the spectrum of accepted tonal colors.
Preservice and beginning music educators are likely to be profoundly shaped by their
previous choral singing experience. However, they are also likely to have experienced many
diverse tonal styles that are equally effective and musically captivating. These sounds are often
experienced through attending live concert performances or listening to the incredible range of
professional audio recordings currently available. Selecting repertoire that will effectively
the secondary level. The assessment descriptors for the tone quality criterion are found in Table
4-3.
It should be acknowledged that tone quality can (and should) be addressed in every
repertory work studied and performed. Moreover, the depth and quality of choral singing can be
significantly enhanced by developing tone colors that are uniquely wedded to each particular
work. Can the selection of repertoire impact the development of choral tone, and if so, what
Table 4-3. The assessment descriptors for the tone quality criterion
1 2 3 4
The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents
present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities
develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance
sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine
proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation.
The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate
stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the
imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to
conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
! 73!
!
features of the composition bear examination? According to Brandvik, the musical style,
difficulty, language, amount and rapidity of text, existence of humming, length of the work,
tone quality are (a) resonance sensation, (b) vowel formation and (c) imagination. Choral
pedagogues repeatedly acknowledge that engagement of the resonating cavities is essential for
the production of a natural and clear tone. According to Gerald Darrow, “for a majority of
writers, terms such as ‘forward tone,’ ‘forward resonance,’ ‘forward placement,’ ‘focused in the
mask,’ or statements which emphasize the importance of forward, nasal, or head resonance are
the key factors in their concern with the physical imagery of vocal resonance.”97 Utilizing the
authorities have cited forward resonance sensations, nasal resonance sensations, head resonance
sensations, relaxation of physical structure of the resonators and the development of choral blend
as values of humming.99 Selecting repertoire that will easily facilitate humming can enhance the
resonance sensation varies greatly. Repertoire containing passages with modest vocal demands,
including a limited vocal range and texture, the absence of melodic or harmonic complexities,
and a moderate tempo will often produce the best results. By limiting compositional
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
96
Ibid., 147.
97
Gerald F. Darrow, Four Decades of Choral Training (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1975): 31.
98
Ibid., 33.
99
Ibid., 35.!
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complexities students may focus their attention on the placement of the sound rather than the
effective for building resonance sensation in the choral ensemble. Example 4-3 from The Water
is Wide arranged by Stephen Paulus (b. 1949) illustrates a unison passage that is highly effective
According to Edmung Jeffers, “after the hum is established, it should be turned into the
vowel with the vowel keeping the forward placement of the hum.”100 As a result of being the
most sustained aspect of singing, properly produced vowels play a distinct role in developing
choral tone. Robert Garretson underscored the importance of vowel formation, stating “if
uniform tone production and tonal blend are to be achieved, you must be cognizant of the precise
differences of vowel sounds used in speaking and singing.”101 Weston Noble added that
“consonants establish rhythm – vowels establish beauty of tone. Thus, the length and quality of
choral repertoire. Smallman and Wilcox argued “the quality of the tone and the singing lyric
possibilities are determined largely by the way the vowels are handled.”103 For example, it will
be challenging for novice singers to produce a spacious, resonant tone quality in the upper vocal
register while singing closed vowels. A composer with a firm understanding of the vocal
mechanism will be conscientious of the placement of open and closed vowels throughout the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
100
Edmung V. Jeffers, “Integration of Vocal Class Work with Choral Activities.” (Music Educators National
Conference Yearbook 28 (1935), 298-300): 299.
101
Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993): 91.
102
Demorest, Steven. M., ed. Creating the Special World: A Collection of Lectures by Weston H. Noble. Chicago:
GIA Publications, Inc., 2005): 57.
103
John Smallman and E. H. Wilcox, The Art of A Cappella Singing (Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson Company,
1933): 8.
! 75!
!
Example 4-3. Excerpt from the arrangement of The Water Is Wide by Stephen Paulus (b. 1949)
! 76!
!
outer extremes of the vocal range. When observing a problematic passage, consider whether the
extreme notes are supported by the rest of the choir or left in exposed isolation. It is also
important to consider whether the dynamic level is appropriate for novice singers to produce a
beautiful tone. Example 4-4 from the arrangement of The Water is Wide by Stephen Paulus
demonstrates a thoughtful approach to the technical abilities of the novice singer in relation to
the language.
Imagination, the final component of the tone quality criterion, is one of the most often
overlooked aspects of choral music-making. Fred Waring argued “choral tone is immensely
more responsible to imagination than most conductors have realized, and choral groups in the
main have worked almost solely in the range of dynamics and pitch and not nearly enough in the
range of drama.”104 Paul Brandvik also noted the significance of imagination and personality on
choral tone:
Despite the number of authorities who have collectively argued the significance of imagination,
mental imagery and attitude on choral tone, many educators fail to consider this component
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
104
Fred Waring, “Radio: A Teacher of Music.” Music Educators Journal 30 (February 1944): 20.
105
Paul Brandvik, “Choral Tone” in Up Front: Becoming the Complete Choral Conductor (Boston: E.C. Schirmer
Music Company Inc., 1993): 170.
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!
Example 4-4. Excerpt from the arrangement of The Water is Wide by Stephen Paulus (b. 1949)
When selecting choral repertoire for study and performance, it is important to determine
if the work speaks to the collective imagination of the conductor and ensemble. This is not to
suggest exposing a high school ensemble exclusively to popular and folk music because it speaks
most directly to them. However, the conductor needs to determine whether an affirming,
positive and challenging educational experience can be nurtured through study of the repertoire.
As Brandvik points out, “the tone of the rehearsal, in the final analysis, will be the tone of the
choir.”106
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
106
Ibid., 170.
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Intonation
Selecting repertoire that will provide meaningful opportunities to develop the intonation
of a choral ensemble is a difficult matter due to the delicate relationship between intonation and
all other aspects of the music-making process. Intonation is commonly considered the cause of
musical problems, when in reality poor tuning is rarely an isolated event devoid of contextual
issues. Issues impacting intonation may include acoustics, temperature, fatigue, attitude,
conducting gestures, tempo, vowels, rhythm, dynamics, breath control, range, tessitura, and
many others. According to Steven Powell, “many choral directors believe that intonation relates
exclusively to hearing, and that we need only tell singers a note is flat or sharp and they will be
able to make the necessary adjustment. But this is not the case.” James Jordan clarifies the point
further, stating that “hearing is a passive process, and we have limited ability to improve it.
Listening, however, is the ear’s primary function...while the conductor needs to listen in
multifaceted ways, singers must not only understand the importance of listening but also be
taught to hear as a musician hears.”107 The primary component of the intonation criterion
involves the process of audiation and the assessment descriptors are found in Table 4-4.
1 2 3 4
The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant
pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with
regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of
audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets
either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the
below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of
audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a
ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to
current understanding.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
107
James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 106.
! 79!
!
The term audiation was first coined in 1975 by Edwin E. Gordon and is essentially the
process of hearing music without the presence of physical sound. In his book Learning
Based on his research, Gordon developed a six-stage hierarchy of audiation, ranging from
momentary retention (stage one) to conscious prediction of patterns (stage six). The selection of
repertoire for use in secondary choral music education should facilitate advancement through the
various stages of audiation. James Jordan (who studied with Gordon) points out that “one of the
The process of audiation has important implications on the selection of choral repertoire.
Developing intonation through audiation requires selecting repertoire that will build on the
When you are audiating as you are listening to music, you are
summarizing and generalizing from the specific music patterns you
have just heard as a way to anticipate or predict what will follow.
Every action becomes an interaction. What you are audiating
depends on what you have already audiated. As audiation
develops, the broader and deeper it becomes and thus the more it is
able to reflect on itself.110
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
108
Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998): 4.
109
James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 118.!!
110
Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998): 5.
! 80!
!
Based on Gordon’s description, it is important to select repertoire that will provide the ensemble
with many familiar elements (keys, intervals, harmonies, rhythms), as well as a few new ideas to
stimulate the ability to predict musical outcomes. Given the complexity of choral music, it is
easy for conductors and students to become fixated on either the smallest details of the repertoire
or the larger musical picture. Jordan recommends setting specific limits on listening and
Finally, the audiation process has a great deal in common with other sound-first music
education methodologies, including those by Carl Orff (1895-1982), Zoltán Kodály (1882-1967),
Shinichi Suzuki (1898-1998) and Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950). For example, the term
“inner-hearing” in the Kodály system refers to the same process as audiation. A useful technique
to develop audiation in an ensemble setting is to alternate measures between singing out loud and
performing only with “inner-hearing.” Example 4-5 demonstrates this technique with an excerpt
from Set Me As a Seal by René Clausen (b. 1953). The full-sized notes would be sung out loud
and the smaller notes would be audiated mentally. By selecting repertoire that will facilitate the
audiation process developed by Edwin Gordon, choral music educators can foster the
! 81!
!
Example 4-5. Excerpt from Set Me As a Seal by René Clausen (b. 1953)
Rhythmic Integrity
Moreover, the vitality of the rhythm will significantly impact other aspects of the music-making
process, including intonation, tone quality, blend, and diction. Weston Noble noted “rhythmic
accuracy and stability must be the initial and most crucial rehearsal goal after that of selling the
selection.”111 Selecting repertoire that will facilitate the development of rhythmic integrity is an
important step towards excellence in choral singing. The assessment descriptors for the rhythmic
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
111
Demorest, Steven. M., ed. Creating the Special World: A Collection of Lectures by Weston H. Noble. Chicago:
GIA Publications, Inc., 2005): 49.
! 82!
!
Table 4-5. The assessment descriptors for the rhythmic integrity criterion
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the
of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count-
rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic
work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is
the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the
consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of
physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through
audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and
audiation at times. audiation.
The essential pedagogical tools for developing rhythmic integrity in the choral ensemble
can be traced to Robert Shaw, the renowned American choral conductor whose rhythmic
prowess shaped the entire field. It would be impossible to overstate the influence Robert Shaw
had on American choral singing and the respect he earned around the world. For example, after
a performance of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in 1942 for which Shaw had prepared the
chorus, Arturo Toscanini famously said, “in Robert Shaw I have at last found the maestro I have
been looking for.”112 With regards to rhythmic pedagogy, Thomas Wine stated that Shaw “was
tenacious in his pursuit of precise rhythm in every ensemble he conducted. From attacks and
releases to the placement of diphthongs and consonants, Shaw instilled a sense of rhythmic
integrity with all of musicians under his direction.”113 Don L. Collins noted “it is impossible to
copy Shaw’s technique. Many have tried and failed. Directors can learn from what he has done,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
112
Blocker, Robert, ed. (The Robert Shaw Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): X.
113
Thomas Wine, “Rhythmic Integrity in the Choral Rehearsal: A Bag of Tricks and More,” (ChorTeach Vol. 1, No.
3): 3.
! 83!
!
however, and incorporate aspects of his choral technique into their rehearsal with positive
results.”114
rhythmic complexity. Choral music is generally much more conservative in its rhythmic
intricacies than other genres. Rhythmic integrity, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with
the ability to produce the same sounds at precisely the same time. According to Shaw:
Based on his aptitude for rhythmic singing, Shaw developed a pedagogical tool called count-
singing, which remains one of the most commonly utilized techniques for the development of
rhythmic integrity.
rhythmic “counts” (one & two & three & four &) in place of the text while maintaining a
consistent tempo. The ensemble remains actively engaged throughout the duration of the notes
by utilizing numbers on each beat and microbeat. Long notes that tend to lose rhythmic integrity
suddenly have a sense of direction and energy. By removing the text and dynamics, Shaw found
that choirs were able to develop a firm understanding of pitch and rhythm that would provide the
groundwork for comprehensive musicianship. Example 4-6 from Missa Brevis Sancti Joannis de
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
114
Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999): 322.
115
Blocker, Robert, ed. (The Robert Shaw Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 65.
! 84!
!
Deo by Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) demonstrates the realization of Shaw’s count-singing
methodology.
Example 4-6. Excerpt from Missa Brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo by Franz Joseph Haydn
for the general development of rhythmic integrity within a choral ensemble. Current literature
suggests that the ability to recognize and perform a consistent tempo is based on the ability to
simultaneously hear a larger beat and its subdivision. Additionally, the inability to perform a
According to James Jordan, “the writings and research of Edwin Gordon have made a
convincing argument that the audiation of consistent tempo is fundamental to music learning. In
other words, when learning any piece of music, they must be heard and ‘inputted’ into the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
116
James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 220.
! 85!
!
hearing and the body within a consistent tempo.”117 Example 4-7 from Walk in Jerusalem by
Rollo Dilworth (b. 1970) demonstrates the qualities of a repertory work that will facilitate
refinement of the physical and aural skills necessary to perform with a consistent tempo.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
117
Ibid., 211.!
!
! 86!
!
Example 4-7. Excerpt from Walk in Jerusalem by Rollo Dilworth (b. 1970)
!
!
! 87!
!
Diction
Singing with appropriately constructed consonants and vowels not only improves the
communicative message of the music, but it can significantly enhance the tone quality, rhythmic
integrity, musical phrasing and overall musicianship of the ensemble. Moreover, many of the
musical nuances intended by the composer can only be achieved through proper execution of the
language. Amelia Nagoski points out that “some composers are very careful about using text to
heighten the expressivity of their music. For this reason, using the diction with which the
various composers would have been familiar can expose a deeper level of intention and
contribute to a more specific musical line, adding distinctive color to a performance.”118 Donald
Neuen also advocated for textual colors in his choral method book, stating “with the full color
spectrum of an entire language, performed as effectively as great actors would speak, we can
create a range of color wide enough to successfully captivate any audience. We simply have to
incorporate the enunciation, projection, and passion of these great actors.”119 When selecting
repertoire for use in secondary choral music education, it is important to consider the extent to
which the work will facilitate the development of vocal color through pronunciation,
enunciation, and expressive intent. The assessment descriptors for the diction criterion are found
in Table 4-6.
The first objective in assessing the diction criterion is to determine any difficulties that
may be associated with pronouncing the text. Is the work to be performed in English or in a
foreign language? Is the pronunciation going to reflect national or regional nuances? How will
the pronunciation impact the production of vocal tone? The approach taken by many conductors
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
118
Amelia Nagoski, in Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 220.
119
Donald Neuen, Choral Concepts (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2002): 123.
! 88!
!
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an
context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for
pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation
enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills.
work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides
opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities
expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive
text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text
text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
is that singing should reflect the natural nuances of spoken language. According to George
Howerton, “the ideal of pronunciation which should be held before every singer is that of speech
which shall be dignified and natural, cultured and unaffected.”120 Leslie Woodgate similarly
noted “every artist should learn to speak clearly and distinctly, and when singing, not to distort
his speech because he is adding music to words.”121 It is important to examine the overall
accessibility of the dialect and note any passages that may prove difficult for the ensemble. For
example, singing a work in French Latin will pose a much greater challenge than singing in
The second component of the diction criterion is related to the precise enunciation of the
text. Enunciation is one of the most powerful and yet underappreciated vehicles for
communicating expressivity in music. According to Robert Shaw, “the choral art of our time has
not even begun to understand and utilize text and enunciation as the consummate conjurers of
musical color and timbre.”122 Fred Waring was one of the most prominent proponents of
meticulous enunciation in choral singing. His performances, choral editions, and writings
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
120
George Howerton, Techniques and Style in Choral Singing (New York: C. Fischer, 1957): 20.
121
Leslie Woodgate, The Choral Conductor (London: Ascherburg, Hopwood, and Crew, 1949): 12.
122
Blocker, Robert, ed. (The Robert Shaw Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 96.
! 89!
!
supported a phonetic approach to choral diction. According to Waring, “to achieve absolute
clarity, we have developed a method of enunciation, the essence of which is a rough and
practical system of phonetics. We break down each word into its simplest units of sound. Each
of these units is called a ‘tone syllable.’ Our enunciation technique is the process of sounding
these individual tone-syllables.”123 It is likely that Robert Shaw developed many of his
convictions for textual clarity early in his career as a result of working for Waring. Shaw
When examining the diction criterion, it is important to consider the complexity of the
vowels and diphthongs. Understanding the ability of the ensemble to grasp these complex issues
is the key to determining the likelihood of a clearly enunciated performance. Additionally, the
difficulty of enunciation will correspond directly with the speed at which the language needs to
be communicated. A moderate to slow tempo will be easier for a novice choir to execute
Finally, treatment of enunciation should vary according to the language and musical style
of the work. According to Wilhelm Ehmann, “the singing tradition of different epochs has
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
123
Fred Waring, Tone Syllables (Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania: Shawnee Press, Inc., 1945): 2.
"#$!Blocker, Robert, ed. The Robert Shaw Reader (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 96.!
! 90!
!
treated the relationship of consonants and vowels in a variety of ways...the treatment of language
has always been influenced by the character and style of the music.”125 For example, a
traditional African-American spiritual will not be enunciated in the same manner as a British part
song, and contrapuntal passages will generally be more difficult to enunciate with clarity than
homophonic textures. When examining potential repertoire, it is important that the music
educator has a firm understanding of the musical style and its effect on enunciation.
The final component of the diction criterion is related to expressive intent. In choral
singing, there is a direct connection between the music and audience due to the incorporation of
text. Moreover, choral music is distinctive from instrumental music in that it requires a
commitment on the part of the ensemble to communicate the text with expressive intent. Singing
with accurate pronunciation and meticulous enunciation does not equate to expressive intent.
According to Donald Neuen, “the choral conductor must become as proficient in the dramatic
This is a huge responsibility, yet a necessity for total choral success. This element actually
brings the choral art to its highest level of personal fulfillment.”126 Kenneth Helvey points out
that there is no single method for producing dramatic intent since there are “many shadings of
pronunciation and quality to fit the dramatic requirements of the music.”127 In order to generate
dramatic inflection, it is critical that the ensemble has a clear understanding of and comfort with
the text. If the meaning of the text is not overtly obvious, or if the choir is apprehensive about
expressing the text, it is the duty of the conductor to educate the ensemble so that the meaning
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
125
Wilhelm Ehmann, Choral Directing (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publications, 1968): 112.
126
Donald Neuen, Choral Concepts (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2002): 125.
127
Kenneth W. Helvey, “Methods of Choral Tone Production,” Music Educators Journal 41 (February 1955): 56.
! 91!
!
Music Literacy
The ability to read music has long been identified by choral music educators as a central
found that choral conductors in the North Central division of the American Choral Directors
Association devoted little time to developing literacy skills despite agreeing on the importance of
sight-reading.128 Perhaps due to the influence of the National Standards for Music Education
(1994), music literacy has become a prominent objective in many secondary choral ensembles
over the past twenty years. For example, a recent study by Steven Demorest found that 64% of
all respondents used sight-reading as a factor in determining final grades.129 Created by MENC-
The National Association for Music Education, the National Standards state that proficient
music with a difficulty level of 3, on a scale of 1 to 6.”130 When selecting repertoire for use in
secondary choral music education, it is important to consider how music literacy will be
enhanced through intensive study of the work. The assessment descriptors of the literacy
The term literacy is difficult to define. If approached from the perspective of the
individual, the term will lead to different pedagogical methods than if examined strictly from the
believed that they must generally be able to read. What is overlooked in this rather broad
definition is the many subcategories that fall under the heading of literacy: reading literacy,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
128
G. J. B. Johnson, in Steven M. Demorest, “Improving Sight-Singing Performance in the Choral Ensemble: The
Effect of Individual Testing, Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Summer 1998): 183.
129
Steven M. Demorest, Building Choral Excellence (New York: Oxford, 2001): 30.
130
MENC, Performance Standards for Music: Grades 9-12, http://www.menc.org/resources/view/performance-
standards-for-music-grades-9-12 (accessed April 13, 2011).
! 92!
!
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for
music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy.
construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the
provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample
opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate
literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
writing literacy, improvisational literacy, and timbral literacy.”131 The subsets of literacy
include sight-reading within the context of programmed repertoire, as well as sequential method
books. Research does not currently indicate that one methodology is more effective than the
other.132 When selecting repertoire for use in teaching literacy, it is important to keep in mind
that the “performance abilities” and the “reading abilities” of most choral ensembles are not
equivalent. Given an appropriate rehearsal period, most choirs are capable of performing
repertoire that is significantly more difficult than they can sing at sight. This is frequently
achieved through a variety of choral techniques fundamentally based on rote learning. One
solution suggested by Demorest is “to have more pieces in the choir folder than will eventually
be performed. Some easier pieces can be used solely for reading challenges.”133
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
131
James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc., 2007): 130.!
132
Steven M. Demorest, Building Choral Excellence (New York: Oxford, 2001): 48.!
133
Ibid., 95.
! 93!
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Although the pedagogical approach of the conductor will ultimately determine whether
any work can be successfully employed as a tool for teaching music literacy, the construction of
the composition is often instrumental in determining how effectively the work can be employed
to teach music literacy. For example, the presence of recurring melodic or harmonic material
can provide significant opportunities to construct learning experiences related to music literacy.
In Example 4-8 from Il est bel et bon by Pierre Passereau (fl. 1509-47), the primary theme is
passed to each voice in succession. By first isolating the thematic material, the ensemble will
have critical support structures to grasp unto during the reading process and the likelihood of
Example 4-8. Excerpt from Il est bel et bon by Pierre Passereau (fl. 1509-47)
In addition to the holistic goal of musical reading, repertoire may also be selected to
develop specific literacy-related skills. Example 4-9 from Missa brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo by
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) illustrates a work that could be used specifically to train
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developing singers on large intervals, including the perfect fifth and major sixth. The primary
thematic material found throughout the fugue which concludes the movement reinforces the
pedagogical goals. When evaluating choral repertoire for study or performance, it is important to
consider whether the construction of the work will facilitate the development music literacy.
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Example 4-9. Excerpt from Missa brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo by Franz Joseph Haydn
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Summary
Repertoire is the heart of choral music education and selecting repertoire specifically for
technical development is critical for building a successful program. By utilizing the criteria of
pedagogical merit examined in this chapter, preservice and beginning music educators will be
equipped to select repertoire that will facilitate the development of the ensemble, as well as their
own teaching skills. The core elements of breath, tone, intonation, rhythm, diction and literacy
have been identified by leading music educators as fundamental to the choral process and will
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A special note should be made regarding the difficulty of selected repertoire for use in
secondary choral music education. The selection of choral repertoire should always be
completed with a comprehensive knowledge of the choral ensemble for which the work is
intended. While many criteria in the repertoire selection rubric can be objectively considered
independent of the instructional context, the difficulty of a work is entirely dependent on the skill
set of the ensemble. For pedagogical purposes, most authorities recommend selecting repertoire
that is neither well-above, nor well-below the ability level of the ensemble. For example,
Gordon Lamb stated “it is best if every piece contained enough complexity to keep the singers
interested through the final rehearsals, but not so complex that the ensemble cannot realistically
expect to perform it with control and artistry.” By using the repertoire selection rubric to assess
potential repertoire according to aesthetic and pedagogical merit first, the preservice or
beginning choral conductor can identify repertoire that may prove useful in the classroom with a
wide range of difficulty. Other extra-musical considerations could also be considered after
concluding the rubric assessment, such as budgetary constraints, student appeal, contest
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CHAPTER FIVE
RUBRIC-BASED REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT
The repertoire selected for examination in this chapter serve as models for implementing
the repertoire selection rubric. The three repertory works included reflect a broad range of
repertoire difficulty encountered by beginning secondary choral music educators. Each work
appears on state contest or festival lists from Texas, Iowa, North Carolina, Georgia, Indiana or
Florida. Each work also exhibits consistency in grading by the various state organizations. For
example, Three Madrigals by Emma Lou Diemer is graded at “1” in Iowa (out of four grade
levels, with 1 being the lowest and 4 being the highest) and at “2” in Texas (out of six grade
levels). The works are presented in order from the lowest grade to the highest grade.
Three Madrigals
Emma Lou Diemer (b. 1927)
Composed in 1960 for the high school choral ensembles of Arlington, Virginia, Three
Madrigals by Emma Lou Diemer has been a repertory work for secondary choral ensembles for
decades. Love sought, love lost and love deceived are the primary themes of the light-hearted
poetry excerpted from plays by William Shakespeare. The poetry of Three Madrigals is one of
the only points of correspondence between the composition and the English madrigal of the 16th
and 17th centuries upon which the set is based. Results of the repertoire selection rubric analysis
reveal the highest artistic and educational value and confirm the prominent place the work holds
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1 2 3 4
The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of
inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity,
integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of
obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance.
between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant
musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the
musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting.
reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting
stress. stress. properly reflects textual
stress.
It is difficult to argue that the poetry of William Shakespeare used in Three Madrigals
could be anything less than the highest quality. The poems are among the most famous by
perhaps the most important poet in literary history. The contrasting texts elicit a wide range of
emotions, from joy of youthful love to the scorn of love unrequited. The figural language found
in the second movement (Take, O take those lips away) provides a rich depth to the work and
contrasts the frivolous poetry of the opening and closing movements. Diemer’s musical setting
captures the essence of the poetry and significantly enhances the expression of the text. The
composer maintains appropriate syllabic stresses throughout the work and includes a few
examples of text painting. For example, in the first movement (O Mistress mine, where are you
roaming?) the text “trip no further, pretty sweeting” begins with a syncopated entrance that
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Craftsmanship (3)
1 2 3 4
The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a
structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal
melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work
rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest
little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic,
texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic
writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work
concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and
performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The
demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing
approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful
performers. performers. understanding of the
vocal mechanism.
constructed in an ABA form. The composer does an excellent job of generating forward motion
from one movement to the next by closing the first two movements with harmonically weak
cadences. The work contains a fair amount of balance between familiar and new musical ideals.
For example, Diemer provides subtle variations in the vocal part writing, as well as the
accompanying piano part to maintain performer and audience appeal with the return of each
thematic section. The melody is found in various voice parts throughout the work and often
features short phrases within a very conservative range. The harmonic content throughout Three
Madrigals is of greater interest and variety than the melodic and rhythmic content, although the
composition maintains a highly appealing and creative musical product throughout. Diemer does
an excellent job of marrying the harmonic colors with the textual meaning. For example, a
minor seventh chord is employed in measure 5 to color the request to take away the sweet lips
that have been “forsworn.” The textural variety achieved in Three Madrigals is highlighted by a
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Predictability (4)
1 2 3 4
The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently
predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between
musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and
obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical
obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the
Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are
entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct
and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the
any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish
goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable
musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
between the achievement and deferment of predictable musical goals. For example, after
establishing a melodic pattern in measures 7-9 of the third movement (Sigh no more, ladies, sigh
no more!), the composer surprisingly raised the pattern by one semitone to conclude the phrase.
Sudden changes in texture also create a sense of unpredictability. For example, in the second
movement the piano accompaniment drops out in measures 8 and 9 to conclude the first phrase.
Unexpected shifts of dynamics are also common in the work, particularly from forte to mezzo-
piano in the first and third movements. One of the most striking moments in the work is also one
of the least predictable. The second movement begins a four-part homophonic texture for
fourteen measures but culminates with a sudden shift to unison vocal part writing to announce
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Consistency (4)
1 2 3 4
The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently
demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the
skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the
regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards
quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The
frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably
trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial
passages.
One of the most impressive aspects of this work is the consistency of style and quality
achieved in the three movements. Diemer’s modern approach to harmony, as well as the
character and quality of the text setting, melodic content, vocal range, accompaniment, and
dynamics are applied thoughtfully and consistently throughout the work. For example, the
opening and the closing movements share many of the same compositional traits, reflecting the
1 2 3 4
The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly
artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic
contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains
musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical
devices. devices. devices.
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1 2 3 4
The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the
work is completely work is somewhat the work transcends its work transcends its the
dependent on its historical dependent on its historical the historical and cultural historical and cultural
and/or cultural and/or cultural significance to a significance to the fullest
significance. significance. moderate degree. degree.
Although Three Madrigals does not contain highly innovative musical devices, the
quality of the artistic expression makes the work highly original. The composer has captured the
spirit of the poetry and produced a work that captivates the performers and audience with its
frivolity and elegance. The most innovative and original aspect of Three Madrigals is the
treatment of harmony. The work has been an important repertory work for the past fifty years
and there is no reason to believe that its importance will diminish in the coming years. As a
choral repertory work written specifically for high school ensembles the work has a high degree
of validity. The success of Three Madrigals is not reliant on historical or cultural context, but
1 2 3 4
The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents
musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is
not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length
length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities
abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The
The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the
phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo
not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for
for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process.
the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
The phrase structure of Three Madrigals will provide maximum opportunities to develop
the breath control of the ensemble. There is a mixture of both long and short phrases used
throughout the work providing a range of difficulty. For example, the opening of the second
movement begins with a four-measure phrase paired with a moderately slow tempo (quarter note
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equals 80) that will challenge any novice ensemble. The first phrase is followed immediately by
two manageable phrases which are two- and three-measures in length, respectively. The second
movement will be an optimum context for developing the inhalation process, with a slower
tempo and ample time to draw in the breath. In contrast, the first and third movements will
provide a greater challenge due to the quick tempo and minimal space for inhalation. For
example, the opening phrase of the first movement is followed immediately by the second phrase
Example 5-3. Excerpt demonstrating the inhalation challenges in the first movement
1 2 3 4
The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents
present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities
develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance
sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine
proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation.
The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate
stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the
imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to
conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
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Three Madrigals will provide a rich context for the development the tone production of a
novice ensemble. There are significant opportunities for developing resonance sensation,
particularly in the second movement. For example, the simple four-part texture at the onset of
the second movement would provide a quality context for resonant humming. Additionally, the
climax of the second movement features unison part writing that could easily facilitate resonance
exercises. Likewise, there is a fair amount of unison part writing in the opening and closing
movements that would facilitate the development of resonance. The conservative vocal ranges
throughout Three Madrigals will allow for vowels to be formed without need for modification.
The range of dynamics could have a significant impact on the choral tone in this work and would
need to be carefully addressed by the conductor. The contrasting styles of music, ranging from
playful to serene will also facilitate the development of multiple tone colors.
Example 5-4. The climax of the second movement provides opportunities to develop resonance
Intonation (4)
1 2 3 4
The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant
pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with
regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of
audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets
either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the
below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of
audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a
ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to
current understanding.
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The most challenging pedagogical aspect of Three Madrigals is related to the intonation
criterion. While the voice parts are not challenging if learning by rote, the frequent changes of
non-functional harmony used throughout the work will provide a challenge to any novice
ensemble in regards to the development of audiation skills. There are many times in Three
Madrigals when phrases audiated in one key or mode will abruptly move to another tonal area.
Moreover, these sudden harmonic shifts are typically to distant tonal areas. For example,
measures 3-6 of the first movement should be audiated in G major, followed immediately by B
major in measures 7-11, and finally E-flat major in measures 12-17. A similar dramatic shift
occurs in measure 23 of the third movement. After the preceding twelve measures are audiated
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the
of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count-
rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic
work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is
the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the
consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of
physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through
audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and
audiation at times. audiation.
consistent tempo through physical movement. The metric pulse of each movement can be
internalized at both the macro and microbeat level. Moreover, the dancelike quality to the
opening and closing movements will easily facilitate the incorporation of bodily movements.
For example, the 6/8 meter of the opening and closing movements will allow students to study
the duple division and then move to the subdivision with six equal portions. Count-singing can
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be easily incorporated into the second movement. Count-singing will also work for the first and
third movements, however, the conductor may elect to use “1-2-3-1-2-3” rather than “1-2-3-4-5-
Diction (3)
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an
context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for
pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation
enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills.
work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides
opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities
expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive
text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text
text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
The text of Three Madrigals is in English and contains only a few outdated words that
may be troublesome for students to understand, such as doth, hath, mirth, blithe, bonny and
forsworn. The conductor will need to decide whether a subtle shift in color will be used to
reflect the British nuances of the language, but otherwise, the pronunciation of the text should be
very straightforward. The work is laden with numerous combinations of sounds and diphthongs
that will provide a serious challenge to the novice ensemble. For example, the text “Sigh no
more, ladies” is repeated frequently throughout the third movement. The diphthongs present in
the words “sigh” and “ladies,” as well as the combination of “o” and “r” in “more,” will require
considerable skill development. The same issue occurs in the text “Hey nonny, hey” which also
features a diphthong. The final concern with regards to the diction criterion is that the tempo of
both the first and third movement will require the quick execution of the problematic sounds.
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1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for
music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy.
construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the
provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample
opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate
literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
Three Madrigals provides an excellent context for the development of music literacy.
The work is constructed with several motives that can be utilized to teach specific concepts. For
example, the descending scalar passages in the first movement (O Mistress mine, where are you
roaming?), the movement by ascending and descending chromatic steps in the second movement
(Take, O take those lips away), and the melodic thirds outlining a major seventh in the third
movement (Sigh no more ladies, sigh no more!) could all be used to develop specific literacy
skills. The difficulty in “reading” the work will emerge as a result of the harmonic language
described in the intonation criterion above. Given the proper approach, Three Madrigals could
certainly be an effective work to teach music literacy. Table 5-1 provides a summary of the
rubric-based assessment.
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The May Night (Die Mainacht)
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), Arr. Arthur Frackenpohl
Johannes Brahms wrote around two hundred solo songs, many of which feature folk
poetry and are identified in sets with generic titles, such as Lieder und Gesänge (Songs and
Songs). This is the case for Die Mainacht, one of four songs published in a set entitled Vier
Gesänge (Four Songs), Op. 43 in 1868. Much of Brahms’ music, including this work, reflects a
“deep felt personal despondency about life…and have texts that express Schopenhauer’s
philosophy of life pain – that existence is a task to be endured and that the only hope of joy is
after death.”134 The text by Ludwig Heinrich Christoph Hölty poignantly depicts the intense pain
felt by a wandering, yearning lover. The choral arrangement of Die Mainacht by Arthur
Frackenpohl has been a repertory work for high school and collegiate choral ensembles since its
publication in 1962.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
134
Dennis Shrock, Choral Repertoire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 475.
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1 2 3 4
The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of
inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity,
integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of
obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance.
between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant
musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the
musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting.
reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting
stress. stress. properly reflects textual
stress.
The text of Die Mainacht reflects many of the most important trends in nineteenth
century poetry, including vivid descriptions of natural phenomena and emotional nuance. The
detailed account of a lover wandering in the woods in search of love elicits tender emotions and
the musical setting composed by Brahms intensifies the expression. The passionate poetry
includes figurative rhetoric, such as the comparison of the lovers’ smile with a rosy dawn in
note that Brahms foreshadows the climax of the piece by setting the text “in my eye is but one
The true beauty of Die Mainacht lies in the relationship between the text and the
compositional devices employed. Not only are the meter, dynamics, rhythm, and range used to
perfectly reflect the deep yearning expressed in the poetry, but there are also numerous examples
of text painting that directly illustrate the text. For example, Brahms depicts the cooing doves in
the right hand figures of the piano accompaniment in measures 15-18. Another example occurs
in measures 21-26 when a shift to minor harmonies and descending melody are used to depict the
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5-6. Excerpt demonstrating a sudden shift to text painting in The May Night
Craftsmanship (4)
1 2 3 4
The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a
structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal
melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work
rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest
little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic,
texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic
writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work
concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and
performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The
demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing
approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful
performers. performers. understanding of the
vocal mechanism.
While the tangible illustrations provided above represent text painting on a local level,
the large-scale formal structure and craftsmanship of Die Mainacht also project the bleak
atmosphere on a more global level. For example, when the poetry reflects a hopeful message the
phrase structure is contracted, while the melancholy statements are expanded. The distinct
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sections of the work are typically elided without strong cadential rhetoric. Dominant pedals, half
cadences, second-inversion tonic triads and mode mixture all are employed to create the
Brahms uses several motives to unify the work, including both melodic and harmonic
figures. For example, the opening four notes in the piano accompaniment are found throughout
the work in various iterations that reflect the textual expression. The arranger has done an
outstanding job of taking the fluidity of the original vocal melody and mirroring it into the other
choral parts. The harmonies are a natural outgrowth of the original work and the occasional use
of unison part writing to emphasize the most poignant moments of the composition contribute to
Predictability (3)
1 2 3 4
The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently
predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between
musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and
obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical
obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the
Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are
entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct
and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the
any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish
goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable
musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
The examples of text painting described above are indicative of the unexpected twists and
turns found throughout Die Mainacht. Changes of mood are often accompanied by sudden
adjustments in dynamics, harmony, vocal range and rhythm. While the work maintains a high
degree of unpredictability as it unfolds, it does not create a sufficient balance between the
achievement and deferment of musical resolutions in an effort to paint the luminous scene. The
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employment of half cadences, chromaticism, and inverted tonic chords often subverts the aural
expectation of tonal goals. Even the final progression leading to the conclusion of the work is
Example 5-7. Excerpt demonstrating unexpected chord tones used at the conclusion of the work
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Consistency (4)
1 2 3 4
The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently
demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the
skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the
regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards
quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The
frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably
trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial
passages.
in its quality and the manner in which it conforms to Brahms’ original work. The voice part
writing is eloquent and the deployment of various vocal textures is perfectly suited to the ever-
changing composition. The arrangement adheres to the musical style presented in the original
1 2 3 4
The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly
artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic
contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains
musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical
devices. devices. devices.
1 2 3 4
The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the
work is completely work is somewhat the work transcends its work transcends its the
dependent on its historical dependent on its historical the historical and historical and cultural
and/or cultural and/or cultural cultural significance to a significance to the fullest
significance. significance. moderate degree. degree.
While Die Mainacht may not contain the most innovative musical devices for its period,
the profound artistic expression with which Brahms crafted the work gives the work a high
degree of originality. The manner in which the composer is able to portray the intense human
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emotions through music engages the performer and audience on a deep level. The unpredictable
nature of the work maintains the interest of the listener from start to finish. Although the choral
arrangement includes an English translation, the work exhibits a high degree of validity and
1 2 3 4
The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents
musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is
not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length
length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities
abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The
The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the
phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo
not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for
for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process.
the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
While the tempo (quarter note equals 72) and the sustained legato articulation will require
a solid control over the breathing mechanism, most of the phrase lengths in Die Mainacht are
extremely manageable for novice singers. The majority of the phrases are either three or four
measures in length. The greatest challenge will be measures 24-28 and 36-40 when Brahms
elects to use a five-measure phrase with the melody placed in the upper register and intensified
throughout a crescendo. Although the majority of phrases are preceded by considerable time for
the inhalation process, there are a few entrances in which a catch breath will be required and
novice singers may struggle. The most difficult example occurs in measure 35, just prior to the
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1 2 3 4
The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents
present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities
develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance
sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine
proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation.
The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate
stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the
imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to
conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
unison singing (mm. 3-6 and 30-35) that would provide excellent opportunities to develop
resonance sensation through humming. The expressive, legato musical style present throughout
the work would also allow for many opportunities to develop resonance through four-part
singing. Most of the part-writing is in a very comfortable range that will allow students to
explore their vocal technique with ease. The English translation by Richard Griffith and its
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setting by Frackenpohl will generally facilitate beautifully shaped vowels by novice ensembles.
There are only a few instances where the text may hinder the tone quality. For example, in
measure 21 the word “turn” occurs at the climax of the musical phrase and is placed in the upper
register of all voices. The meaning of the text will appeal to the singers in the ensemble and the
dynamic range of emotional expressions will provide opportunities to explore a wide range of
vocal colors.
Intonation (2)
1 2 3 4
The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant
pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with
regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of
audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets
either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the
below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of
audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a
ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to
current understanding.
With regard to the development of audiation skills, Die Mainacht will provide a
substantial challenge for most novice choirs due to the chromaticism found in each vocal part.
Nearly every musical phrase includes chromatic inflections that will need to be addressed
throughout the learning process and the work will provide many opportunities to develop
specific aural skills. For example, one particular focus could be the leading-tone function of
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Example 5-9. Excerpt demonstrating the employment of chromaticism found through the work
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the
of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count-
rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic
work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is
the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the
consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of
physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through
audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and
audiation at times. audiation.
The rhythmic structure of Die Mainacht is very conducive to teaching consistent tempo
through physical movement. The underlying accompaniment often provides the subdivision of
the rhythmic construction found in the voice parts. For example, in measures 15-19 the
accompaniment includes sustained eighth note pulses over which the women sing primarily
quarter notes. The primarily homophonic texture and simple rhythmic patterns in the voice parts
facilitate the use of count-singing. The work also contains a few challenges, including measures
30-44 where Brahms has scored the accompaniment in a triple division of the meter against the
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Example 5-10. Excerpt demonstrating underlying eighth note pulse in mm. 15-19
Diction (3)
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an
context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for
pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation
enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills.
work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides
opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities
expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive
text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text
text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
The English translation of the original text will be immediately gratifying to the novice
ensemble. However, the text also contains several problematic words that include combinations
of sounds and diphthongs that will require pedagogical attention. For example, the words
“warbles” in measure nine and “darker” in measure 25 are particularly difficult to enunciate with
clarity and precision. The diphthongs present in the words such as “vale” (m. 13) “light” (m. 19)
and “eye” (m. 25) will also require considerable skill development. The moderately slow tempo
and lyrical musical style of the work will give greater exposure to the problematic words and
should be addressed accordingly. The cognitive understanding of the text is within the grasp of
developing singers. However, helping them to overcome their own vulnerability enough to
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1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for
music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy.
construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the
provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample
opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate
literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
Die Mainacht provides a fair context for the development of music literacy and will
construction of the work features little repetition of melodic motives. Novice ensembles will
have great difficulty “reading” the work as a result of the chromaticism described in the
intonation criterion above. The conductor will need to be very specific with regards to literacy
goals in this work. For example, the opening melody could be used to facilitate exercises related
to ascending and descending melodic thirds. Many of the voice parts containing ascending and
descending chromaticism could be isolated prior to attempting to read the work. For example,
the alto line in measure 15-19 would provide chromatic movement in both directions.
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Exultate Deo
Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725)
Though best known as the leading composer of the seventeenth century Neapolitan
operatic school, Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) also held several church positions throughout
his career, including choirmaster of San Maria Maggiore in Rome for an extended period. The
four-voice motet Exultate Deo was composed for the church around 1707. The work is written
in the Renaissance style of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina with notable Baroque influences,
such as the formal structure and functional harmonies. The text is taken from the Mass Proper
for the Eleventh Sunday after Pentecost and is an excerpt from Psalm 80. In recent years,
Exultate Deo has become one of the most frequently performed works from the period and is
currently found on the graded repertoire lists of numerous high school music festivals.
1 2 3 4
The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of
inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity,
integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of
obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance.
between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant
musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the
musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting.
reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting
stress. stress. properly reflects textual
stress.
Unlike other frequently performed Renaissance settings of Psalm 80, Scarlatti used only
the opening statement (“Rejoice greatly to God our helper, shout for joy to the God of Jacob.”)
for his setting of Exultate Deo. The “Alleluia” that would have been sung prior to the Psalm
verse in the traditional liturgy was inserted at the end of the opening section of the work. The
joyous text celebrates the Resurrection of Christ and notably omits the portion of the Psalm text
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which calls the musicians to take up their instruments in praise of God. The musical setting of
the text perfectly reflects the exuberant praises through buoyant and melismatic part-writing.
The natural inflection of the text is precisely reflected at times, but also lacks appropriate
strong and weak functions in specific sections. For example, the melismatic passages on the
penultimate syllable of “Exultate” are followed by a brief concluding note for the final,
unaccented syllable. In contrast, the final, unaccented syllable of the word “Alleluia” is placed
on strong or accented beats throughout measures 37-62. The inconsistency of proper text stress
is an interesting aspect of the work, as Baroque composers traditionally paid close attention to
such details. The composer does a remarkable job of reflecting the subtle nuances of the text
through variations in melodic motives, rhythmic patterns and meter. For example, for the text
“Jubilate Deo Jacob” the meter changes to 3/2 and the dotted rhythms so prominent in the
Example 5-11. Excerpt demonstrating improper text stress found in Exultate Deo
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Craftsmanship (4)
1 2 3 4
The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a
structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal
melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work
rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest
little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic,
texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic
writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work
concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and
performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The
demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing
approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful
performers. performers. understanding of the
vocal mechanism.
The formal structure of Scarlatti’s Exultate Deo is one of the key attributes that
distinguish it from the late Renaissance compositions on which the work is modeled. The
structure of the work is achieved through the designation “Da segno al fine” at the conclusion of
the third section (measure 83). This “da segno aria” construction was a common alternative to
the popular “da capo arias” in eighteenth century operas. The work has several subsections that
are defined by strong cadential rhetoric. For example, the opening section features a half
cadence in G major (mm. 14-15), followed by an imperfect authentic cadence in C major (mm.
35-36).
The contrapuntal texture features three primary melodic motives which are used as points
of imitation and found in all of the voice parts. The second and third motives are much shorter in
length than the opening motive. The functional harmony is uncomplicated and the limited
chromaticism is utilized for secondary dominant functionality. The brevity of the melodic
motives and the functional harmony are two important distinguishing features that place the
work in the Baroque era and juxtaposes the late Renaissance church works. The juxtaposition of
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the dotted rhythm in the head motive against the smooth accompanying voices creates a dance-
like quality and clearly delineates the most important material in the choral texture.
Example 5-12. Excerpt demonstrating strong cadential rhetoric found throughout the work
Predictability (3)
1 2 3 4
The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently
predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between
musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and
obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical
obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the
Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are
entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct
and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the
any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish
goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable
musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
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musical outcomes. While most of the harmonic progressions transgress in a direct fashion
toward logical conclusions, the individual voice parts assume motivic or accompanimental roles
in an ever-changing and unpredictable manner. For example, the opening motive is presented
first in the soprano voice (S), followed by alto (A), tenor (T) and bass (B), while the second entry
of the same motivic material is presented A-T-S-B (mm. 15-17). A unique and unpredictable
moment occurs in measure 63, when Scarlatti briefly shifts the tonality to A minor for the text
Jubilate Deo Jacob (“shout for joy to the God of Jacob”) and removes any dotted rhythmic
figure from the head motive. The minor harmonies, smooth rhythmic motion, and nearly
homophonic texture make for a striking contrast with the opening two sections.
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Consistency (3)
1 2 3 4
The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently
demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the
skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the
regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards
quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The
frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably
trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial
passages.
While Scarlatti’s Exultate Deo may not maintain all of the characteristics of the prima
prattica style on which it is based, the consistency of aesthetic quality achieved throughout the
work is notable. The only characteristic of the work that stands out as a momentary lapse in
quality is the syllabic text stresses in measures 37-62. This issue was discussed in the textual
1 2 3 4
The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly
artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic
contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains
musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical
devices. devices. devices.
1 2 3 4
The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the
work is completely work is somewhat the work transcends its work transcends its the
dependent on its historical dependent on its historical the historical and historical and cultural
and/or cultural and/or cultural cultural significance to a significance to the fullest
significance. significance. moderate degree. degree.
Although Scarlatti does not employ compositional techniques that are highly innovative
for the period, Exultate Deo stands out as the most prominent of his 110 motets due in large part
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to the cumulative quality of the aesthetic expression. More specifically, the marriage of musical
devices and text uniquely capture the joyful spirit associated with the Resurrection. The melodic
motives and contrasting sections of the work are appealing to both the performer and audience.
The success of the motet is not reliant on historical or cultural context, but rather on the artistic
1 2 3 4
The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents
musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is
not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length
length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities
abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The
The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the
phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo
not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for
for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process.
the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
The phrase structure of Exultate Deo will provide adequate opportunities to develop
breath control. A mixture of both long and short phrases throughout the work and most of the
longer phrases will require a staggered corporate approach. For example, the men’s vocal parts
in measures 6-12 will require both sections to stagger breathing to accommodate the length and
tessitura of the phrase. The longest phrases are balanced by much shorter and more accessible
phrases in subsequent sections. For example, the statements of “Alleluia” in the second section
generally are only two or three measures in length. Each musical phrase is typically preceded by
a quarter note rest, either printed in the score or implied by the text and phrasing. The amount of
time allotted for the inhalation process is adequate given the moderately quick tempo and the
length of phrases.
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1 2 3 4
The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents
present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities
develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance
sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine
proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation.
The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate
stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the
imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to
conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
Though lacking passages that will facilitate the development of resonance sensation
through humming, Exultate Deo will provide a good context for developing tone quality through
the study of Latin vowels. Examining the five Latin vowels is a highly effective method for
developing tone color and quality in novice ensembles due to the limited scope and overall purity
of the sounds. Furthermore, the moderately conservative vocal ranges will allow for pure vowels
to be formed without need for modification. The implementation of dynamics is at the discretion
of the conductor and will have an impact on the tone colors achieved in this work.
Example 5-14. Excerpt demonstrating the conservative vocal ranges found throughout the work
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Intonation (4)
1 2 3 4
The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant
pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with
regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of
audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets
either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the
below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of
audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a
ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to
current understanding.
Exultate Deo is an excellent work for novice choirs to facilitate the development of
audiation. The work presents a fair balance of fundamental and advanced melodic, harmonic and
rhythmic elements that will encourage a wide range of musical understanding. The conjunct
motion of the melody is often balanced with a few melodic intervals that challenge the singer and
help develop audiation. For example, the opening motive begins with the interval of an
ascending perfect fourth, followed closely by conjunct motion, and concluding with a descending
major third. The bass vocal part in particular could be used to effectively fine tune melodic
intervals. The diatonic harmonies and subtle use of chromaticism will be immediately accessible
for most choirs, but the independence of the voice parts will require considerable training.
Example 5-15. Example demonstrating the conjunct motion found in Exultate Deo
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1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the
of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count-
rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic
work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is
the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the
consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of
physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through
audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and
audiation at times. audiation.
Scarlatti’s setting of Exultate Deo presents the perfect scenario for developing rhythmic
precision through the implementation of count-singing. The independent voice parts and linear,
melodic writing will keep students engaged throughout the count-singing process. The work also
presents an outstanding context for the development of consistent rhythm through physical
movement. For example, the metric pulse can be established at the whole note, half note, and
quarter note levels in the first section of the work. Additionally, the change from duple meter to
Diction (3)
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an
context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for
pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation
enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills.
work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides
opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities
expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive
text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text
text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
It would be important to address the translation of the sacred Latin text of Scarlatti’s
Exultate Deo early in the rehearsal process to encourage a connection to the joyful text. The
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text will not be immediately gratifying to novice singers unless time is spent communicating the
meaning and nature of the text. The work will likely be performed using traditional Italianate
Latin, as the work was composed by a Catholic composer living in Rome. This is also the most
common application in high school music due to the accessibility of the language. The lack of
combination vowels or diphthongs will allow the educator to focus on other pedagogical goals of
properly executed pronunciation, such as vowel formation or tone color. The sustained
melismatic passages of the work will present the greatest difficulty in clearly articulating the
text. Pedagogical training will need to be provided to maintain uniformity of vowels over the
duration of the melismatic passages. Once students have a firm understanding of the text, most
singers will not struggle to produce the expressive intent of the work.
1 2 3 4
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an
context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for
music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy.
construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the
provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample
opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate
literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
Exultate Deo provides a good context for the development of music literacy, particularly
with regard to developing independent musicians. The prima prattica musical style will present
a challenge to most novice choirs who are not accustomed to singing an independent musical
style. The thematic material presented in the work generally begins with a head motive that
could facilitate exercises related to musical literacy. However, variations of the thematic
material following the head motive are used throughout the work, so teaching students the
motivic material of one voice part will not translate to their own parts. Considering musical
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literacy, the true value of the work lies in the ability of the work to develop rhythmic precision
Conclusion
Selecting quality repertoire for use with secondary-level choral ensembles is a difficult
and multifaceted undertaking regardless of expertise or experience. The process is often clouded
by a number of variables including both musical and extra-musical considerations. The selection
of repertoire is further undermined by the lack of resources available to preservice and beginning
choral conductors. The repertoire selection rubric presented in this document and the rubric-
based assessments modeled in this chapter provide a new approach to selecting music for a
choral ensemble.
The process modeled in this chapter is a time intensive task. The practice of carefully
surveying twelve distinct criteria related to the aesthetic quality and pedagogical value and then
assigning value to each can take considerable time. However, experts in the field of music
education have consistently argued that the selection of repertoire is the most important aspect of
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building and sustaining a choral program. Moreover, the improper selection of repertoire can
have a detrimental impact on students and the program. It is critical for preservice and beginning
choral conductors to have a repertoire selection regiment that facilitates the evaluation of music
in a consistent and prescribed manner, rather than simply selecting works based on personal
affection.
educators with promotional materials loaded with the latest popular music fads and
contemporary adaptations of traditional music. Instead of taking the time to locate and
systematically evaluate works that are aesthetically and pedagogically valuable, secondary choral
conductors frequently succumb to the latest publications due to the simplicity of the process and
the popularity of such lighter fare with students and audiences alike. The truth is that many of
the most significant composers of each historical era have composed choral repertoire that is
both accessible and meaningful to high school students. For example, Three Madrigals by
Emma Lou Diemer was composed as a part of the Contemporary Music Project (CMP) of the
1960s. Funded by the Ford Foundation, the project placed composers and performers in school
settings in an effort to make connections between students and music. To sustain and improve
the caliber of choral music education in the twenty-first century, preservice and beginning
teachers need meaningful resources to aid the repertoire selection process. By utilizing the
repertoire selection rubric described in this document, preservice and beginning choral music
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APPENDIX A
REPERTOIRE SELECTION RUBRIC
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1 2 3 4
The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of the
inappropriate or lacks integrity. appropriate. There is an appropriate and meaningful. highest integrity, meaningful
Textual Integrity
There is an obvious disconnect inconsistent relationship There is a consistent and full of affective
between the text and musical between the text and musical relationship between the text significance. There is a
setting. The musical setting setting. The musical setting and musical setting. The significant relationship
does not reflect proper textual reflects proper textual stress at musical setting mostly reflects between the text and musical
stress. times. proper textual stress. setting. The musical setting
properly reflects textual stress.
The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a distinguishable The work has a distinctive
structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal formal structure. The work formal structure. The work
melodic, harmonic and structure. The work consistently maintains maintains the highest degree of
Craftsmanship
rhythmic appeal. There is little inconsistently maintains melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and
or no variation in texture. The melodic, harmonic and rhythmic appeal. The texture rhythmic appeal. The work
vocal part writing exhibits a rhythmic appeal. The texture of the work is varied presents unique and
lack of concern for the of the work is varied at times. effectively. The vocal part contrasting textures. The vocal
performers. The vocal part writing writing demonstrates a part writing demonstrates a
demonstrates a thoughtful thoughtful approach for the masterful understanding of the
approach for the performers. performers. vocal mechanism.
The work is entirely The work is insufficiently The work is reasonably well- The work is sufficiently
predictable, with every musical balanced between predictable balanced between predictable balanced between predictable
tendency being obtained in a and unpredictable musical and unpredictable musical and unpredictable musical
Predictability
direct and obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the musical outcomes. Most of the musical outcomes. Some of the musical
Conversely, the work is tendencies are obtained in a tendencies are obtained in a tendencies are obtained in a
entirely unpredictable and fails direct manner, and/or the work direct manner. Conversely, the direct manner. Conversely, the
to accomplish any predictable fails to accomplish most of the work fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish some
musical goal. predictable musical goals. of the predictable musical of the predictable musical
goals. goals.
The work rarely demonstrates The work inconsistently The work demonstrates with The work consistently
the technical skill of the demonstrates the technical skill relative consistency the demonstrates the technical skill
Consistency
composer with regards to style of the composer with regards technical skill of the composer of the composer with regards
and quality. The work to style and quality. The work with regards to style and to style and quality. The work
frequently lapses into trivial contains noticeable lapses of quality. The work contains is noticeably absent of trivial
passages. trivial passages only slight lapses of trivial passages.
passages.
The work has an inferior The work has a modest artistic The work has a distinguished The work has a highly
Originality
artistic expression and contains expression and contains artistic expression and contains distinctive artistic expression
cliché or trite musical devices. marginally innovative musical some innovative musical and contains many innovative
devices. devices. musical devices.
The aesthetic value of the work The aesthetic value of the work The aesthetic value of the work The aesthetic value of the work
is completely dependent on its is somewhat dependent on its transcends its the historical and transcends its the historical and
Validity
historical and/or cultural historical and/or cultural cultural significance to a cultural significance to the
significance. significance. moderate degree. fullest degree.
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1 2 3 4
The work presents musical The work presents musical The work presents musical The work presents musical
phrasing that is not of an phrasing that is occasionally of phrasing that is generally of an phrasing that is of an
Breath Control
appropriate length for the an appropriate length for the appropriate length for the appropriate length for the
technical abilities of the technical abilities of the technical abilities of the technical abilities of the
ensemble. The space between ensemble. The space between ensemble. The space between ensemble. The space between
the phrases and the tempo do the phrases and the tempo the phrases and the tempo the phrases and the tempo
not allow adequate time for the occasionally allows adequate generally allows adequate time allow adequate time for the
inhalation process. time for the inhalation process. for the inhalation process. inhalation process.
The work does not present The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents numerous
opportunities to develop presents opportunities to opportunities to develop opportunities to develop
Tone Quality
resonance sensation and refine develop resonance sensation resonance sensation and refine resonance sensation and refine
proper vowel formation. The and refine proper vowel proper vowel formation. The proper vowel formation. The
work will not stimulate the formation. The work will work will stimulate the work will stimulate the
imaginations of the conductor stimulate the imaginations of imaginations of the conductor imaginations of the conductor
and singers. the conductor and singers to and singers to a high degree. and singers to the highest
some degree. degree.
The work is of no pedagogical The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant
value with regards to the pedagogical value with regards pedagogical value with regards pedagogical value with regards
process of audiation. The to the process of audiation. to the process of audiation. to the process of audiation.
Intonation
work is either severely above The work is slightly above or The work meets the current The work meets and/or slightly
or below the current audiation below the current audiation audiation level of the ensemble exceeds the current audiation
level of the ensemble. level of the ensemble. but will not challenge current level of the ensemble,
understanding. providing a stimulating
challenge to current
understanding.
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an optimal
context for the application of context for the application of context for the application of context for the application of
Rhythmic Integrity
count-singing. The rhythmic count-singing. The rhythmic count-singing. The rhythmic count-singing. The rhythmic
structure of the work is not structure of the work is structure of the work is mostly structure of the work is highly
conducive to the development somewhat conducive to the conducive to the development conducive to the development
of consistent tempo through development of consistent of consistent tempo through of consistent tempo through
physical movement and tempo through physical physical movement and physical movement and
audiation at times. movement and audiation at audiation. audiation.
times.
The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently provides The work provides an optimal
context for developing provides a meaningful context a meaningful context for context for developing
pronunciation and enunciation for developing pronunciation developing pronunciation and pronunciation and enunciation
Diction
skills. The work also fails to and enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The work skills. The work also provides
provide opportunities to work provides some also provides sufficient significant opportunities to
develop expressive intent opportunities to develop opportunities to develop develop expressive intent
through text declamation. expressive intent through text expressive intent through text through text declamation.
declamation. declamation.
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an optimal
context for developing music context for developing music context for developing music context for developing music
Literacy
literacy. The construction of literacy. The construction of literacy. The construction of literacy. The construction of
the work provides relatively the work provides some the work provides many the work provides ample
few opportunities to generate opportunities to generate opportunities to generate opportunities to generate
literacy related activities. literacy related activities. literacy related activities. literacy related activities.
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APPENDIX B
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT
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(h) Does the composer effectively vary the rhythmic patterns to maintain appeal?
(i) Are there overly complicated rhythmic passages that will dominate the musical fabric?
Predictability
(a) Does the work contain unanticipated twists and turns in the melodic, harmonic, and
rhythmic fabric?
(b) Does the work contain sudden shifts of dynamic, articulation, texture, tessitura or
scoring?
(c) Does the composer achieve a balance between the achievement and deferment of
predictable musical goals?
Consistency
(a) Does the composition contain characteristics that conform to a particular musical style?
(b) Does the composer maintain the style throughout the duration of the work, or are there
specific aspects of the work that do not conform to the style characteristics?
(c) Are there momentary lapses of quality that result in trivial passages?
Originality
(a) Does the work stand out as a distinctive artistic expression in the given style period?
(b) Does the work contain innovative musical devices within the framework of its historical
context?
(c) Does the work have the ability to capture and maintain the interest of the performer and
audience?
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Validity
(a) Does the work exhibit a high degree of authenticity within its historical or cultural
context?
(b) Does the work have aesthetic value aside from its historic relevance or the significance
of the composer?
Breath Control
(a) What is the general length of musical phrases? Are there any phrases that stand out as
either extremely long or short?
(b) How much time is generally allowed for the inhalation process? Are there any
entrances that may be problematic due to a lack of time to breath?
(c) What effect will tempo have on the inhalation process?
Tone Quality
(a) Does the work contain passages that will facilitate the development of resonance
sensation through the use of voiced consonants m, n, and ng?
(b) Does the work contain passages of unison part writing or significantly reduced
difficulty?
(c) How will the composer’s setting of the language impact the production of properly
shaped vowels? If there are problematic passages, are the extreme notes supported by
the rest of the choir?
(d) How will the desired dynamic levels influence the choral tone?
(e) Will the work speak to the collective imagination of the conductor and ensemble?
(f) Will the work help facilitate an affirming, positive and challenging educational
experience?
Intonation
(a) Does the work contain passages that will facilitate the development of audiation?
(b) Does the work meet and/or slightly exceed the current audiation level of the ensemble?
Rhythmic Integrity
(a) Does the work provide an adequate context for the implementation of count-singing?
(b) Is the rhythmic structure of the work conducive to the development of consistent tempo
through physical movement?
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Diction: Pronunciation
(a) Is the work to be performed in English or in a foreign language?
(b) Is the pronunciation going to reflect national or regional nuances?
(c) How will the pronunciation impact the production of vocal tone?
(d) What is the general accessibility level of the dialect and are there any passages that may
prove difficult for the ensemble?
Diction: Enunciation
(a) What is the general level of complexity associated with the individual words?
(b) How many words contain combinations of sounds, mixed vowels and/or diphthongs?
(c) How will the tempo impact the clear enunciation of the text?
(d) How will the musical style of the work influence the enunciation?
Music Literacy
(a) Given the current literacy level of the ensemble, does the work present an optimal
context for further development of music literacy?
(b) Does the construction of the work provide opportunities to develop exercises related to
music literacy?
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APPENDIX C
DIRECTORY OF DISTINGUISHED CHORAL REPERTOIRE LISTS
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Books and Journal Articles
Collins, Don L. Teaching Choral Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999.
DeVenney, David P. American Choral Music since 1920: An Annotated Guide. Berkeley,
California: Fallen Leaf Press, 1988.
Lamb, Gordon H. Choral Techniques. 3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988.
Miller, Kenneth E. Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing. West
Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979.
Shrock, Dennis. Choral Repertoire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Wyatt, Larry D. “Selected Repertoire for the High School Choral Ensemble.” Update:
Applications of Research in Music Education Vol. 8, 1 (Fall-Winter) 1989: 15-19.
Internet Resources
Iowa High School Music Association State Large Group Festival Required List
Access on-line at: http://ihsma.org/large_group.shtml
Kansas State High School Activities Association Large Group Music Festival Required List
Access on-line at: http://www.kansaschoral.com/docs/Stat_List.pdf
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Collins, Don L. Teaching Choral Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999.
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_______. “A Study of Five Recommended Lists of Repertoire for the High School Choral
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