A Quick Guide to the Styles of Norse Animal Ornament

The Anatomy of
Viking Art

Jonas Lau Markussen

A Quick Guide to the Styles of Norse Animal Ornament

The Anatomy of
Viking Art

Jonas Lau Markussen

The Anatomy of Viking Art
A Quick Guide to the Styles of Norse Animal Ornament
Jonas Lau Markussen

© 2018 Jonas Lau Markussen

www.jonaslaumarkussen.com

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
To view a copy of this license, visit
www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0

1st edition
ISBN 978-87-970600-1-8
Contents

Timeline 6
Introduction 7

Broa Style 8
Oseberg Style 18
Borre Style 28
Jelling Style 38
Mammen Style 48
Ringerike Style 58
Urnes Style 68

Maps 78
Resources 81
 850

Scandinavians raid Lindisfarne Broa style

c. 750 – 825
800
Birka and Hedeby are established

Scandinavians arrive at Constantinople

Oseberg style
850 c. 800 – 875

The Rus’ Kingdom is founded

Scandinavians settle in Iceland

The Danelagen is founded

900 Borre style

c. 850 – 950
Normandy is founded by Rollo

850 Jelling style

c. 900 – 975
The Christianisation of Denmark

1st Danegeld is collected

1000 The Christianisation of Iceland

Mammen style
Norse conquest of England c. 950 – 1025

The end of Norse reign of England

850

Ringerike style
The Norman conquest of England c. 1000 – 1075

1100

Urnes style
c. 1050 – 1125
Introduction
The artworks of the Norse are some of the only first-
hand sources we have from the people inhabiting
Scandinavia in the Viking Age.
But without a mental model of how the individual
pieces fit together from years of studying the works
of experienced scholars, it can be very difficult and
daunting to decipher the individual artworks and
even more to try to recreate it. The surviving original
artworks are often presented without much context,
if any, and are often also damaged or distorted due to
the wear of time and use.
This guide is by no means meant to be an exhaustive
resource but instead to act as a stepping stone to help
you understand the central concepts of the Viking
Age art styles.
I am by no means a historian or an archaeologist. My
background is in graphic design and architecture, and
the intention with this guide is to create the resource I
wish I had when I began to try to understand the art
of the Norse and tried to make my first unsuccessful
attempts at recreating authentic artwork based on the
Viking Age styles.
The guide is based on the work of wise scholars and my
own thorough studies of the archaeological artefacts.
Due to the lack of good documentation and possible
copyright issues, the illustrations of this guide are all
new designs build on the principles of the original
Viking Age art. It has been a great learning experi-
ence to create and has contributed tremendously to
my understanding of the art and how it is constructed.
I hope this guide will assist you in your quest for getting
familiar with the styles of the Norse and hopefully
to get you up to speed faster than I was able to by
short-circuiting the learning curve. I have skipped all
the scholarly history and the who is who of academia
in favour of getting right to the point of the matter at
hand; the Viking Age art.
The thematic division of the main characteristics into
the subjects of shapes, outlines, flow, pattern, compo-
sition and motifs are in large based on the great work
of Signe Horn Fuglesang though I have made a few
adjustments to fit the purpose of this guide.
The styles of the Viking Age are very much a product
of the time in which they were developed. With the
addition of the historical timelines and maps, I hope to
help you better anchor the styles and their character-
istics to the historical events and culture of their time.
But also to make this a quick reference guide when
creating artwork for reenactment-purposes.
The guide is structured chronologically by order of
the seven styles from the earliest to the most recent.
But be aware that there is still scholarly debate about
the definition and categorisation of some of the styles.
What I have presented here is what to my knowledge
is the most plausible representation yet of the actual
historical development from what we know so far.
I encourage you to do your own studies, and I have
made it as easy as possible for you to look up any items
referenced or historical events mentioned in this guide.
I have published this guide under the cc-by-nc-sa
license, which basically means that, as long as you
do it without compensation, you may copy and share
the content as much as you like. So please share the
knowledge with whomever you know who might find
it interesting or useful.
I hope this guide will assist you in your study of Viking
Age art and also help you recreate beautiful authentic
Norse artwork.
Enjoy!
Jonas Lau Markussen
Introduction 7
Broa Style c. 750 – 825

4 3 1
Shapes
2 1 Lappets with double or triple
tendril frond terminals.
5 7 2 Tightly curled tendril
terminals.
6 3 Head in profile.
4 Round eye.
5 Round tightly curled snout.
6 Small and slightly curved
mouth.
7 Neck-tendrils.
8 Limbs rendered into
extremely elongated tendrils.
8 9 Open hips dissolving into
9
looping tendril interlace.

Head

Body

8 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Curvy outlines with occasional kinks.

A B C D

Flow
Even and almost geometric A Pear-shaped loops.
curves. B Multi-loops.
C Triquetra-knots.
D S-shapes.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Semi-tight interlace with little visible
background.
࡟࡟ Double contour occurs.
࡟࡟ Single-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Double-stranded ribbons occur.

Broa Style 9
 A

10 The Anatomy of Viking Art

C

Composition
࡟࡟ Clear composition almost to the point of geometry.
࡟࡟ Repetition of basic compositional lines.
࡟࡟ A sense for counterpoint composition.
࡟࡟ Apparent symmetry in the composition - However, a difference in detail (A, C).
࡟࡟ Compositions often divided or separated by framework (B, C).
࡟࡟ Juxtaposition of different types of motifs (C).

Broa Style 11
 A

12 The Anatomy of Viking Art

C

Motifs
࡟࡟ Ribbon animals with elongated bodies and
extremely stylized features (A, B, D).
࡟࡟ Squat animals with more naturalistic bodies
(B, C).
࡟࡟ Gripping beasts with solid bodies, ribbon-like
body and inflated hips, and slender limbs
gripping the frame or neighbouring animals or
limbs (C).
࡟࡟ Geometric framework (B, C).

Broa Style 13
Dawn of the Viking Age
Scandinavia
Life in Scandinavia was in large lived in and around
the longhouse of the farmstead, either clustered in
small villages or as single farms in the open country.
Power structures varied but usually, a chieftain was the
main centre of power in the local community consti-
tuted by a number of farmsteads which paid allegiance
to the chieftain.
A spiritual practice was inherent in all aspects of life
and wasn’t centred around any single religious insti-
tution like the Church of the Christian faith. The
subject of tribute was all the various deities of the
Norse pantheon like Odin, Freya and Thor, each with
their individual attributes, whom it was paramount
to please with a fitting sacrifice to gain good fortune
depending on the matter at hand.
The establishment of trading towns like Hedeby
and Birka began typically as temporary and seasonal
marketplaces in conjunction with yearly communal
thing assemblies with a collection of parcels along
the main street with booths of tents and makeshift
workshops at either side. They then developed into
more established market towns where trade could be
controlled and taxes collected by the local rule.
The southern border of Scandinavia was consti-
tuted by Danevirke, a fortification running across the
narrowest part of the Jutland peninsula with Hedeby
at the east end, and thereby controlling all land access
to Scandinavia from the south and connecting the
trading routes by land with those of the sea.
The gradual establishment of controlled trading towns
and military structures of this magnitude indicates that
some kind of subjugating measure of power like a king
organising and controlling subordinate chieftains and
their resources must have been in place already by now.
Europe
On the British Isles, the various territories of Christian
faith were divided in a number of Kingdoms.
Continental Western Europe was dominated by the
expansive Frankish Empire supported by the Catholic
14 The Anatomy of Viking Art
Church. The empire reached its peak around the year
800, as the Pope crowned Charlemagne of the Caro-
lingian dynasty Holy Roman Emperor in Rome.
Continental Eastern Europe was inhabited by a large
group of Slavic clans and tribes, which in their way
of life and spiritual beliefs were much more similar to
the Norse people of Scandinavia.
Connections and Exchange
The Norse had already been travelling and exchanging
goods throughout Europe for centuries by sea and
land. But the introduction of the sail made their
already magnificent ships a lot faster and thereby
longer reaching. This new advantage was the main
reason why the Vikings now began to be a force to be
reckoned with and ultimately made a lasting and
profound impression on the history of Europe.
Though the large part of the travels and exchange of
the Norse was probably somewhat peaceful and based
on trading goods and making connections, what the
Scandinavians are best known for is their violent raids.
In the written sources the most famous account of the
Norse is of cause the Viking attack on the Monastery
of Lindisfarne situated on the east coast of England.
This event marks what is traditionally regarded by
scholars as the beginning of the Viking age in Scan-
dinavia.
Ribbon Animals & Gripping Beasts
Development
The artistic traditions at this time in Scandinavia were
already well established and several iterations of the
Norse trademark, The ribbon animal, had been in use
for a few centuries already.
The ribbon animals of the Broa style covers a spec-
trum of motifs and styles of execution. Common traits
are heads in profile with round eyes, open hips with
intertwining ribbon-like limbs.
At one end of the spectrum, the animals are extremely
abstracted with elongated bodies, simplified facial
features, and completely uniform limbs whether they
picture claws, wings or tendrils intertwined in almost
geometric patterns.
At the other end, the animals are almost naturalistic
with organic and squat bodies, while maintaining
many of the characteristic features of the style. They
are often pictured singularly with the only interlace
of ribbons being the intertwine of their own limbs.
The gripping beast, on the other hand, falls almost
entirely out of the template of the ribbon animals. It
is always pictured with its head facing forward, and
its body typically curled up in a single pretzel-knot-
like interlace with solid hips. Its feet always grasping
either to itself or the surrounding frame of ornament.
The individual motifs themselves, whether they be
ribbon animals or gripping beast, are almost always
surrounded by or interlacing with a geometric frame-
work like ovals or squares holding the compositions
together.
The British Isles were an artistic centre in this time,
but also Anglo-Carolingian art from the Frankish
regions made its influence on the Norse. Especially
the semi-organic animals and birds must have been
derived from European art in some way, as they don’t
seem to have any predecessors in Scandinavian tradi-
tion, though developed drastically to fit the Scandi-
navian tradition and almost untraceable back to their
European inspirational sources.
The motif of the gripping beast emerging in the Broa
style may also in some way have been inspired by these
external sources, and at the same time, it’s a distinct
Norse motif developed within the school of Scandi-
navian tradition with no direct ancestors outside of
Scandinavia.
Dating
The dating of the early Viking Age art styles is difficult
and rests partly on the typology of objects and partly
on the related, dateable Anglo-Carolingian ornament.
Which means that any distinctions should be taken
with caution.
The Broa Mounts
The style is more popularly named after the horse
harness-mounts found in Broa, Sweden, but is formally
known as Style III/E or just Style E.
The Broa mounts display a thorough collection of
almost all imaginable compositions and motifs of the
style with the occasional gripping beast added to the
mix, and even some motifs not found elsewhere like the
animal-head pieces and almost human-like terminals
on some of the mounts.
Disc-on-bow Brooches
The various disc-on-bow brooches typically display the
more abstracted and elongated version of the ribbon
animals in the style juxtaposed with segments of grip-
ping beast motifs.
The Oseberg Academician’s Work
The Academician’s work from the Oseberg grave
display some great examples of wood-carvings in the
style, though they might be on the verge of transition
into the following Oseberg style.
Distribution
The Broa style is only found in Scandinavia and is
especially common in Eastern Scandinavia.
Broa Style 15
 First phase of the Danevirke is built

740

750

Scandinavians settle at Ladoga

760

770

780 Broa style

c. 750 – 825

790

Scandinavians raid Lindisfarne

800 Birka is established as a market town

Scandinavians settle on the Faroe Islands
The crowning of Charlemagne

Hedeby is established as a market town

810

Charlemagne dies

820 Scandinavians settle in Scotland

The Oseberg ship

Coinage at Hedeby

830

The Oseberg grave

Scandinavians arrive at Constantinople

840
Scandinavians settle in Dublin and France
Examples

Dateable Disc-on-bow brooch (IV)

Storhaugen, Stavanger, Rogaland, Norway.
c. 834 B 488
The Animal head post / The lion head
— the Oseberg grave Openwork mount
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway. Othem, Gotland, Sweden.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000 Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 11887
172
Oval brooch (I)
c. 834 Gesala, Romafortuna, Västmanland, Sweden.
The Academician’s animal head post Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 31030
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway. Oval brooch (II)
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000 Södra Alby, Hulterstad, Oland, Sweden.
100 Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 7584

c. 834 Round ‘box-shaped’ brooch (I)

The Academician’s sledge pole from Valla, Gotland, Sweden.
Gustafson’s sledge Historiska Museet, Stockholm
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway. Round ‘box-shaped’ brooch (II)
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000 Klause, Klinte sn., Gotland, Sweden.
179 Historiska Museet, Stockholm GF C 8099

Round ‘box-shaped’ brooch (III)

Undateable Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm GF C 3506
Animal-shaped mount
Lamøya, Kaupang, Tjølling, Vestfold, Norge. Sword hilt
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C27220n Steinsvik, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C20317a
The Broa mounts
Broa, Gotland, Sweden. Sword pommel
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 10796:1, Stora Ihre, Hellvi, Gotland, Sweden.
SHM 11106:1 Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 20550

Disc-on-bow brooches
Gumbalda, Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 1078,
SHM 1361

Disc-on-bow brooch (I)

Broa, Halla, Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 19734

Disc-on-bow brooch (II)

Melhus, Overhalla, Nordtrøndelag, Norway.
T 6574

Disc-on-bow brooch (III)

Othemars, Othem, Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 4555

Broa Style 17
Oseberg Style c. 800 — 875

6
Shapes
1 Equal sized squat animals:
1 Frond-like terminals.
3
2 Round eyes.
3 Feet gripping surroundings.
4
An interplay of geometric and
zoomorphic patterns:
4 Limbs segmented into
ornamental elements.
Three main animal types:
5 Birds:
࡟࡟ Head in profile.
࡟࡟ Beaked.
2
6 Mask A:
࡟࡟ Head facing forward.
࡟࡟ Protruding fronds from
either side of the head.
7 Mask B:
࡟࡟ Head facing forward.
7 5 ࡟࡟ Top of head terminates into
fronds.

Head

Body

18 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Curvy outlines with occasional kinks.

A B C D

Flow
A medley of looping and waving A Pear-shaped loops.
curves. B Multi-loops.
C Pretzel-knots.
D S-shapes.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Tight interlace with almost no visible
background.
࡟࡟ Double contour.
࡟࡟ Single-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Double-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Triple-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ A mix of high and low relief.

Oseberg Style 19
 A

20 The Anatomy of Viking Art

C

Composition
࡟࡟ An absence of compositional main lines (A, D).
࡟࡟ Carpet-like distribution of motifs of equal size and equal compositional value.
࡟࡟ Geometric and zoomorphic framework of oval or rhomb-shape (B, C).
࡟࡟ Apparent symmetry in the composition. However, different in detail (A, B, C).

Oseberg Style 21
 A

22 The Anatomy of Viking Art

C

Motifs
࡟࡟ An eclectic medley of animal bodies rendered
into segments melting together.
࡟࡟ Zoomorphic framework (C).
࡟࡟ Geometric framework (B).

Oseberg Style 23
Exchange and Early Expansion

Trade and Raids
The spirit of the Norse expeditions and exchange with
the communities of the surrounding European regions
was mostly opportunistic. Whether it be for trade, raid
or settlement depended on the circumstances and the
situation of the individual.
Several trading towns were now well established in
Scandinavia along the popular trading routes. They
were the centre of fluctuating cosmopolitan influences
and material goods and the manifestation of all the
connections with the various tribes and societies of
Europe through the far-reaching trading routes over-
seas and along the continental rivers.
They soon became an obvious opportunity for the
influence of power on several levels: economic, mili-
tary, socially, religious and artistic. This was, therefore,
a crucial place to have control over by the local rule
who collected taxes and controlled who and what
entered and left the territory.
The Eastern Routes
The trading town of Birka, Sweden was the gate to
Eastern Europe. From here all the Slavic regions could
be reached by the rivers from the Baltic sea like Volga
and Dnieper, eventually reaching Constantinople, the
capital of the Byzantine Empire.
The Norse, or the Rus’ as they were known in
Eastern Europe, came from what is today Roslagen
of modern-day Sweden and settled along the Northern
parts of these routes, to make the journeys more
convenient and to better be able to trade and raid
among the local Slavic tribes.
The Rus’ chieftain Rurik soon gained control of the
trading post Ladoga and later established a settlement
further south at Novgorod.
south and connected with the British Isles to the west
through the Baltic and the rest of Scandinavia to the
east through the North Sea, Hedeby was a crossing
point of religious, monetary and cultural influences.
There was continual traffic of material goods flowing
through the town.
Both the Orkney, Shetland and Faroe Islands were
settled by Norse emigrants who saw an opportunity in
moving their household to the vacant and fertile isles
and making a life of their own. The isles soon became
a bridgehead to the further expeditions and raids of
Scotland and the rest of the British Isles.
The Bishop Ansgar was appointed missionary of the
northern lands by the Frankish emperor Louis the
Pius, and he was, in turn, able and allowed by the
Norse rulers to build churches in some of the most
important trading towns.
But as the Frankish Empire crumbled, the power,
need or incentive to force the Christian faith upon the
barbarians of the north lacked the support it needed to
be successful, and as most of the Norse people didn’t
see any reason to convert by their own free will, the first
attempts at Christening the Norse were in large futile.

The Western Routes

Hedeby situated at the southern border of Scandi-
navia was the gate to Western and Central Continental
Europe.
Bordering the mighty Catholic Frankish Empire to the

24 The Anatomy of Viking Art

A Remix of Conventions
Development
It is difficult to encircle and document what the style
between the Broa and Borre style may have looked
like, and various theories have been proposed. What is
presented in this guide is a type of style first and fore-
most represented in the Oseberg ship-grave, which has
been dated by dendrochronology to a period between
the Broa and Borre style.
The burial mount of Oseberg features some magnif-
icent woodwork composed by sledges, wagons, a
ship, tent poles and more. Among the artefacts are
some artworks done in an unmistakably Broa style. In
conjunction, there are also many works which don’t
seem to fit in with the Broa style proper. Although they
seem to carry many of the same characteristics, they
seem to also consistently and radically differ in many
ways. It would seem like these works might represent a
development of the Broa style in a new direction that
in some ways points towards the Borre style.
The ribbon-like-animals are for instance a clear refer-
ence back to the elegant and abstract ribbon animals
of the Broa style, while the emphasis on the more squat
shape of the animals and the way they now consist-
ently grip each other and the surrounding frames point
towards the application of the gripping beast in the
Borre style. Even the mix of heads in profile typical
for the Broa style, and forward facing typical for the
Borre style points at this style as a possible transitory
period between the two styles.
The Oseberg style is a clear development of the Norse
traditions in its own right and without any further
traceable influences from outside of Scandinavia.
The style is generally composed of a more relaxed
and unconventional take on the animal ornament.
Traditionally the individual animal of the orna-
ment interlace would always be depicted as a clear
but extremely abstracted representation of a single
somewhat anatomically correct animal with typically
one head, one body, two or four legs and a tail. In
the Oseberg style though, there is often no distinc-
tion between the individual animals in the ornament.
Animal limbs and bodies are all thrown together in an
eclectic mix to create the most lively multilevel inter-
twining ornaments possible.
Even the convention in the Broa style of a clear distinc-
tion between, and separation of the ribbon animals
and the gripping beasts seem completely disregarded,
as the features of each is typically merged together.
The Sledge Poles
The two sledge poles display geometric framework
similar to the Broa style, but the animals depart in
execution. They are mostly single and whole animals,
but they melt together occasionally to fit the structure
of the ornament lines and framework.
The Baroque Animal Head-posts
On the two Baroque animal head posts, the seem-
ingly geometric framework is actually created entirely
from animal limbs disregarding the individual animals
completely and separating their body parts into mere
ornamental segments to produce an abundant compo-
sition as a whole.
The Fourth Sledge and Gustafson’s Sledge
On Gustafson’s sledge and the fourth sledge, we even
see the mixed and melted animal ornament in a more
free-flowing form on its own terms.
Distribution
The Oseberg style, like the Broa style, is not known
outside of Scandinavia, which indicates that the style
had developed into the following Borre style before the
expansions of the Norse world into more permanent
settlements in regions outside of Scandinavia.
Oseberg Style 25
 790

Scandinavians raid Lindisfarne

800 Birka is established as a market town

Scandinavians settle on the Faroe Islands
The crowning of Charlemagne

Hedeby is established as a market town

810

Charlemagne dies

820 Scandinavians settle in Scotland

The Oseberg ship

Coinage at Hedeby

830 Oseberg style

c. 800 – 875
The Oseberg grave

Scandinavians arrive at Constantinople

840
Scandinavians settle in Dublin and France

First churches are build in Scandinavia

850 Scandinavians settle by the Thames near London, England
The Hon hoard

Scandinavians raid in Spain, North Africa, Rhône Valley and Italy

860
The Rus’ Kingdom is founded

The Great Heathen Army invades England

870 Harald Fairhair unites Norway

Scandinavians settle in Iceland

The Danelaw is founded

880

890
Examples

Dateable c. 850
Gilt silver pendants
c. 834 — the Hon hoard
Animal head posts Hon, Buskerud, Norway.
— the Oseberg grave Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C747
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway. (The hoard: C719-51)
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo O
1904:345, O 1904:344
Undateable
c. 820
The ship Sword sheath ferrule
— the Oseberg grave Korosten, obl. Žitomir, Ukraine.
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway. Gosudarstvennyj Istoričeskij Muzej, Moscow
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C550001 105009,inv. 2575/1

c. 834
The Baroque animal head post
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000
123

c. 834
The Baroque sledge poles
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000
196, C55000 17

c. 834
The Carolingian animal head post
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000
173

c. 834
The fourth sledge
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000
208

c. 834
Shetelig’s sledge
— the Oseberg grave
Oseberg, Vestfold, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C55000
195

Oseberg Style 27
Borre Style c. 850 — 950

4
Shapes
1 Tight knot-like interlace.
6 2 Equal-sided geometric
figures (circles and squares).
3 Spirals.
5 4 Triangular head facing
forward.
5 Round or almond-shaped
8
eyes.
7
6 Protruding ears.
7 Oval snout.
8 Short and squat proportions.
9
9 Slim and elongated legs.

Head

Body

28 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Even outlines without tapering or dents.

A B

Flow
A preference for geometric A Multi-loops.
curves. B Pretzel-knots.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Very tight interlace with almost no visible
background.
࡟࡟ Double contour occur.
࡟࡟ Double-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Triple-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ High relief.

Borre Style 29
 A B

30 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Composition

࡟࡟ Tight compositions of closed ribbons (D), knots (B, C) and animals (A, B).
࡟࡟ Repetition and juxtaposition of geometrical shapes (C, D).

Borre Style 31
 A B

32 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Motifs
࡟࡟ Gripping beasts (A, B).
࡟࡟ Ring chains build by repetition and
juxtaposition of closed interlacing ribbons of
equal-sided geometric shapes (D).
࡟࡟ Single knots build by interlacing closed ribbons
of either geometric shapes or pretzel-knot
patterns (B, C).

Borre Style 33
Conquest and Colonisation

Unification of Norway Normandy

The Norwegian chieftain Harald Fairhair united
Norway after his victory in the battle of Hafrsfjord
and bacome the first King of Norway.
Many of the petty subjected Norwegian chieftains were
not satisfied with his rule and his claim to collect taxa-
tion over their land, and in their pursuit of freedom,
they migrated to other Norse territories.
The Icelandic Commonwealth
The newly discovered isle of Iceland was a particularly
popular place for the Norwegian emigrants to settle as
there were plenty of fertile lands to claim, and soon
all land was obtained by Norse families.
To regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth and settle
disputes between feuding family clans, a legislative and
judicial assembly, the All-thing, was initiated.
The Danelaw
The coastline of the British Isles had already been
raided numerous times when the so-called Great
Heathen Army arrived to invade the English King-
doms.
Through a number of military campaigns, supposedly
lead by Ivar the Boneless, the Norse army were able
first to capture the city of York and then all of North-
umbria. Then Nottingham and Mercia followed by
London and East Anglia.
First when encountering the resistance of King Alfred
of Wessex the Norse, now led by Guthrum the Old,
had to surrender and sign the treaty which established
the boundaries of the Norse territory on the British
Isles known as the Danelaw.
Many of the Norse settled permanently in the
Danelaw and in time integrated with the existing local
communities.
Norse groups even invaded the territory around
Dublin, and in turn establishing the Norse Kingdom
of Dublin.
Norse groups had continuously been raiding the coasts
of what is today western France, where the treasures
of monasteries only guarded by monks, were easy prey.
They eventually travelled up the Seine river reaching
Paris and spreading terror on their way.
To make an end to the Norse assaults, the French King
Charles the Simple gave the Norse chieftain Rollo the
area of Upper Normandy in exchange for Norse alle-
giance and protection against further Norse raids, and
of cause conversion to Christianity by baptism.
This, in reality, established the Normandy as a Norse
colony under French rule, though the Norman dukes
were practically independent of the French king.
The Rus’ Kingdom
In Eastern Europe, the settlements of the Rus’ was now
well established. Oleg, a relative of Rurik, had seized
the power of Kiev from his brother and in doing so
established what would become the kingdom of the
Kievan Rus’ ruled by the Rurik dynasty.
From his new position in Kiev, controlling the trade
routes of the Slavic areas, Oleg was able to launch at
least one attack on the wealthy capital of the Byzantine
Empire, Constantinople.

34 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Golden Age of the Gripping Beast
Development
If the Oseberg style saw an innovation and a reima-
gination of the traditional Norse animal ornament,
the Borre style represents a further almost complete
departure in many ways. While the traditional gripping
beast took centre stage and became the prime animal
of the Borre style, the ribbon animal was almost
nowhere to be seen for the first time in Germanic
and Norse tradition. Though we do often find the
typical ribbon animal head in profile with its neck
tendril, it is mostly used as a mere ribbon terminal or
decorative afterthought.
In favour of intertwining ribbon animals, the interlace
patterns were now often almost exclusively geometric
in execution. These patterns of framework might have
its origin in a further development of the geometric
framework from the previous Broa and Oseberg style.
Among the new geometric features introduced was the
spiral. Probably inspired by European vegetal scroll
motifs, and was often used to represent animal hip
joints.
The gripping beast was often either used whole as a
centrepiece of the composition curled up in a pretzel
knot. But also simply as a single head applied to the
end of an interlaced ribbon like the ring-chain orna-
ment. The gripping beast is also often just displayed
as a mere knot for a body with head and paws as
ribbon terminals.
Dating
The Borre style is the first phase of Viking Age art
that allows for more accurate dating based on a few
coin finds in conjunction with metalworks in hoards.
Gripping Beast Pendants
Some of the most iconic Borre style work are the
pendants found across Scandinavia displaying a
typical gripping beast with its ribbon body and squat
wide hips, curled up in a pretzel-knot gripping its own
slender limbs and the surrounding circular frame with
its four paws.
The Borre Harness Mounts
On the horse harness-mounts from a ship-grave in
Borre, from which the style got its name, we find the
other trademark of the Borre style; The so-called
ring chains. They are formed by a juxtaposition of
geometric shapes typically circles and rhombs and are
often terminated by a triangular head of a gripping
beast.
The Ring Chain pattern schemes are not known from
Scandinavian tradition or foreign models, and may,
therefore, be a Scandinavian invention.
A variation of the Ring Chain; Gaut’s Ring Chain,
was widely used in the Norse regions of the British
Isles and is seen on many stone crosses of which the
crosses made by Gaut Bjørnson is the most notable.
The Birka Penannular Brooch
The penannular brooch from Birka is an excellent
example of all the Borre style traits in combination.
Ring chains, knots, gripping beast heads and even tiny
heads of ribbon animals are all part of the compo-
sition.
Distribution
The expansion and new settlements of the Norse are
well reflected in the distribution of Borre style arte-
facts. The style is the first also to be found outside of
Scandinavia.
Not only do we find items made by the Norse in Borre
style, but the style also influenced the local styles in the
settled regions too, and the style itself represent a stage
of decorative eclecticism.
The style was especially popular in the British Isles
where it was picked up and mixed with local trends.
While stonework was virtually nonexistent in Scan-
dinavia, it was very common on the Isles, and the
Borre style was integrated into many stoneworks by
local artists.
Borre Style 35
 First churches are build in Scandinavia
850 Scandinavians settle by the Thames near London, England
The Hon hoard

Scandinavians raid in Spain, North Africa, Rhône Valley and Italy

860
The Rus’ Kingdom is founded

The Great Heathen Army invades England

870 Harald Fairhair unites Norway

Scandinavians settle in Iceland

The Danelaw is founded

880

890 The Gokstad ship

Borre style
c. 850 – 950

900
Scandinavians attack Constantinople

910
Normandy is founded by Rollo

920

930

Gorm the Old becomes king of Denmark

940 The Vårby hoard

The Vester Vedsted hoard

The Terslev hoard

The Skaill hoard

950

The Gnezdovo hoard

Examples

Dateable Bridle Penannular brooch

Suputry, Rusland. Björkö, Adelsö, Uppland, Sweden.
c. 850 Gosudarstvennui Istoricheskii Muzei, Moskva. Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm.
Gilt silver pendants SHM 34000:Bj 581
— the Hon hoard Bronze dies
Hon, Buskerud, Norway. Hedeby, Schleswig, Germany. Round brooch
Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo, C719–51, Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schleswig, Björkö, Adelsö, Uppland, Sweden.
12210–11, 13451–54, 14473–4, 14616–17, Schleswig Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm.
30259 SHM 34000: Bj 967
Cast silver disc brooch
c. 870 Gotland, Sweden. Terslev style pendant
Tongue-shaped mount The British Museum, London 1901,0718.1 Hedeby, Schleswig, Germany.
Gokstad, Vestfold, Norway. Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schleswig,
Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo C10441a Circular brooch Schleswig
Bjølstad, Heidal, Oppland, Norge.
c. 913 – 942 Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo C23005 The Værne monastery gold hoard
Gold disc brooch Østfold, Norway.
— the Vester Vedsted hoard Cruciform pattern filigree disc brooch
Vester Vedsted, Jutland, Danmark. Finkarby, Taxinge, Södermanland, Sweden. Ship and gripping beast ornament
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 18278, 18571, Historiska Museet, Stockholm Randlev, Jutland, Denmark.
DNF 12/33 Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen
Equal-armed brooch
c. 940 Elec, Upper Don, Russia.
Gilt silver pendants Gosudarstvennyj Ermitaž, Saint Petersburg
— the Vårby hoard 997/1
Vårby, Södermanland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 456 Gaming board
Gokstad, Vestfold, Norway.
c. 944 Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo C10406
Silver pendants
— the Terslev hoard Gaut’s cross
Terslev, Zealand, Danmark. Kirk Michael, Isle of Man.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen DNF 33/11,
35/11, 40/11, 46/11 Gilt bronze horse-harness mounts
— the Borre grave
c. 953 – 954 Borre, Vestfold, Norway.
Pendants Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo C1804
— the Gnezdovo hoard
Gnezdovo, Smolensk, Rusland. Gilt silver quatrefoil brooch
Gosudarstvennyj Ermitaž, Saint Petersburg Rinkaby, Skåne, Sweden.
994 Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 4578

The Hiddensee hoard

Undateable Hiddensee, Rügen, Germany.
Kulturhistorisches Museum Stralsund 1873:
Animal head needle a–d, f–g, i, 450. 1874: 39 a–b, 91–92, 162,176
Hedeby, Schleswig, Germany.
Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schleswig, Horse harness mounts
Schleswig Björkö, Adelsö, Uppland, Sweden.
Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm.
Animal head pendant SHM 34000:Bj 644
Sigtuna, Uppland, Sverige.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 27883

Borre Style 37
Jelling Style c. 900 — 975

3 1 2
Shapes
1 Head in profile.
4 2 Round or almond-shaped
eye.
3 Curled lip-lappet.
4 Neck tendril.
5 Solid body.
6 Spirals representing hip
5 joints.
7 Pellets intersecting limbs at
joints.

7 6

Head

Body

38 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Even outlines without tapering or dents.

Flow
A mix of wavy and almost A S-shapes.
geometric curves.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Restrained use of interlace with some visible
background.
࡟࡟ Double contour.
࡟࡟ Single-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Double-stranded ribbons.

Jelling Style 39
 A

40 The Anatomy of Viking Art

C

Composition

࡟࡟ Simple compositions of juxtaposed and overlapping s-shapes (B, C, D).

࡟࡟ Centrifugally juxtaposed and overlapping pretzel-knots. (A).
࡟࡟ Mirrored s-shapes (D).

Jelling Style 41
 A

42 The Anatomy of Viking Art

C

Motifs
࡟࡟ Ribbon animals, typically with striated bodies.

Jelling Style 43
Rise of the Jelling Dynasty

English Control of the Danelaw was now able to force Eric to flee to the British Isles
The Anglo-Saxon King Edward, the Elder, managed where he eventually would be King of Northumbria
to take back most of the Danelaw territory except for a few years before his death.
Northumbria, which remained under Norse rule. Haakon later fought and was eventually defeated by
A few years later his son Eadred finally managed to the sons of Eric supported by Gorm the Old.
gain control over and absorb Northumbria into the
English Kingdom after the death of King Eric Bloo- Bishoprics in Scandinavia
daxe and in doing so ending the Norse reign of English Several of the trading towns like Hedeby and Aarhus
territory. became the seat of a bishop under the Archbishopric
of Hamburg and Bremen.
The Jelling Dynasty
Power in Denmark now began to concentrate in and The Holy Roman Empire
around the aristocracy of the Jelling area on the penin- Following the death of Emperor Louis the Pious, the
sula of Jutland. Frankish Empire had previously been divided in three;
Gorm the Old is the first historically recognised king West Francia, Middle Francia and East Francia.
of Denmark. There was no Emperor appointed in the West for
His wife Thyra is mentioned on a number of rune several years until the crowning of the Saxon king
stones in the area of Jelling, and not least on the Otto I.
lesser Jelling stone itself, which was raised by Gorm
in memory of her.
It is believed that Gorm was buried in the chamber
of the North Mound in Jelling when he died, built
by his son and successor Harald Bluetooth. But the
remains of Gorm was later moved out of the mound
and placed in a final resting place under the wooden
church built by Harald when he converted to Chris-
tianity.

The First Norse Christian King

After the death of Harald Fairhair, his son Haakon
the Good returned to Norway to fight his half-brother
Eric Blood-axe for the claim to the throne.
According to legend, Haakon was fostered by the
Anglo-Saxon king Athelstan, son of Edward the Elder,
as part of an agreement made by his father, Harald.
In England, he was influenced by the Christian faith
of the English people, which he brought back with
him to Norway.
Haakon gained support from the Norwegian land-
owners by promising to give up the rights of taxation
claimed by his father. With the new found support, he

44 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Return of the Ribbon Animal
Development
With the Jelling style begins a revival of the ribbon
animal eventually pushing the motif of the gripping
beast out into oblivion.
Though often executed in fairly simple juxtaposed
and overlapping S-shaped layouts and still drawing
heavily on the highly geometric interlace patterns of
the previous Borre style like the pretzel knot and chain
patterns, the Jelling style is in large a return to the
Norse traditions of animal ornament reminiscent of
the Broa style and even the earlier Germanic styles.
The ribbon animal of the Jelling style is developed
further in the following styles and continues to be in
fashion in various iterations right up until the end of
the Viking Age.
Compared to the following iterations of the ribbon
animal in the Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes style,
the Jelling animal is relatively simple and formalistic in
its anatomy with its equal-width ribbon body, ribbon
neck-tendril and curly upper lip-lappet.
These components all constitute the backbone of the
style and pours over into the following styles with the
addition of their individual stylistic traits. And though
the execution of the Jelling style can vary and some-
times seem unrelated on the surface, when looking
closer, the underlying structure is often revealed as
strictly conventional.
In this way, the style both pays tribute to the ribbon
animal tradition of the past, but also establishes the
new tradition of future Norse animal ornament.
Disc Brooches and Circular Pendants
The early Jelling style is often found on disc brooches
and circular pendants along with jewellery of approxi-
mately the same type featuring Borre style decorations.
These Jelling style designs often make use of Borre
style compositional schemes, but instead of gripping
beasts, they feature ribbon animals with heads in
profile and neck tendrils.
The Jelling Cup
The style got its name from the small cup, displaying
two overlapping S-shaped ribbon animals, found in
the burial chamber of the North mound of the Jelling
monument site and is believed to have been part of the
grave goods accompanying Gorm the Great in death.
Horse Harness-bows
The three horse harness-bows found in Mammen,
Jutland, and Søllested, Funen, displays ornaments in
a more elaborate and figurative manner, while at the
same time featuring some of the Jelling style trade-
marks like the curled lip-lappet and single neck-tendril.
They seem like they might be a later development
of the style on the verge of transitioning into the
Mammen style.
Distribution
Like the preceding Borre style, we find the Jelling style
in all areas where the Norse went about at the time
from The British Isles through Eastern and Western
Europe.
There was no widespread tradition of stone carving in
Scandinavia at this time, but a few stone monuments
on the British Isles and the Isle of Man displays motifs
which are clearly derived from the contemporary
Scandinavian style.
The craftsmen on the British Isles already worked with
animal patterns and interlace, which made a mutual
influence between the Anglo-Saxon style and the Scan-
dinavian style very easy.
Jelling Style 45
 890 The Gokstad ship

900
Scandinavians attack Constantinople

910
Normandy is founded by Rollo

920

930 Jelling style

c. 900 – 975

Gorm the Old becomes king of Denmark

940 The Vårby hoard

The Vester Vedsted hoard

The Terslev hoard

The Skaill hoard

950

The Gnezdovo hoard

Harald Bluetooth becomes king of Denmark

960 And regains power over Norway the following year
The Jelling north mound grave

Harald Bluetooth converts Denmark

The Greater Jelling Stone

970 The Mammen grave

Otto II occupies Hedeby

Until 983 when Harald Bluetooth regains power.

980 The ring fortresses are built in Denmark

Greenland is colonised by Scandinavians
Bishops are inserted in Denmark

Vladimir the Great baptises the Kievan Rus’

990
Sweyn Forkbeard collects 1st Danegeld
Examples

Dateable Nonnebakken, Fyn, Denmark.

Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C6271
c. 890 (the ship)
Animal head tent pole Gilt silver pendant
— the Gokstad grave Vårby, Södermanland, Sweden.
Gokstad, Vestfold, Norway. Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 4516
Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo C10408
Small disc brooch
c. 945 – 946 Birka, Uppland, Sweden.
The Skaill hoard Historiska Museet, Stockholm
Skaill, Orkney.
Silver filigree disc brooch
c. 958 – 959 — the Tråen hoard
The Jelling cup Tråen, Buskerud, Norway.
— the Jelling north mount grave
Jelling, Jutland, Denmark. Tongue-shaped bronze brooch
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen CCCLXXII Birka, Uppland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 5208

Undateable Tongue-shaped mount

Animal head horse harness bow
terminal
(site not registered) Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 5254
Animal head strap ends
Jelling, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen JL/301
Bronze die patrice
Mammen, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C1067
Bronze mount
Gryta, Haram, Norway.
Bronze Scabbard terminal mount
Astala i Kokemäki, Satakunta, Finland.
Kansallismuseo, Helsinki 8338:39
Gokstad, Vestfold, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo C24239c
Trefoil brooch
Blaker, Lom, Oppland, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C6743
Two horse harness bows
Mammen, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C1063
Two tongue-shaped mounts
Kornsá, Northwestern Region, Iceland.
Nationalmuseet, Reykjavík 1780–82
Horse harness bow
Søllested, Odense, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 25581

Bronze strap end

Björkö, Adelsö, Uppland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm
SHM 34000:Bj 37

Oval brooch
Morberg, Røyken, Buskerud, Norway.
Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo C21438a

Rectangular silver brooch

Ödeshög, Östergötland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 5671

Silver disc brooch

Jelling Style 47
Mammen Style c. 950 — 1025

6
Shapes
2 3 1 Long and wavy S-shaped
tendrils.
2 Loosely scrolled tendril
4 7 terminals.
3 Spirals as tendril terminals.
4 Pellets intersecting ribbons.
5
5 Concave dents.
6 Head in profile.
7 Round or almond-shaped
eye.
8 Spiral hip joints.
8

Head

Body

48 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Curvy outlines with kinks and frequent dents.

A B C

Flow
Flowing loose and wavy curves. A Multi-loops.
B Pretzel-knots.
C S-shapes.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Semi-open interlace with some visible
background.
࡟࡟ Double contour.
࡟࡟ Single-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Double-stranded ribbons.

Mammen Style 49
 A B

50 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Composition
࡟࡟ Single motifs (A, B, C).
࡟࡟ Loosely flowing compositions with a lack of axiality and symmetry (B, C, D).
࡟࡟ Additive principles.
࡟࡟ Different elements often have the same value – i.e. stems vs tendrils.

Mammen Style 51
 A B

52 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Motifs
࡟࡟ Great Beasts, which is a combination of a ࡟࡟ Masks (A).
carnivore mammal and one or more serpents ࡟࡟ Vegetal ornaments (D).
intertwined in battle (C).
࡟࡟ Mammals, typically carnivores (C).
࡟࡟ Serpents (C).
࡟࡟ Birds (B).

Mammen Style 53
Christianisation of the Norse

The Conversion of Denmark leading an attack on England with a fleet of 90 ships

When Gorm the Old died his son, Harald Bluetooth
became king of Denmark and gained the power of
Norway a few years later.
The joint ruler of the Empire just south of the Dannev-
irke Otto II was keen on Christening the Norse regions,
and by a violent military crusade if necessary. This
thread forced Harald to convert and making Christi-
anity the state religion of Denmark. To get the point
across he erected the Great Jelling Stone with a runic
inscription stating that Harald united all of Denmark
and converted the Danes.
To secure his status and control of power further, he
built a number of Ring fortresses throughout the terri-
tory of Denmark and fortified the Jelling monument
site, the royal centre of power.
Harald’s display of power may have prevented Otto
II in conquering Denmark, but after his father, Otto
the Great died and in turn making him the sole ruler,
he captured Hedeby which was a tremendous blow
to Harald.
Otto II then suddenly died, and with his three-year-old
son as the only legitimate heir, in turn, left the empire
in a complete political crisis. Which lead to Harald
regaining the power of Hedeby the same year.
The victory though was short lived for Harald as he
was then killed by his son Sweyn Forkbeard, who took
control of the Kingdom.
and collecting the first Danegeld. They later returned
to collect the second Danegeld, and in return, Olaf
was baptised.
After his success in England, Olaf returned to Scandi-
navia and successfully claimed the throne of Norway
and converted the Norwegians to the Christian faith.
Iceland followed suit a few years later, by a somewhat
democratic decision at the All-thing, mainly due to
its dependency on trade-connections with Norway.
Olaf Tryggvason later fell foul with Sweyn Forkbeard
by marrying Sweyn’s already wed sister Sigrid the
Haughty. Sweyn then defeated Olaf in the Battle of
Svolder with the support of Erik Jarl who then became
king of Norway and Olof Skötkonung who was the
first Christian king of a united Sweden.
Greenland and Vinland
After all inhabitable land had been settled in Iceland,
Erik the Red established the first Norse colony on
Greenland. His son Leif Eriksson (also known as Leif
the Lucky) later discovered North America by accident
and attempted to colonise the land which he named
Vinland, but the settlement was ultimately a short and
futile endeavour.

The Conversion of the Rus’

After a period of exile in Sweden Vladimir, the Great
of the Rurik dynasty returned to Novgorod with a
Varangian army and took back power from his brother
and soon after consolidated his rule of a sizeable
Kievan territory. He was baptised and Christianised
all of the Kievan Rus’.

The Conversion of Norway

The heir to the Norwegian throne, Olaf Tryggvason,
who was chief of Vladimir’s men-at-arms while exiled
from Norway, now teamed up with Sweyn Forkbeard

54 The Anatomy of Viking Art

The Great Beast is Born
Development
The animals of the Mammen style are stylistically a
continuation of the Jelling style ribbon animal, though
now in a more elaborate and often more naturalistic
execution.
The style is further inspired by Continental Euro-
pean influences which can be seen by more vegetal
elements being introduced, such as vines, lobes and
spirals. The interlace patterns are even developed in
a less geometric and more wavy and flowing manner
reminiscent of vegetal vines.
Dating
The Christianisation of Scandinavia changed the
Norse burial customs. After the conversion, the dead
was buried with very few artefacts due to the new reli-
gious beliefs disregarding the importance of material
goods in the afterlife. The archaeological evidence is
therefore mostly from the few hoards possibly buried
for safekeeping in times of conflict. Too few objects
are therefore found in datable contexts to permit other
than an approximation of date.
The Greater Jelling Stone
The best-known example of the style is the Greater
Jelling stone raised by Harald Bluetooth. On one of
the three sides of the stone, we see for the first time
the motif of the Great Beast which came to be the most
influential and used motif throughout the rest of the
Viking Age. The motif consists of a large four-legged
animal, reminiscent of a lion or wolf, and a serpent
intertwined in battle.
The motif builds heavily on Scandinavian artistic
traditions while incorporating European influences.
It is therefore difficult to decipher the exact meaning
of this motif, but it may have been a symbol of royal
power and rule and might very well be inspired by
similar motifs used in aristocratic environments in
Continental and Insular Europe.
On one of the other three sides of the stone, we see
a clear depiction of Christ which is a highly untra-
ditional motif in Scandinavia up until now, though
executed in an entirely traditional Norse style.
The Greater Jelling stone inspired imitations
throughout the Norse regions. However, imitations
did typically only include the great beast and left out
the depiction of Christ.
The Mammen Axe
The Mammen style got its name from the deco-
rated axe head found in a rich grave of an aristocrat
connected to the Jelling dynasty buried just after the
time of conversion of Denmark.
One side is filled with a composition of waving foliate
tendrils, and a bird occupies the other side in the same
style.
The Bamberg and Cammin Caskets
Two of the most elaborate works are the casket from
the cathedral of Kamień Pomorski, Poland, which
unfortunately was destroyed during World War II
(though exact copies still exist), and the casket from
the Bamberg Cathedral, Germany.
The Cammin casket is an excellent example of the
integration of Norse artistic traditions with Christian
iconography.
Symbolic representations of the four evangelists are
displayed on the lid and sides of the casket. John is
represented by eagles, Luke by bulls depicted as four-
legged animals with hooves, Matthew by a human
mask and Mark by lions with clawed paws.
The shrine may originally have contained a gospel
or liturgical manuscript. Religious gifts of this kind
were an essential part in the establishment of contacts
between European and Norse rulers and as generous
donations to the Church.
Distribution
The Mammen style was widely popular throughout
Scandinavia and the settled areas in Europe, especially
the British Isles.
Mammen Style 55
 Gorm becomes king of Denmark

940 The Vårby hoard

950 The Terslev hoard

The Skaill hoard
The Gnezdovo hoard

Harald Bluetooth becomes king of Denmark

960 And regains power over Norway the following year
The Jelling north mound grave

Harald Bluetooth converts Denmark

The Greater Jelling Stone

970 The Mammen grave

Otto II occupies Hedeby

Until 983 when Harald Bluetooth regains power.

980 The ring fortresses are built in Denmark Mammen style

Greenland is colonised by Scandinavians c. 950 – 1025
Bishops are inserted in Denmark

Vladimir the Great baptises the Kievan Rus’

990
Sweyn Forkbeard collects 1st Danegeld

Oluf Skötkonung becomes king of Sweden

1000 The Christianisation of Iceland

Leif Eriksson discovers America

1010

Sweyn Forkbeard conquers England

And dies the following year
Cnut the Great regains power of England
Cnut the Great regains power of Scandinavia
1020

The Hørning plank

The Undrom hoard The Runestone Style – 1st phase

1030

Cnut the Great dies

The Årstad hoard

1040
Examples

Dateable Lower guard of an antler sword hilt

c. 958 – 959
Wood carvings
— the Jelling north mount grave
Jelling, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen CCCLXXVI
c. 965 – 975
The greater Jelling stone
Jelling, Jutland, Denmark.
Sigtuna, Uppland, Sweden.
Odd’s cross
Kirk Braddan, Isle of Man.
The Skårby 1 runestone
Skårby, Scania, Sweden.
St Stephen’s sword
Prague, the Czech Republic.

c. 970 – 971 Thorleif’s cross

Axe head Kirk Braddan, Isle of Man.
— the Mammen grave
Mammen, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C133

Undateable

Antler handle
Køge, Zealand, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C18000

The Aarhus 3 runestone

Aarhus, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen

The Bamberg casket

Bamberg Cathedral, Bayern, Germany.
Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich.

Bone cylinder
Årnes, Møre og Romsdal, Norway.
Trondheim Kgl. Norske Videnskabers Selskab
Museet.

Bone disc
London, England.
The British Museum, London.

The Cammin casket

Kamień, Pomorski, Poland.
(destroyed during WWII)

Gilt bronze plate

Aarhus, Jutland, Denmark.
Aarhus Museum, Aarhus.

The Léon antler box

León, Spain.
León SP 27-1-11A4

Mammen Style 57
Ringerike Style c. 1000 — 1075

6 4
5
8 7
2 1
Shapes
1 Slim and short tendrils.
2 Clusters of centrifugally
projected tendrils.
3 Tendrils with a single lobe.
4 Lobes with alternating side-
lobes.
5 Tightly scrolled tendril
9 terminals.
6 Pellets intersecting ribbons.
7 Head in profile.
8 Almond-shaped eye.
9 Spirals representing hip
joints.

Head

Body

58 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Curvy outlines with occasional kinks and dents.

A B C D

Flow
Taut curves only looping in one A Pear-shaped loops.
direction. B Figure-of-eights loops.
C Multi-loops.
D Pretzel-knots.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Semi-tight interlace with some visible
background.
࡟࡟ Double contour occur.
࡟࡟ Single-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Double-stranded ribbons occur.
࡟࡟ Ribbons are broken into panels by intersection.

Ringerike Style 59
 A B

60 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Composition
࡟࡟ Single motifs (A, C).
࡟࡟ Tauter compositions.
࡟࡟ Axiality and symmetry occur (B, C, D).
࡟࡟ Additive principles, i.e. clusters of tendrils (A, B, C).
࡟࡟ Different elements has different value – i.e. stems vs tendrils (A, B, D).

Ringerike Style 61
 A B

62 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Motifs
࡟࡟ Great Beast variations, typically a combination ࡟࡟ Birds (C).
of a greater carnivore animal and one or more ࡟࡟ Masks (Not displayed here but very similar to
serpent intertwined in battle (A, C, D). the Mammen style masks).
࡟࡟ Mammals (A). ࡟࡟ Vegetal ornaments (B).
࡟࡟ Serpents (A, B, C, D). ࡟࡟ Rosetta-like crosses (B).

Ringerike Style 63
Rise and Fall of the Great Norse Kingdom

The Conquest of England succumbed, thus ultimately ending the Norse rule of
King Æthelred the Unready paid the third Danegeld England for good.
to Sweyn Forkbeard. But, due to rumours of an assassi- After the death of Harthacnut, the rule of Denmark
nation attempt against him, Æthelred then slaughtered now fell under the Norwegian king Magnus the Good
a large number of the Norse settlers, in what has since for a few years.
been known as the St. Brice’s Day massacre.
In retaliation, Sweyn raided England three consecutive
times, before he and his son Cnut the Great eventually
conquered England. Though it’s a very short-lived
victory for Sweyn, who died a few weeks later.

Expansion and subjugation

After the death of Sweyn, his youngest son Harald
II became king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
Cnut was announced King of England but was
expelled to Denmark. He returned the following year
with a fleet and conquered the power of England by
defeating Æthelred’s son Edmund Ironside in the battle
of Assandun.
A few years later, when his brother Harald II died, he
gained the power of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
In addition to this, the Scottish King subdued to his
reign, and he was now king of the largest Norse empire
ever seen thus earning him the name Cnut the Great.
While Cnut was occupied in England, Olof Haraldson
tried to seize power of the throne of Norway, but his
attempt was futile, and he was ultimately killed in the
battle of Stiklestad.

Division of the Kingdom

When Cnut eventually died his empire was divided
into smaller kingdoms.
Magnus the Good, son of Olof Haraldson and thereby
a legitimate heir to the Norwegian crown but exiled
in Novgorod, was placed on the throne of Norway at
11 years of age.
Harold Harefoot, son of Cnut, inherited the throne
of England, and Cnut’s other son Harthacnut became
king of Denmark. Harthacnut eventually gained the
power over England a few short years later when his
brother Harold died. But it was not long before he too

64 The Anatomy of Viking Art

A Bloom of Foliate Ornaments
Development
The characteristics of the Ringerike style is a direct
and close continuation of the Mammen style, from
which it can often be difficult to discern the differences.
The development of the style draws on further inspi-
ration from Western European sources. The use of
foliate motifs is intensified. The style displays inter-
twining tendrils inspired by Frankish conventions,
alternating lobes and tendrils of British origin, and
leaf-terminals inspired by acanthus leaves which were
popular in both the Frankish and British regions.
But the style is still inherently Norse in nature. All
external influences are modelled to fit Scandinavian
tradition and convention, where the motif of the great
beast introduced in the Mammen era, is now gaining
further popularity and is seen in many variations not
least on the many new runestones erected in this time.
Dating
With the gradual introduction of Christianity in Scan-
dinavia, no equipment was laid in graves. Dating,
therefore almost exclusively relies on metalworks
found in hoards together with coins included but can
be reasonably well established.
Runestones
Before the Greater Jelling Stone, only a dozen stone
sculptures in Scandinavia had been erected, except
for the Gotland picture stones.
The power centre around the Jelling dynasty was
probably the driving factor behind the development
of the style, with its connections through the Church
organisation the direct cultural influences must have
had an impact as is also reflected in the style.
The rune stones now became quite popular inspired
by the Jelling stone, and it is from this time we see the
most erected rune stones in Scandinavia with Uppland,
Sweden forming the innovative centre. The influence
from English stone carvers is evident, and the craft
may have been brought back to Scandinavia through
the Norse settlements.
The Ringerike style is the only Viking Age style which
is not named after an actual find location. Instead, it
is actually named after the area of Ringerike, a little
north of Oslo, from which the sandstone material
comes from, by which many of the runestones are
made of.
Weather Vanes
Some of the most magnificent examples in the style
are the three weather vanes from Norway and Sweden.
They were initially used as a metal standard or flag
on the masthead or prow on ships but survived due to
being adapted and used as weather vanes on churches
and was ultimately still in use almost up until modern
day.
Wooden Staffs
The wooden staffs found in Lund and Dublin deserves
a special mention here too, because of their splendid
animal head terminals reminiscent of the animal head
posts of the Oseberg grave.
Distribution
The style was widely spread throughout Scandinavia
and all of the Norse settlements, not least in the British
Isles, where it inspired many of the existing local styles,
and even found great popularity in the Irish regions
were it was heavily adopted and among others directly
inspired a few manuscripts. It was even still in use in
this region after it had faded and transitioned into the
Urnes style in Scandinavia.
Ringerike Style 65
 Vladimir the Great baptises the Kievan Rus’
990
Sweyn Forkbeard collects 1st Danegeld

Oluf Skötkonung becomes king of Sweden

1000 The Christianisation of Iceland

Leif Eriksson discovers America

1010

Sweyn Forkbeard conquers England

And dies the fllowing year
Cnut the Great regains power of England
Cnut the Great regains power of Scandinavia
1020

1030 The Undrom hoard The Runestone Style – 1st phase Ringerike style
c. 1000 – 1075

Cnut the Great dies

The Årstad hoard

1040
Harthacnut dies
The end of Viking reign of England

Sweyn Estridsson becomes king of Denmark

The Espinge hoard
1050 The Lilla Valla hoard

The Gerete hoard The Runestone Style – 2nd phase

1060

The Norman conquest of England

Harald Hardrada dies in the battle of Hastings
Sweyn Estridsson fails to regain power of England
1070 The Hørning plank

The Urnes church carving

The Bonderup crucifix

1080

The Græsli hoard The Runestone Style – 3rd phase

1090
Examples

Dateable
Bone needle The Stora Ek stone
c. 1018 – 1035 London, England. Stora Ek, Västergötland, Sverige.
Disc brooch The British Museum, London M&LA 1893,
— the Årstad hoard 6–18, 72 The St Paul’s Churchyard stone
Årstad, Rogaland, Norway. St Paul’s churchyard, London, England.
Bronze rim mount Museum of London, London 4075
c. 1026 – 1030 Aarhus, Jutland, Denmark.
Gilt silver arm ring with animal head Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C9487 The Söderala vane
terminal Söderala, Hälsingland, Sweden.
– the Undrom hoard The Dynna stone Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 16023
Undrom, Ångermanland, Sweden. Dynna, Oppland, Norway.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 1318 The Tullstorp stone
The Flatatunga planks Tullstorp, Scania, Sweden.
c. 1048 Flatatunga, Northwestern Region, Iceland.
Silver brooch Þjóðminjasafn Íslands, Reykjavík 15296 a-c The Vang stone
— the Espinge hoard Vang, Oppland, Norway.
Espinge, Hurva, Skåne. Gilt silver bronze plate
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 6620:2 Winchester, England.
Winchester Cathedral Library
c. 1060 – 1079
The Bonderup crucifix Gold filigree disc brooches
Bonderup, Zealand, Denmark. — the Hornelund hoard
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 14190 Hornelund, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen C7144, C7145
c. 1055
Gilt silver disc brooch The Gök stone (Gökstenen)
— the Gerete hoard Härad, Södermanland, Sweden.
Gerete, Fardhem, Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm The Heggen vane
Heggen, Buskerud, Norway.
c. 1085 Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo, C23602
Gilt silver bird brooch
— the Gräsli hoard Ivory head of a tau crozier
Gräsli, Sør-Tröndelag, Norway. Veszprémvölgy, Hungary.
Trondheim Museum
The Källunge vane
Källunge, Gotland, Sverige.
Undateable
The Norra Åsarp stone
Animal head staff (I) Norra Åsarp, Västergötland, Sweden.
Dublin, Ireland.
National Museum of Ireland, Dublin The Gaulverjabær plank
E172:5587 Gaulverjabær, Southern Region, Iceland.
Þjóðminjasafn Íslands, Reykjavík 1974:217
Animal head staff (II)
Lund, Scania, Sweden. The Ramsundsberget Sigurd-carvings
Kulturen, Lund KM 59.126:795 Jäder, Södermanland, Sweden.

The Alstad stone Stone from Allehelgons kirke

Alstad, Oppland, Norway. Lund, Scania, Sweden.
Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo.
Stone slab
City of London, England.

Ringerike Style 67
Urnes Style c. 1050 — 1125

8
Shapes
1 Extremely elongated
proportions (head almost
6
reduced to a mere ribbon
5
terminal).
2 Tendrils usually without
7
2 offshoots.
3 Tightly scrolled tendril
terminals.
4 Tendrils with a single lobe.
1
5 Head in profile.
6 Almond-shaped eye.
7 Upper and lower lip-lappets.
8 Neck-tendril.
9
9 Spirals representing hip
joints.
3

4 1

Head

Body

68 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Outlines
Even outlines with slight tapering and almost without kinks and dents.

Flow
Circular curves looping in A Figure-of-eights loops.
opposite directions.

Pattern
࡟࡟ Open interlace with a more visible background.
࡟࡟ Single-stranded ribbons.
࡟࡟ Usually limited to only two ribbon widths.

Urnes Style 69
 A

70 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Composition
࡟࡟ Two basic schemes of interpenetrating loops:
1 Two intersecting ribbons of figure-of-eight loops (A, C).
2 Multi-loops – three or more intersecting ribbons (B, D).
࡟࡟ Absence of axiality and symmetry.
࡟࡟ Balance in design is built by the fluent juxtaposition of the circular loops.

Urnes Style 71
 A

72 The Anatomy of Viking Art

D

Motifs
࡟࡟ Great Beasts, almost exclusively, and typically ࡟࡟ Occasional vegetal motives (not displayed
executed in a very similar and extremely here although the terminals of feet and tails in
formalistic manner. illustration D are of vegetal origin).

Urnes Style 73
Consolidation of the Norse Regions

The Throne of Norway The Conversion of Sweden

Harald Hardrada, the half-brother of Olaf Haraldson,
had fled to Kievan Rus’ after he and Olaf were
defeated at the battle of Stiklestad.
He became a captain in the army of Yaroslav the Wise,
king of the Rus’, and later went to Constantinople,
where he earned great honour and wealth serving in
the Byzantine Varangian Guard.
After fifteen years in the East, he returned to Norway
just before the death of Magnus the Good and soon
became king of Norway.
There had been numerous attempts to convert the
Swedish regions of Scandinavia, but they were not
very successful due to the resistance of the Swedish
people with their deep-rooted Norse beliefs and their
strong traditions around the cult at Uppsala.
None of the Christian Swedish Kings had the strength
nor the support to force the conversion, until the reign
of Inge the Elder, who was a devoted Christian. He is
known to have founded the first abbey in Sweden and
acted harshly against pagan practices.

The Throne of Denmark European Integration

Sweyn Estridsson, who had served under Magnus the
Good became king of Denmark. Though he was not a
direct successor of Cnut, he was the closest living legit-
imate heir to the throne by his family link through his
mother, Cnut’s sister Estrid Svendsdatter, and he took
the matronymic surname Estridsson after her, empha-
sising his connection to the Royal Danish bloodline.
Sweyn is often considered to be Denmark’s last Viking
Age king as well as the first Medieval one.
By now the Norse people in Scandinavia and around
Europe had all converted in some form to the Christian
faith. Their leaders grew dependent on the Church to
support their rule, and on every level, the societies of
Scandinavia became more and more dependent and
similar in culture and customs to the rest of continental
Europe and the British Isles.

The Norman Conquest of England

After securing his power as Duke of Normandy,
William the Conqueror who was a descendant of
Rollo launched the Norman conquest of England
and claimed the English throne.
In the pursuit of the English crown for himself, Harald
Hardrada died in the Battle of Stamford Bridge
opposing the Anglo-Saxon king Harold Godwinson.
Later the same year Harold was defeated by William
who was then crowned king of England in London.
A few years later Sweyn Estridsen made a couple of
final attempts at reconquering the English throne to
reestablish the Great Norse Kingdom but failed.
These events are traditionally considered to mark the
end of the Viking Age.

74 The Anatomy of Viking Art

Old Norse Minimalism
Development
Where the Ringerike style skewed towards a more
elaborate tendency with numerous tendrils, sprouts
and offshoots in the interlace patterns, the Urnes style
is much cleaner and almost geometric and modern.
Though the two styles may seem very different in their
approach to the execution of animal ornament they
share a lot of common characteristics, among them
the fondness for the great beast motif invented in the
Mammen style. Plant-based motifs on the other hand
vastly diminished in importance, although they were
not altogether abandoned.
Dating
The style can be approximately dated through dendro-
chronological samples of the surviving wood-carv-
ings and dateable coins found in hoards together with
Urnes style metalworks.
The Runestone Style
The development from the Ringerike style can be
traced across a large number of runic memorial
stones spanning the period of transition, which are
mostly found in Uppland, Sweden. The transitional
style is therefore commonly mentioned by the name
the runestone style. The runestone carvings consist of
three main phases each dominated by one or more
key craftsmen.
The early phase was dominated by Asmund Karason,
who is popularly described as the inventor of the style.
His work includes some of the earliest multi-loop
compositions.
The golden age dominated by Fot and Balli represents
the middle period.
The later phase was dominated by Öpir who was an
average craftsman with a limited repertoire but a large
body of work with over eighty inscriptions attributed
to him.
Some of these runestones describe events also known
from later sources like the Icelandic sagas and is, there-
fore, some of the only Norse contemporary written
sources, from which we get a tiny glimpse of the Norse
culture, history and events described by the contempo-
rary native people of Scandinavia themselves.
Openwork Brooches
A common Urnes style find is the small openwork
brooches shaped like a great beast motif. The exact
execution can vary, but they all display a relatively
simple figure-of-eights-loops intertwine of a larger
animal fighting one or two smaller and thinner
serpents.
The Urnes Church
But it is of cause the magnificent wood carving of
the Urnes church, from which the style got its name,
which comes to mind when recalling great examples
of the style. The carvings originate from an earlier
church built on the site and were reused in the current
surviving iteration of the stave-church.
Distribution
The style is found throughout Scandinavia and the
Norse settlements around Europe, and like the Ring-
erike style it was partly adopted in Ireland and had
an afterlife here even when its popularity had faded
in contemporary Scandinavia.
Romanesque Art
In Norse regions, the Urnes style transitioned towards
and blended with the later Romanesque art, which
came to dominate the Christian European culture.
Urnes Style 75
 Cnut the Great dies

1040
Harthacnut dies
The end of Viking reign of England

Sweyn Estridsson becomes king of Denmark

The Espinge hoard
1050 The Lilla Valla hoard

The Gerete hoard The Runestone Style – 2nd phase

1060

The Norman conquest of England

Harald Hardrada dies in the battle of Hastings
Sweyn Estridsson fails to regain power of England
1070 The Hørning plank

The Bonderup crucifix

1080 Urnes style
c. 1050 – 1125

The Græsli hoard The Runestone Style – 3rd phase

1090

The Årstad hoard

1100 The Vreta Abbey in Sweden is founded by Inge the Elder

1110

1120

The Trondheim wood carving

1130 The current Urnes stave church

1140
Examples

Dateable Runestone U 130

c. 1050
Fluted silver bowl
— the Lilla Valla hoard
Lilla Valla, Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 3099
(c. 1130 – the current stave church)
The Urnes church wood carving
Urnes, Sogn og Fjordane, Norway.
Nora, Uppland, Sweden.
Runestone U 177
Stav, Uppland, Sweden.
Runestone U 202
Vallentuna, Uppland, Sweden.
Runestone U 460
Skråmsta, Uppland, Sweden.

c. 1070 Runestone U 961

The Hørning beam
Hørning, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen D2309
c. 1100 – 1150
Wood carving from furniture
Trondheim, Trøndelag, Norway.
Vitenskabsmuseet Trondheim N30000/
FH415
Vaksala, Uppland, Sweden.
Runestone Sö 276
Strängnäs, Södermanland, Sweden.
The head of a tau crozier
Thingvellir, Iceland.
Þjóðminjasafn Íslands, Reykjavík 15776

Undateable

The Ardre memorial stones

Ardre, Gotland, Sweden.

Bottom plate of ‘box-shaped’ brooch

Tjängdarve, Träkumla, Gotland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm.
SHM 3871

Box tomb in Vreta monastery

Vreta, Östergötland, Sweden.

The Gåtebo crucifix

Gåtebo, Öland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm SHM 100

Openwork bronze brooch

Östervarv, Östergötland, Sweden.
Historiska Museet, Stockholm.
SHM 9170:1216

Openwork silver brooch (I)

Lindholm Høje, Jutland, Denmark.
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen ÅHM1937

Openwork silver brooch (II)

Tröllaskógur, Southern Region, Iceland.
Þjóðminjasafn Íslands, Reykjavík 6524

Urnes Style 77
 Greenland

Iceland
Thingvellir
Reykjavik

Faroe Islands

Shetland Islands

Orkney Islands

Hebrides
North America
Vinland North
Scotland

British Isles Lindisfarne

York
Ireland Isle of Man
Dublin
Danelaw

Atlantic Ocean
England
London
Europe
Hastings

Modern Country English Channel

Modern City Normandy
Paris

Modern Region
Modern Placename France

Viking Age Area

Viking Age Town

Coastline
Border
Waterway
City
Site Spain
Ring Fortress

African
 Scandinavia

Finland

Norway
Sweden
Oslo
Gulf of Finland Staraja Ladoga
Stockholm
Birka
Novgorod
Gotland

Sea

Denmark Baltic Sea Moscow

Hedeby Gnezdovo
Slavic People
Jomsborg
Russia
Belarus
Kievan Rus’
Poland
Germany
Kiev

Frankish Empire Continental Europe

Ukraine

Romania

Italy

Black Sea
Istanbul
Constantinople
Rome

Greece Turkey

Byzantine Empire
Athens Middle East

Mediterranean Sea
Continent
 Lapland
Sami People
Scandinavia Västerbotten
Stiklestad

Jämtland
Ångermanland
Trondheim

Trøndelag

Møre og Romsdal Medelpad

Härjedalen
Norway
Hälsingland
Sogn og Fjordane Oppland
Urnes Hedmark

Gästrikland

Hordaland Dalarna
Buskerud
Askershus Sweden
Ringerike
Oslo Uppland
Uppsala
Telemark Värmland Västmanland Sigtuna
Oseberg
Gokstad
Borre Østfold Stockholm
Birka
Kaupang Närke Södermanland
Vestfold

Skagerrak Östergötland
Rogaland Västergötland
Aust-Agder
Broa
Vest-Agder
Øland Gotland

Småland
Halland
Kattegat

Mammen
Jutland Aarhus Blekinge
Denmark Scania
North Sea
Baltic Sea
Jelling Lund
Zealand
Lejre
Ribe
Funen

Danevirke
Hedeby

Jomsborg
Poland

Germany Slavic People

Netherlands Frankish Empire
Resources

These are the resources I rely on the most in

my work and of cause have been crucial in
researching and creating this guide.

Books and articles

Signe Horn Fuglesang, 1982. Early Viking Art. Acta ad

Archaeologiam et Artium Historiam Pertinentia (Series altera in
8°) 125–173.

Signe Horn Fuglesang, 1980. Some Aspects of the Ringerike

Style. Odense.

Signe Horn Fuglesang, 1981. ‘Stylistic Groups in Late Viking

and Early Romanesque Art’ Acta ad Archaeologiam et Artium
Historiam Pertinentia (Series altera in 8º) I: 79–125.

James Graham-Campbell, 2013. Viking Art. London.

Asger Jorn, Bente Magnus and Gerard Franceschi, 2005. Bird,

Beast and Man in Nordic Iron Age Art.

Asger Jorn, Bente Magnus and Gerard Franceschi, 2005. Men,

Gods and Masks in Nordic Iron Age Art.

Jörn Stäecker, 2006. Decoding Viking art, The Christian

iconography of the Bamberg Shrine.

Digital collections

The Danish collection

samlinger.natmus.dk
flickr.com/nationalmuseet

The Norwegian collection

unimus.no/foto

The Swedish collection

mis.historiska.se
flickr.com/historiska

The British collection

https://britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx
artsandculture.google.com/partner/the-british-museum

81
Thanks

I’d like to thank my patrons on Patreon for

supporting my work and helping me in spreading
the knowledge with a special thanks to:

Mark Atchley
Shane Curran
Doug Hull
Peter Lillian
Ashira Malka
Eric Root
Want more?

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available for download from my website.

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