Copyright © 2015

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof

may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever
without the express written permission of the publisher
except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.
About the Author:

James Weber is an author and journalist. He has a passion for

literature and loves writing about social sciences, focusing on
history, economics and politics. His hobbies include rowing, hiking
and any other outdoor activity. James is married and has two kids.

Check out his website www.worldhistorybooks.net for great

timelines about World History.
 Other Books in the
History in 50 Events Series

Click on the image to go to the book page

 Even more books by the Author:
Economics: Economics Explained in 8 Rules
The Biggest Political Scandals: The Most Famous
Cases of Sex, Money and Drugs in Politics
The 10 Most Successful Internet Companies:
Their Success Stories and Secrets
Content

Introduction

From the First Humans in Britain to the Declaration of

Arbroath

1) 500,000 - Early Humans Migrate to Britain from Europe

2) 6,200 B.C. - Land Bridgebetween Britain and Europe Disappears
3) 2,000 B.C. - Stonehenge Is Completed
4) 43 A.D. - Romans Invade Britain
5) 122 A.D. - Hadrian’s Wall between England and Scotland
6) 597 - Saint Augustine Lands in Britain
7) 871 - Alfred the Great Becomes King of Wessex
8) 1066 - The Battle of Hastings
9) 1215 - Magna Carta is Signed
10) 1320 - The Declaration of Arbroath

From the Peasant’s Revolt to the Glorious Revolution

11) 1380 - Geoffrey Chaucer Begins Writing

12) 1381 - The Peasant’s Revolt
13) 1415 - The Battle of Agincourt
14) 1559 - The Elizabethan Religious Settlement
15) 1588 - The Defeat of the Spanish Armada
16) 1605 - The Gunpowder Plot
17) 1611 - The Plantation of Ulster
18) 1616 - William Shakespeare Dies
19) 1649 - The Execution of Charles I
20) 1688 - The Glorious Revolution

From the Act of Union to the Battle of Yorktown

21) 1694 - Establishment of the Bank of England

22) 1707 - Act of Union between England and Scotland
23) 1721 - Robert Walpole Becomes First Prime Minister of Great Britain
24) 1729 - The Gin Act
25) 1757 - The Battle of Plassey
26) 1759 - John Harrison’s H4 Watch
27) 1769 - James Watt Patents His Steam Engine
28) 1771 - First Water Powered Cotton Mill
29) 1776 - Adam Smith’s ‘The Wealth of Nations’ is Published
30) 1781 - The Battle of Yorktown

From Waterloo to the FA Rule Book

31) 1805 - The Battle of Trafalgar

32) 1807 - Abolition of the Slave Trade
33) 1815 - The Battle of Waterloo
34) 1829 - Metropolitan Police Act
35) 1837 - Queen Victoria Ascends to the Throne
36) 1850 - The Factory Act
37) 1857 - David Livingstone’s ‘Missionary Travels’ is Published
38) 1859 - Building of Red House Begins
39) 1859 - Charles Darwin’s ‘The Origin of Species’ is Published
40) 1863 - The FA Rule Book is Created

From BBC to the Good Friday Agreement

41) 1913 - Suffragette Emily Davison Throws Herself under the King’s
Horse
42) 1916 - The Battle of the Somme
43) 1927 - British Broadcasting Corporation
44) 1940 - The Blitz Begins
45) 1941 - Frank Whittle’s Jet Engine Takes Its First Flight
46) 1948 - The SS Windrush Arrives in Tilbury
47) 1948 - Birth of the National Health Service
48) 1973 - United Kingdom Joins European Union
49) 1991 - Two Sides of the Channel Tunnel Become Connected
50) 1998 - Good Friday Agreement
Introduction
The British Isles have a rich history going back many centuries. The islands
were first inhabited by nomads who came from the European mainland,
crossing over an ancient land bridge called Doggerland. Footprints of humans
found in Norfolk date back over 800,000 years and traces of different tribes
suggest first permanent settlements around 500,000 years ago. Until about
14,000 years ago, Great Britain was joined to Ireland, at the same time being
connected to the Netherlands and Denmark. Near Bristol, in Cheddar Gorge,
the remains of animals native to mainland Europe such as brown bears,
antelopes, and wild horses have been dug up alongside those of a human,
dated to about 7150 B.C.

During the medieval period, the islands saw several invasions by the
Germanic-speaking Saxons, beginning in the 6th century. Over the following
centuries, different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were formed and soon covered
most of present-day England. Around the 9th century, Vikings from Norway
and Denmark conquered great parts of the country, leaving only the Kingdom
of Wessex under Alfred the Great to the Anglo-Saxons.

The Renaissance and Modern periods were marked by major historical events
including the English and Scottish Reformation, the Restoration of Charles II,
the English Civil War, and the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the
formation of the First British Empire. It was here that the Industrial
Revolution first took place and then spread throughout the world.

Today, the British Isles contain two different states: the United Kingdom and
the Republic of Ireland. The United Kingdom comprises England, Scotland,
Northern Ireland, and Wales, with each country having its own history. (All
but Northern Ireland were independent states at one point).
From the First Humans in Britain
to the Declaration of Arbroath

Click Here To Go To Table Of

Content
 1) 500,000 - Early Humans Migrate to Britain from Europe
The early human occupation of Britain is believed to begin around 500,000
years ago, during a warm interglacial. During this time, humans had long
reached Europe (approximately 1 million years ago and probably in the form
of Homo heidelbergensis). The Boxgrove site contains evidence for a human
presence in Britain half a million years ago, which includes hand axes and
flint tools. However, the first settlements were only established several
thousand years later, as the nomads were forced out of the area by a major
cold phase that lasted 50,000 years and only ended at the beginning of the
Hoxnian Interglacial.

Britain was most likely re-colonized 60,000 years ago as a mammoth

butchery site near Norfolk suggests. The climate at this time remained harsh,
and the settlers probably moved south when temperatures decreased,
resulting in a series of evacuations from and re-colonisations of Britain. It is
still unknown whether these were made by modern humans or Neanderthals.
If Neanderthals settled in the region, they were replaced by modern humans
some 30,000 years ago, as earlier sites such as the Paviland Cave on the
Gower show only remains of Homo sapiens.

2) 6,200 B.C. - Land Bridge between

Britain and Europe Disappears

The land bridge that connected Great Britain to mainland Europe during the
last Ice Age is called Doggerland. After being gradually flooded by rising sea
levels approximately 6,200 B.C., the area of land now lies beneath the North
Sea. Scientist believe that Doggerland connected Britain's east coast with the
coast of the Netherlands, the Danish peninsula of Jutland, and western parts
of Germany. It is likely to have been inhabited by humans and other animals,
though over time and with rising sea levels, the area turned into low-lying
islands and later disappeared completely. Modern vessels have found remains
of several animals such as mammoths and lions, as well as a number of
prehistoric weapons and tools. In 2005, a Neanderthal skull was dragged up
by a ship off the coast of Zeeland. The skull dates back more than 40,000
years and was later exhibited in Leiden.
 The possible location of Doggerland

A recent hypothesis suggests that most parts of Doggerland, after already

being reduced in size, were flooded by a mega-tsunami some 8,200 years
ago. The tsunami was probably caused off the coast of Norway by a
submarine landslide. Another theory states that the tsunami did not entirely
flood Doggerland, but that only the bursting of Lake Agassiz could release
enough fresh water into the ocean to drive sea levels high enough for a
flooding that would cut of Britain from the continent.
 3) 2,000 B.C. - Stonehenge is Completed (Britain)

The monument of Stonehenge is located in Wiltshire, England. Even though

all that remains is a ring of large stones set within earthworks, it is one of the
most famous ancient sites in the world. Scientists believe Stonehenge was
built somewhere around 3000 B.C. - 2000 B.C. An examination using
radiocarbon dating suggests that the first stones were raised around 2300
B.C., though other theories state that bluestones might have been brought to
the site as early as five thousand years ago. Stonehenge and its surroundings
were listed as a UNESCO's World Heritage in 1986. The site is owned by the
Crown of England and overseen by English Heritage.

The Stonehenge monument in 2005

Archaeological artifacts found in 2008 indicate that the monument functioned

as a cremation cemetery since its beginnings. It was most likely the burial
ground of prominent local families or elite members of clans. In addition, it
might have been used as a place for ancient rituals of healing and prayer. Due
to the age of the monument, it is probable that its function changed over the
years as tribes settled nearby and in the surrounding landscape. Another
mystery that remains are the construction techniques used by the monument
builders. While some sources believed that supernatural or anachronistic
methods must have been used to move the giant stones, reenactments of
conventional techniques in the Neolithic era showed that is in fact possible to
raise stones of a similar size.
 4) 43 A.D. - Romans Invade Britain
During the period of Roman invasion, Britain was inhabited by Celtic tribes.
The Romans had already attempted to invade on two occasions in 55 and 54
B.C., under the Emperor Julius Caesar. These conquests had failed due to
unexpected British ferociousness and revolt in Gaul, which is modern day
France, forcing them to leave Britain prematurely. By the time they invaded
in 43 A.D., the Roman Empire was huge and did not necessarily need Britain
as a territory. Instead, Emperor Claudius invaded in order to legitimize his
position of power, as there was much opposition to his rule due to the indirect
nature of his claim to the throne. 40,000 soldiers divided into four legions
were led to Britain under the authority of army general Aulus Plautius, who
would later become the first governor of Roman Britain. Half of the soldiers
were Roman citizens, whilst the other half were from other parts of the
Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire at the time of the Invasion

They are believed to have landed in either Kent or Sussex, or both, and
defeated the dominant South Eastern tribe, the Catuvellauni, in a battle on the
River Medway. Claudius then arrived to march his army to the capital,
Camulodunum, which is modern day Colchester, in victory. However,
although some tribes agreed to obey Roman laws and pay taxes in return for
keeping their kingdoms, other tribes fought to remain autonomous. In the
South West, the Romans had to besiege the Iron Age hill forts of the Western
tribes in order to defeat them and as they made their way through the
midlands, resistance grew. The Catuvellian prince Caratacus had fled to the
West after the battle on the River Medway and here he had rallied the
Western tribes to form a resistance base. Although the prince was captured
and taken to Rome around 50 A.D., the West continued to resist the Romans.
Almost the entire West was defeated by 76 A.D., although the Ordovices
seem to have maintained autonomy as their territory is not included on a
Roman mosaic of the Empire. In 60-61 A.D., the Queen of the Iceni tribe,
Boudicca, led a revolt that almost drove the Romans out of Britain. The
North was occupied later and the Roman Empire reached its furthest point of
occupation in Britain in 84 A.D. at what is now called The Moray Firth.
 5) 122 A.D. – Hadrian’s Wall between England and Scotland

Hadrian's Wall, named after the Roman Emperor Hadrian, was built from 122
A.D. in Roman province of Britannia between the Solway Firth and the River
Tyne. Today, its remains lie between England and Scotland. The wall
consisted of a stone base and a fort approximately every five miles to secure
the Roman province from enemy tribes in the north. Large parts of the wall
included ditches and military ways for improved defense. The wall was
essentially abandoned after 138 A.D., the year of Hadrian's death, as the new
Emperor Antoninus Pius ordered the construction of another wall further to
the north. A great portion of Hadrian’s Wall can still be visited today and
marks one of the most popular tourist attractions in Northern England. In
1987, UNESCO declared the wall a World Heritage Site.

Remaining sections of the Hadrian's Wall today

It is often believed that the wall was built by slaves. However, contemporary
accounts show that the construction was accomplished with the help of
Roman legionaries from all over Europe. Many saw it as an exercise to keep
oneself fit in the, often very lonely, outpost of the Roman Empire. Using
experienced architects, highly skilled mason builders, carpenters, and many
thousand soldiers, the Roman Empire managed to create one of the most
impressing defensive lines at the time. Many locals also helped indirectly by
trading with the Romans.
 6) 597 - Saint Augustine Lands in Britain
Saint Augustine was a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of
Canterbury. He was Prior of St Andrew’s monastery in Rome when Pope
Gregory the Great asked him to lead a mission to Britain to spread Roman
Christianity among the pagan Anglo-Saxons in 595. This became known as
the Gregorian Mission. Augustine left Rome in 596 with around 40 monks,
but after arriving in Gaul, which is modern day France, they were warned of
the dangers ahead in Britain and turned back. After encouragement from
Pope Gregory, they left once more, arriving on the Isle of Thanet in the
spring of 597.

Augustine's gravesite at Canterbury

King Aethelbert of Kent gave Augustine and his monks housing in

Canterbury and allowed them to preach at St Martin’s church, where his wife
Bertha, the daughter of King Charibert I of Paris, already practiced
Christianity. It is believed that Augustine deliberately chose Aethelbert to
convert first due to his clear sympathy with Christianity. Many conversions
quickly took place, including King Aethelbert himself, and on Christmas Day
597, a mass conversion of thousands of people took place. When learning of
this, Pope Gregory gave Augustine permission to Christianize the Anglo-
Saxon pagan churches and consecrate twelve bishops, over whom he would
hold authority. Thus, he became the head of Christianity in England. He
founded Christ Church in Canterbury as his cathedral as well as the
monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which became known as St Augustine’s
after his death. Early archbishops, including Augustine himself, were buried
here. Canterbury Cathedral remains the cathedral of the Archbishop of
Canterbury today, a position that is still held by the head of the Church of
England.
 7) 871 - Alfred the Great Becomes King of Wessex

Alfred, known as a remarkable figure in English history, became King of

Wessex at a very unstable time for England. The Danish Vikings had been
relentlessly attacking the country with the aim to conquer all four Kingdoms;
East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, and finally Wessex. He fought alongside
his brother, King Ethelred, when he gained his first victory against the Danes
at the Battle of Ashdown in 871. His brother died in April and Alfred became
King, as the wish of their father had been for all brothers to inherit the throne
over any sons they might have. This was probably to prevent the political
instability of a child King at a time when the Kingdom needed to be strong
and united.

Alfred the Great planning the capture of the Danish fleet.

Alfred had varying success when fighting the Danes, having to pay them off
with large amounts of gold on more than one occasion. At one stage, his
army suffered such a terrible defeat that he was forced to withdraw to the
Somerset marshes, from which he began a campaign of guerrilla warfare. He
returned in 878 where he defeated the Danes at the decisive Battle of
Edington. Guthrum, the Viking King, was subsequently baptized with Alfred
as his sponsor, and England was divided into two territories; the North and
the East were to be ruled by the Danes, and the West and the South were to
be ruled by Alfred as the remaining Anglo-Saxon Kingdom. Alfred, in fact,
gained territory with this negotiation, with the addition of lands in West
Mercia and Kent. He successfully prevented additional Danish invasions by
reorganizing his military, building well-defended settlements across the
South, and establishing England’s first navy to fight Danish raiders at the
coast. He was also interested in education, successfully establishing a code of
laws and learning Latin in order to assist in the translation of books from
Latin to Anglo-Saxon.
 8) 1066 - The Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings was a battle for the crown of England between the
Norman-French army of Duke William II of Normandy and the Anglo-Saxon
army under King Harold II. It marked the beginning of the Norman conquest
of England. When King Edward the Confessor died childless in January
1066, Harold Godwinson was crowned Harold II, but his was a highly
contested claim. A number of contenders made their intent to fight for the
crown clear, and William’s was actually one of the weakest claims, merely
sharing a great-grandfather with the deceased Edward. However, William
worked hard to depict his claim as the most legitimate by stating that God
was on his side, a claim supported by the blessing he received from the Pope.

Medieval depiction of the Battle of Hastings

Moreover, he insisted that when he visited England in 1051, the crown had
been promised to him, although this is contested by historians. It was
important for him to get the support of his nobles before marching to England
to fight and he visited his most powerful barons individually, even making
deals with neighboring magnates. Thus, he could sail to England with a
significant amount of support behind him. He waited carefully for the other
contenders to make their moves and once they were all defeated and Harold’s
army was depleted and exhausted, William made his move. It is believed he
landed in England at Pevensey, although recent excavations suggest it may
have been Wilting Manor. He constructed a castle at Pevensey,then burned
and pillaged the area in order to force Harold to march to the south coast in
defense. William marched towards Hastings to meet him and the battle took
place on Senlac Hill, seven miles from Hastings. The number of men in each
force varies between sources, but it is known that William’s forces far
outnumbered Harold’s. The battle lasted all day and casualties were high,
with Harold’s forces fighting a successful defensive battle from the start.
However, the exhausted men eventually gave way and William’s army
succeeded. According to legend, Harold was killed by an arrow in the eye.
William then marched his army on a long campaign to negotiate surrender in
key areas of the country. He was crowned William I on Christmas Day 1066.
On the site of the Battle of Hastings, Battle Abbey was built, and Harold was
buried there until later being taken to his abbey in Waltham. He was the last
Anglo-Saxon King of England.
 9) 1215 - Magna Carta is Signed

In 1215, after King John of England violated a number of ancient laws and
customs by which England had been governed, his Barons forced him to sign
the Magna Carta, which later came to be thought of as the first ‘human
rights.’ Among them was the right of the church to be free from
governmental interference, as well as the rights of all free citizens to own and
inherit property and be protected from excessive taxes. It established the right
of widows who owned property to choose not to remarry, and established
principles of due process and equality before the law. It also contained
provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct.

The 1225 version of Magna Carta issued by Henry III,

held in the National Archives in the United Kingdom

The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed
by each new monarch, although as time went by and the fledgling English
Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. The
political stigma of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal
liberties influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and
the formation of the American Constitution in 1789, which became the
supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Even
though research done by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215
charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the
barons rather than the rights of ordinary people, the charter remained a
powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed
from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries.
 10) 1320 - The Declaration of Arbroath
The Declaration of Arbroath was a Declaration of Scottish Independence in
the form of a letter sent to Pope John XXII. Believed to have been written in
Arbroath Abbey by Abbot Bernard, it contained the seals of eight earls and
forty-five barons of Scotland. It confirmed Scotland as an independent
sovereign state and asked for the Pope’s help in their quarrel with the
English. This quarrel was the Scottish Wars of Independence, which had
begun in 1291 when an unsure succession led the Guardians of Scotland, who
were the heads of state, to ask for Edward I’s arbitration to avoid civil war.
Edward took this opportunity to gain increasing control in Scotland,
marching his army across the border to force them to accept him as Lord
Paramount of Scotland. He had made it clear that he considered Scotland a
vassal state, and two subsequent English invasions over the border led to the
two Wars of Independence from 1296 - 1328 and from 1332 - 1357.

A picture of the so-called Tyninghame copy of the Declaration

It was a time of national crisis in Scotland and a defining time in the history
of the nation, as Scotland maintained its independence on both occasions. It
was in the middle of the first War of Independence that the Declaration was
written. It served two important purposes for the Scottish people: firstly, it
performed a diplomatic plan to justify their fight with the English, and
secondly, it articulated a contractual monarchy, confirming that the Scottish
people could replace the King if he ever betrayed them to the English. This
was significant at a time when Western nations believed in the divine right of
Kings, as this was the first time an expression of a contractual monarchy had
been made, indicating enlightened thinking within Scotland during this
period. It had little impact at the time, having been ignored by the Pope, who
maintained his excommunication of Scotland that was put in place when
King Bruce had killed a rival on the steps of a Franciscan priory. More
interested in the support of Edward I in another crusade to the Holy Land, the
Scottish cause did not move the Pope. However, over the centuries, the
Declaration of Arbroath has increased in importance, seen as a rallying cry
for Scottish independence and a founding document of the Scottish nation.
Historians even believe it may have been influential in the writing of the
American Declaration of Independence.
From the Peasant’s Revolt to the
Glorious Revolution

Click Here To Go To Table Of

Content
 11) 1380 - Geoffrey Chaucer Begins Writing

Geoffrey Chaucer, a preeminent English poet of the medieval period, began

life in a family of winemakers. As was typical of children in middle-class
families, he was placed in the royal service in order to obtain a courtly
education. Serving as both a soldier and a diplomat for Edward III in the
Hundred Years’ War, he travelled much of Europe and acquired life
experiences that aided him in his writing. It is believed he began writing in
1370, his first piece being ‘The Book of the Duchess,’ written as an elegy for
the first wife of John of Gaunt, influenced heavily by French love poetry. His
later pieces appear to have a distinct Italian influence, famous examples being
‘Anelida and Arcite’ and ‘Parlement of Foules.’ It was not until the 1380s
that he began his most renowned achievement, the Canterbury Tales. The
story follows the journey of an eclectic group of pilgrims traveling to the
shrine of Thomas-a-Becket in Canterbury. In order to make the long journey
more interesting, they decided to have a story-telling contest on the way. The
book is made up of the individual stories of each pilgrim. Although mainly
written in verse, some of the book was also written in prose.
 17th century portrait of Chaucer

More importantly, it was written in Middle English rather than French or

Latin, the languages of the court and church respectively. This was a fairly
new tradition and as a result, Chaucer is commended with making the
practice of writing in the vernacular popular. This made his writings
accessible to a much wider audience of people. The content of the Canterbury
Tales reflects important issues within English Medieval society. The mockery
and satire of the clergy and social distinctions shows mistrust in the church
after the Black Death, and ridicules the social divisions between the church,
the nobility, and the peasantry, which were becoming out of control. This was
evident in the Peasant’s Revolt of 1381. It provides a critique of the Medieval
Church of England, which Chaucer depicted as a deteriorating, disorganized
Christian society. It also shows how popular the art of storytelling was in the
court at the time, being an important method of entertainment. Although a
complete manuscript does not exist, enough was completed to form one
coherent book, although the order of the stories is contested. This book
solidified his reputation as the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages, and
his burial place can be found in Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abbey.
 12) 1381 - The Peasant’s Revolt

Discontent within the peasantry in this period was rife for many reasons. The
labor shortage due to the Black Death led to the Statute of Laborers being
passed in 1351. This kept wages at the same level to prevent peasants from
demanding more. Whilst wages stayed the same, prices rose, making
hardship worse for the peasants. When Edward III died in 1377, his grandson
Richard II became King at the young age of ten, and so the power lay in the
hands of the barons. Tired of paying for the long and costly Hundred Years’
War, they instigated the introduction of the Poll Tax. Although meant to be
temporary, it was repeated three times, by the third time demanding the same
amount of money from both peasants and landowners. Unaffordable to
peasants, the collections became a bone of contention, and many hid to avoid
paying. After realizing that the full amount had not been paid for the 1380
Poll Tax, the tax collectors were sent to collect these payments a second time.
In the village of Fobbing in Essex, the peasants had had enough and turned
on the tax collectors, driving them away. Thus, the Peasant’s Revolt began.
 Richard II meets the rebels in 1381
Although uprisings formed all over the country, the main force was in Kent
and Essex, where the peasants turned on the landowners, burning manor
house and records of tax, debt, and labor duties, before marching to London.
Sympathizers let them into the city and they broke open prisons, killed
lawyers and merchants, and burnt down Savoy Palace, home of John of
Gaunt. Richard II met them at Mile End to discuss their demands, agreeing to
grant them everything they requested. At the same time, a group of rebels had
broken into the Tower of London and beheaded the Archbishop of
Canterbury and the King’s Treasurer. Wat Tyler, leader of the Kent rebels,
demanded to meet Richard again and the next day, whilst making more
demands, was grabbed and killed by the Lord Mayor of London. Richard
convinced the leaderless peasants to return home, promising to meet their
demands, but as soon as their long journey home began, royal troops were
sent out to capture and kill them.

Although thousands were killed and the revolt was suppressed, the peasants
achieved some long-term success. Parliament gave up control of peasant
wages, the Poll Tax was never raised again, and peasants were treated with
more respect by their landowners, making more free men. Furthermore, this
marked the beginning of the end of the feudal system in Medieval England.
 13) 1415 - The Battle of Agincourt

The Battle of Agincourt was a decisive English victory against the French in
the Hundred Years’ War. The army was led by King Henry V, who made his
claim to the throne through his great-grandfather Edward III. Known today as
a great military king, this battle certainly helped solidify that reputation.
Henry had marched his army into France two months before the Battle,
laying siege to the town of Harfleur with the intention of using it as a base for
further military campaigns. However, the town put up an unexpectedly strong
resistance, and it took around five weeks for them to surrender. Many English
men had been lost to battle casualties and disease, and Henry decided to turn
his troops around and march to Calais, where an English fleet would be
waiting to take them home to recover. However, the French were rallying,
and by the time Henry’s men reached Agincourt, a vast French army stood in
their way.

Although exact numbers are contested, the French army definitely

outnumbered the English by far. A gloomy night was spent in the English
camp, whilst the French taunted them from across the field. However, when
the morning came and the battle began, Henry’s troops had a number of
advantages. The continuous, heavy rain had left the recently plowed field
muddy, and this alongside the heavy French armor made their journey across
the field slow and laborious. The English took advantage of this by barraging
them with arrows using their superior longbows, taking down many French
men before they even made it across the field. Furthermore, the number of
French men ended up working against them, as they quickly became crowded
in the narrow field, yet forced forward by the continuous rush of men behind
them. By the time they met the English in hand-to-hand combat, they had no
room to safely wield their swords, and the English were able to successfully
attack their flanks without much resistance. The French lost up to 10,000 men
during this Battle, whilst the English lost only around 500. On returning
home, Henry was greeted as a hero, and the devastation that they had caused
the French army made later efforts against France significantly easier. This
resulted in the Treaty of Troyes in 1420 recognizing Henry as regent and heir
to the French throne.
 14) 1559 - The Elizabethan Religious Settlement

After the religious turbulence of the reigns of her father and siblings,
Elizabeth was keen to settle the issue of religion quickly once becoming
Queen. Her father, Henry VIII, had instigated the break with Rome and
established a Catholic Church of England with him as the Supreme Head of
the Church. Her brother, Edward VI, had been educated by Protestant
sympathizers and as such reformed the Church of England to Protestantism
during his short six-year reign. Then their devout Catholic sister, Mary I, re-
instated Catholicism and killed so many Protestants for heresy that she
became known as ‘Bloody Mary.’ Elizabeth wanted to put these divisions to
rest and so adopted a compromising attitude towards religion. In 1558, the
same year that she became Queen, Elizabeth passed the Act of Supremacy
that established England’s independence from Rome once again.

Elizabeth I in her coronation robes

She was made Supreme Governor of the Church, carefully avoiding the
phrase ‘Head’ in order to allay fears of a female ruling over the Church and
to pacify Catholics. Although this passed easily, the 1559 Act of Uniformity
was not as popular, passing by only three votes. This Act outlined the form
that the Church was to take. The Book of Common Prayer was re-established,
although subtle wording meant that both Catholic and Protestant communion
could be practiced. Papal idolatry was destroyed to an extent, although
Elizabeth was lenient. Heresy laws that Mary put in place were repealed, and
she drafted Royal Injunctions with her closest advisor William Cecil,
encouraging some continuity with the country’s Catholic past. Throughout
the whole process, Elizabeth kept a conciliatory tone on religious beliefs as
many Protestants that fled during Mary’s reign had returned to live alongside
the Catholics. Furthermore, Europe contained both Protestant and Catholic
rulers and while she wanted to ally with fellow Protestant nations such as
Germany, she did not want to lose Catholic Spain as an ally, nor encourage
Catholic France to forge even closer ties with Scotland. Thus, her actions
were to protect her realm from both internal strife as well as international
discord. Clashes were inevitable, especially early in her reign, yet the
Religious Settlement was a long-term success in England. By the end of
Elizabeth’s reign, England was so dedicated to Protestantism that Catholic
sympathies were never to be accepted from a monarch again, playing a role in
the Civil War during the reign of Charles I as well as in the deposition of
James II.
 15) 1588 - The Defeat of the Spanish Armada

The Spanish Armada sailed to England in 1588 as a planned conquest by

King Philip II. Relations between the two countries had soured in the thirty
years since Elizabeth I became Queen. This was partly due to religious
tensions, as the Catholic Spanish believed Elizabeth to be a heretical Queen.
It was also due to the support Elizabeth gave her English privateers in
plundering Spanish ships returning from the New World. Furthermore, the
treasures stolen were used to financially assist the Netherlands’ rebellion
against Spanish rule. Although Philip had initially intended to free the
Catholic Mary Queen of Scots with his Armada and place her on the throne
of England, she was executed the year before they sailed. Instead, he intended
to place his daughter Isabella on the throne of England. However, the Spanish
had problems early on, with a large amount of their fleet destroyed at Cadiz
by Francis Drake.

The Battle as depicted by an unknown painter

Moreover, the experienced Spanish commander Santa Cruz died and was
replaced by the Duke of Medina Sedonia, a man disinterested in the venture
and prone to seasickness. Regardless, the Armada set out mid-1588 with the
aim to meet The Duke of Parma, Philip’s nephew, and his Spanish force
coming from The Netherlands. However, Dutch forces prevented them from
leaving and the Armada was forced to stop at Calais to gather European
troops. The people of England were warned of their approach with beacons lit
across the coast by men watching out on the cliffs. Elizabeth made her way to
Tilbury where her troops awaited, dressed as a warrior Queen, and gave her
famously ferocious Tilbury speech. Drake cleverly sent burning ships across
the Channel to burn the Armada fleet, causing them to break formation and
making them vulnerable. A combination of terrible driving winds and rain
and the smaller, faster, more maneuverable English ships, which were
significantly better armed, drove the Armada to a humiliating retreat. Forced
to make their way around the coast of Scotland to flee, many ships were lost
before making it back to Spain. This was a huge success for England against
the great Spanish Empire and solidified Francis Drake’s reputation as a naval
hero. Celebrations in London were huge, with thanks given for what they
believed had been a storm created by a Protestant God on their behalf.
 16) 1605 - The Gunpowder Plot
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was a plan led by Robert Catesby, whose own
father had been imprisoned for harboring a Catholic priest, to kill James I.
After the defeat of the Catholic Spanish Armada in 1588 under Queen
Elizabeth I, persecution of Catholics had increased in England. James’ wife
Anne of Denmark was Catholic, as had been his mother Mary Queen of
Scots, and as such, hopes were high that persecution of Catholics would
desist under his reign. When this failed to happen and Catholic priests began
being ordered to leave the country, Catholic unrest grew. Catesby’s plan
developed into blowing up the Houses of Parliament when James opened
Parliament on November 5, 1605. They would then place James’ daughter,
Isabella, on the throne and ensure that she converted the country back to
Catholicism. The group of men operating alongside Catesby rented a cellar
underneath the Houses of Parliament where they managed to position 36
barrels of gunpowder.

The undercroft beneath the House of Lords, where the gunpowder was planted

Guy Fawkes, an explosives expert, was left behind to light the fuse.
However, an anonymous letter had been sent to Lord Monteagle the week
before the plot was to be executed, warning him not to attend Parliament that
day. He showed the letter to the Earl of Salisbury who decided that last
minute action would be the most effective. Guy Fawkes was apprehended
when guards entered the cellar for a last minute security check. He was taken
to the Tower of London where he was tortured until he named the other
conspirators. They were all either shot on the run or captured and executed
for treason. New repressive measures were instigated against Catholics, such
as taking away their right to vote. November 5th was made a day of
celebration when effigies of Guy Fawkes were burnt on a bonfire, and it is
still celebrated with fireworks in England today.
 17) 1611 - The Plantation of Ulster

A series of events in the late 16th century and early 17th century led to the
Plantation of Ulster, which was the organized colonization of the Ulster
province of Ireland. The conquest of Ireland was begun by Henry VIII in the
early 16th century and Ulster was the last province to resist. They were
finally defeated in the Nine Years’ War of 1594-1603, a costly war for both
the English and the Irish. Subjugation of Catholics increased in Ireland after
this and in 1607, rebel Irish Chiefs fled Ireland in what became called the
Flight of the Earls, in the hope of finding assistance from Spain. James I
ordered their lands to be seized and preparations began being made for their
colonization. A rebellion in 1608 led by Sir Cahir O’Doherty, although
suppressed, increased the sense of urgency in the colonization plans. The six
counties of Donegal, Coleraine, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Cavan, and Armagh
were included in the plans, with the counties of Antrim and Down already
colonized by the Scottish in a private venture.

The counties of Ulster colonised during the plantations

All land was confiscated and redistributed between English and Scottish
settlers and rules were put in place to prevent the Irish benefiting from the
situation, such as only English or Scottish workers being permitted to work
on the land. Irish landowners were given a remaining quarter of the leftover
land and Irish peasants were relocated. The overall aim was to populate
Ireland with loyal British subjects in order to restrain the native Irish people.
This was due to that fact that rebellions were costly to suppress and
furthermore, if the land became well populated and rich, James would benefit
from the increase in tax revenue. In some ways, it was a success, as by the
1630s there was a thriving Protestant population in Ulster. However, some
sources state that the natural flow of population between Scotland and Ulster
had more of an impact on this, with their private colonization of Antrim and
Down developing into the most populated and profitable areas. On top of
this, Irish uprisings continued, with thousands of British killed and expelled
in the 1941 Irish Rebellion. The partition of Ireland in 1941 has been
attributed by some to the segregation of the Protestants and the Catholics
caused by the Plantation of Ulster.
 18) 1616 - William Shakespeare Dies
In 1616, at the age of 52, William Shakespeare died after a successful career
in London as a writer and actor. Born in Stratford-upon-Avon to a tradesman
father and farmer mother, no one could have foretold his incredible success.
Although attending grammar school, struggles with family debt meant that he
did not attend university. He married Anne Hathaway in 1582 and they bore
three children, a daughter Susanna and twins Hamnet and Judith. After this,
his presence in history disappears until his plays began being performed in
London in the early 1590s. In 1594, he became a shareholder in the Lord
Chamberlain’s Men, a renowned London acting company of players who
performed each other’s plays, often to Elizabeth I. When James I became
King he issued a Royal Patent, renaming the group the King’s Men.

The famous Chandos portrait of Shakespeare

Shakespeare’s purchase of a large house in Stratford in 1597 indicates the

financial success of his writing by this time. In 1599, he helped in
establishing the Globe Theater in London, a replica of which remains on the
bank of the River Thames in London, where his plays are still performed
today. His plays are described as being written in stages of genre; his early
work were comedies and histories, followed by a phase of writing tragedies,
followed by romances. Whilst theaters were sporadically closed during
outbreaks of the plague, he also wrote many sonnets. He survived to see a
compilation of his 154 sonnets in 1611, but sadly did not live to see the
publication of the first collection of his 38 plays in 1623. Ben Jonson, in an
introduction to this collection, wrote that Shakespeare was ‘not of an age, but
for all time.’ As his health declined in 1616, he adjusted his will, leaving his
estate to his daughters (as his son had passed away) and leaving money to
many family members, friends, theatre partners, and the poor of Stratford. He
was buried at the Holy Trinity Church in Stratford, the same church in which
he had been baptized. Once seen as an esteemed playwright of the era, he is
now considered the greatest writer of the English language.
 19) 1649 - The Execution of Charles I

Charles I inherited the throne from his father, James I, in 1625. Tension
between Charles and Parliament quickly grew due to his excessive exercising
of power, which he confidently undertook due to his belief in the divine right
of Kings. He demanded money for a Scottish rebellion that he had caused,
demanded unreasonable taxes without Parliament’s consent, and imprisoned
those who did not pay without trial. On top of this, his marriage to the Roman
Catholic princess Henrietta Maria made his Protestant subjects suspicious of
him. By 1629, he was effectively ruling without the consent of Parliament.
This led to the English Civil War in 1642, with the Parliamentary army led by
Oliver Cromwell. Although the Royalist army appeared to be succeeding at
first, a number of decisive defeats led to their surrender in 1648 at the Battle
of Preston. Around 180,000 lives were lost, although many were lost to
disease rather than battle casualties, and Charles was captured and put on
trial.
 German print of Charles I's execution

This was an unpopular decision, even with Cromwell’s supporters, and in

spite of the fact that Parliament had been purged of Royalists, many voted
against the decision. Of the 135 men called to oversee the High Court of
Justice, only 68 attended and of those, only 59 signed the death warrant.
Throughout proceedings, Charles refused to defend himself, as he did not
recognize the legality of the court. The decision was made that he must be
executed and on January 30, 1649, he was led to the scaffold outside The
Banqueting House in Whitehall. He famously wore two heavy shirts that cold
day so as not to shiver and appear afraid. Many had refused to execute him
until a large sum of money was paid, alongside the stipulation that the
executioner could wear a mask to remain anonymous. As Charles was
beheaded, a groan came from the crowd, making evident the lack of support
for this action. Oliver Cromwell abolished the monarchy a few days later and
ruled at the head of the Council of State of the Commonwealth of England
until 1660. After his death, the monarchy was restored with the return of
Charles II, and everyone associated with the execution of Charles I was put
on trial. However, although the monarchy was restored, the concept of an all-
powerful monarch was over, and the role of the constitutional monarchy had
begun.
 20) 1688 - The Glorious Revolution

James II came to the throne in 1685 and quickly aroused suspicion with his
policies of religious tolerance. After exile in France during the rule of Oliver
Cromwell over the Commonwealth of England, James had converted to
Catholicism, and because of this, various attempts had been made between
1678 and 1681 to exclude him from the succession. When his Catholic Italian
Princess wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a boy in 1688, Parliament
began to panic; the throne would now pass to a Catholic, as opposed to
James’ daughter Mary, who had been raised as a Protestant at the insistence
of Charles II. As a result, a number of Tories and Whigs united in contacting
William of Orange, Mary’s husband, and asking him to being a military force
to England and place Mary on the throne.

The Prince's landing at Torbay

William accepted, as he wanted England’s help in fighting the growing

power of France in Europe, under the rule of Louis XIV. He amassed an
impressive force and landed at Brixham, Torbay, in November, making a
wary advance to London. Support for James quickly dissipated, many of his
men deserting him for William. James fled to France, and in 1869, William
and Mary negotiated the Declaration of Right, whereby the two of them
would rule a joint monarchy as William III and Mary II. On top of this, the
Bill of Rights was passed to remove some of the absolute powers of the
monarchy, such as the power to suspend or dispense of laws and the power to
have a standing army during times of peace. This marked the establishment
of Parliamentary democracy alongside a constitutional monarchy in England.
Furthermore, Catholics were forever barred from inheriting the throne of
England, which would eventually lead to the accession of the German
Georgian Kings in 1714. The revolution was named ‘glorious’ due to the
limited bloodshed in England, yet many in Scotland and Ireland resisted the
change.
From the Act of Union to the Battle
of Yorktown

Click Here To Go To Table Of

Content
 21) 1694 - Establishment of the Bank of England
The Bank of England was established in response to the dire situation of the
Government’s finances. Wars with France had used up all their money and
the monetary system was in disarray following the poor financial
management of the previous Stuart Kings. After their crippling defeat at the
Battle of Beachy Head in 1960, England was in dire need of rebuilding its
navy to reestablish them as a global power. However, they did not have the
money to begin this process. In response to this problem, the plans for the
Bank of England were devised by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax.

The sealing of the bank's Charter in 1694

He proposed that a number of subscribers loan the amount of £1,200,000 to

the Government at a return rate of 8%. These subscribers would then be
incorporated as The Governor and Company of the Bank of England, the
original name of the Bank. Terms of banking privileges for the subscribers
were agreed upon in the Tonnage Act of 1694; it would be a limited liability
corporation, the subscribers would have exclusive access of the Government
balance, and they would be allowed to issue bank notes, which became a
widely accepted currency. Once these terms were agreed to, the money was
raised in just 12 days. The Bank was built in London, and later moved to its
current location on Threadneedle Street. This, alongside the industrial effort
required to rebuild the navy, helped to restore the English economy and by
the late 18th century, their navy was dominant once more. Still used today,
the Bank of England remains the second oldest central bank in the world.
 22) 1707 - Act of Union between England and Scotland

The Act of Union was formed of two Acts of Parliament joining England and
Scotland together as one Kingdom. England and Scotland had shared a
monarchy since James IV of Scotland also inherited the throne of England as
James I in 1603. The two countries had been negotiating a union throughout
the 17th century but various political disruptions had led them to fail. At the
start of the 18th century, both countries were keen to renegotiate. With Queen
Anne failing to have any living children and well beyond the age of
conceiving any more, the succession of the English throne become a point of
concern in Parliament. Due to the law preventing Catholics from inheriting
the throne, they had had to make a long journey through the line of
succession to find a Protestant heir.

Queen Anne in 1702, the year she rose to the throne

This was Sophia, Electress of Hanover, who actually died before Queen
Anne, leaving the throne to her son George, Elector of Hanover. Scotland
found Sophia unfavorable, increasing English concerns that Scotland would
aid Louis XIV of France in restoring the Catholic Jacobites, in exile in
France, to the throne of England. After all the political unrest and fighting of
the 17th century, they did not want another war over succession. Scotland
had more economic motivations in creating the Union; in 1698 they had
made an attempt at establishing themselves as a world trading power by
creating a colony called ‘Caledonia’ on the Gulf of Darien in South America.
However, they misjudged the reaction of the Spanish, who besieged the
Scottish in 1700, and they were forced to flee. The huge amount of money
invested in this venture had been lost, and they needed the assistance of
England’s colonial trade markets for their economy to thrive again. The two
countries came to an agreement and the Treaty of Union was agreed upon in
July 1706. This led to the passing of the Union with Scotland Act in England
that same year, and the Union with England Act in Scotland in 1707. Thus,
the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed.
 23) 1721 - Robert Walpole Becomes
First Prime Minister of Great Britain

Robert Walpole is considered to be Great Britain’s first Prime Minister,

although he did not carry the title. He entered Parliament as part of the Whig
party in 1701 as an MP in Norfolk, subsequently rising through a quick
succession of positions, becoming the Secretary of War in 1708 and the
Treasurer of the Navy in 1710. He was briefly imprisoned in 1712 on
corruption charges instigated by his Tory rivals. When George I came to the
throne in 1714, the political tide turned; George disliked the Tories as they
disapproved of his succession and as a result, the Whigs came back into
power. In 1715, Walpole was made the first Lord of the Treasury and the
Chancellor of the Exchequer, yet due to divisions within the party, he
resigned from these positions in 1717.

Also at this time was a quarrel between George I and his son, Prince George,
and the Royal Household split. During this period, Walpole became friendly
with the Prince’s wife, Princess Caroline, and used this to bring about
reconciliation in 1720. Once again in the King’s favor, Walpole was
appointed a position as paymaster general and in 1721, he became first Lord
of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer once more. This is
considered to be the time when he took on his authoritative role as Prime
Minister. He is known for his skillful handling of the South Sea Bubble in the
1720s, the crash of a trading company that exposed company and
Government corruption. He played a significant part in restoring the
Government’s credit during this time, evident in the fact that even after this
scandal he remained in power for another 20 years. His policies were those of
low taxation and peace abroad, which gained him the support of the
backbenchers and the House of Commons. His successfully maintained his
position when George II came to the throne and showed such loyalty to him
that he was even elevated the position of the Earl of Oxford. He resigned in
1742 but continued to play an active part in politics for the rest of his life.
 24) 1729 - The Gin Act

The Gin Act of 1929 was a legislative response to the rise in gin consumption
and the association of this with the spreading of lawlessness across London.
Gin had been increasingly drunk since William III placed heavy restrictions
on the import of brandy from France due to conflict with them. He urged
English brewers to utilize the impressive grain production of the time and
distill their own alcohol. Thus, he actively encouraged the production of gin.
Alongside this, as the economy began to grow, prices of food fell whilst
income rose, so people had more excess money to spend on alcohol. As
people had been increasingly producing gin, prices of the beverage fell
considerably. This led to it becoming the preferable alcoholic beverage of the
time. As gin consumption steadily grew, it became known as the ‘gin craze’
or ‘gin panic.’

‘Beer Street and Gin Lane’ by William Hogarth

Historians have noted how particular concern was directed towards the
increase in women drinking gin. This led to the nickname of gin becoming
‘mother’s ruin,’ and art was depicted of women too drunk to look after their
children. As well as demonstrating the belief at the time that mothers had a
particular responsibility towards their family, it also shows how society was
taking an interest in population growth. This was important in Europe at the
time for economic, political, and military stability, and many believed that
gin consumption was causing a decline in the birth rate and an increase in the
death rate. In response, the 1729 Gin Act was implemented, increasing retail
tax on gin to 5 shillings per gallon. This was raised even further in 1736 to 20
shillings per gallon, leading to working class riots in London.

In 1751, a final Gin Act was passed setting strict rules for the selling of gin.
On top of this, import of tea and production of beer increased to provide
tempting alternatives. This, alongside the Acts and the decrease in the
production of grain, led the level of gin consumption to lower to average
levels by the end of the 18th century.
 25) 1757 - The Battle of Plassey

The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the East India Company of
Great Britain over Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah of Bengal. It was part of a wider
conflict between Great Britain and France over colonial lands, known as the
Seven Years’ War, as the Nawab was allied with the French. The fighting
began when Siraj-ud-daulah’s forces attacked and captured Fort William in
Calcutta in an attempt to prevent further British expansion. The British
prisoners were kept in a small dungeon in the Fort overnight, so small that
many died of suffocation and crushing. This became known as the Black
Hole of Calcutta. British reinforcements arrived under Colonel Robert Clive
and Admiral Charles Watson and recaptured the Fort, making a new alliance
with Siraj-ud-daulah.

English guns at the battle

However, this was soon broken when the British captured the French Fort
Chandernagar. Fighting culminated in the Battle of Plassey. The British,
although greatly outnumbered, succeeded in just a few hours. This was due to
the weak position of Siraj-ud-daulah, whose unpopular rule led to dissension
in his ranks. Siraj-ud-daulah fled and was captured and executed and Mir
Jafar, an influential Indian General who refused to fight against the British,
was made Nawab. As a result, the British East India Company established a
sponsored Indian state that was controlled, but not administered by them.
This is seen as the beginning of British supremacy in India as a defining
victory over a profitable area that allowed for British dominance of trade in
this area.
 26) 1759 - John Harrison’s H4 Watch
Solves the Search for Longitude

The search to find longitude grew in importance throughout the 17th century
as overseas trade and travel expanded. Sailors could find their latitude, their
position from North to South, by measuring the local time using the position
of the sun. However, longitude, their position from East to West, was more
difficult to measure, yet vital for navigation. The speed at which the earth
turned was known to be around 15º per hour, so in knowing the local time as
well the time at a certain reference point, navigators could calculate their
longitude. The issue was being able to work out the time at the chosen
reference point. This issue became so important that in 1714, an Act of
Parliament offered £20,000 for a solution and the Board of Longitude was set
up to assess proposals made.

1767 portrait of John Harrison

The stipulation was that the measurement of time had to be within two
minutes of accuracy. At the time, two possible solutions existed: a
mechanical timekeeper showing the time of the chosen reference point, and
the lunar distance method of using the position of the moon in relation to the
stars to calculate the time at the chosen reference point. John Harrison, a
joiner and watchmaker, began working on the mechanical timekeeper in
1728. Three trials were made, which contained mechanical innovations that
are still used today, before he discovered the correct design. In 1753, he had
commissioned a watch of his own design to be made by John Jeffreys, a
watchmaker in London, when he realized that with a few alterations it could
be an effective timekeeper on the sea. In 1759, it was complete, after he
successfully subverted the issues that affected the accuracy of the time over a
long period at sea, such as temperature, humidity, and a constantly moving
ship.

Harrison took the large pocket watch, called H4, to the Board and it was
tested on two voyages in the 1760s. Both times, the watch performed well
within the two minutes of accuracy required. He was awarded the first half of
the prize money on the condition that he handed over all four of his models
and allowed copies to be made. He reluctantly agreed and chose Larcum
Kendall, another watchmaker in London, to make the copies. He was then
told he must produce another two copies of H4 in order to receive the second
half of the award. He created one copy called H5 and Kendall made a copy
called K1, which was tested in 1770 and generally agreed to have solved the
search for longitude.

In 1773, Harrison finally received almost the entire second half of the award
after appealing to George III and Parliament to test his H5, which performed
exceptionally. As such, he received the recognition due that he had solved the
search for longitude.
 27) 1769 - James Watt Patents His Steam Engine

James Watt is known for being the inventor of the first practical steam
engine. The steam engine in a different form was already in use, having been
invented by Thomas Newcomen in the 1690s. In 1764, whilst working at the
University of Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker, Watt was given a
Newcomen engine to repair. He had been fascinated with steam engines for
many years and had studied them in detail. Watching the workings of
Newcomen’s engine, Watt discovered the inefficiency of it; the engine used
up large quantities of unused steam and the excessive heating and cooling of
the cylinder was a waste of power. Thus, he set about improving it.

Scientific apparatus designed by Watt

He came up with the idea of a separate condenser that would keep cool,
thereby allowing the cylinder to be kept hot at the same time. His discovery
used 75% less fuel than the previous engine. He patented this design in 1769
and continued to make improvements. As the cost of production grew, he
entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton, the entrepreneur and owner of
an engineering company in Birmingham, who assisted in funding Watt’s
developments. Renamed Boulton & Watt, the company soon became
established as the most prolific engineering company in the country, their
designs being used in many industries such as mining, distilleries,
waterworks, and a variety of production mills. For their innovation, the two
men were elected as fellows of the Royal Society in 1785. Watt continued to
create many significant engineering inventions until his death in 1819, all of
which had a huge impact in the Industrial Revolution. In honor of his
achievements, the Watt, a unit of measurement of power, was named after
him.
 28) 1771 - First Water Powered Cotton Mill
Using the Spinning Frame Opens

In the 1760s, the textiles industry in Great Britain had expanded beyond its
means of production as it was still relying on the production of homespun
yarn using spinning wheels, which could only be done by hand. This
necessitated a mechanical solution in order to produce yarn at a rate that
could not be achieved by hand. In 1764, the spinning jenny was introduced,
but it was soon to be replaced by the spinning frame. The exact inventor of
the spinning frame is contested. John Kay the watchmaker appeared to have
been working on something with the inventor Thomas Highs, when Kay was
subsequently employed by Richard Arkwright the entrepreneur to continue
developments using draw rollers. The two worked in secret and the
technology was first used in 1969 at a cotton mill using horse power.

Illustration of the watercourses

This was when Arkwright secretly took his patent out on the spinning frame.
The inefficiency of horse power led to the opening of Cromford Mill in 1771
using the frame with water power, which was a resounding success.The use
of water power led to it later being renamed the water frame. Cromford Mill
is considered to be the first cotton factory, which were to become a legacy of
the Industrial Revolution. The frame used draw rollers to stretch the yarn thin
enough to bind cotton together, yet keeping it stronger than hand spun yarn.
Although the machine required initial financial investment, it was very
simple to use, so little training was required. This made inexpensive cotton
spinning popular and was vital in the growth of the textile industry during the
Industrial Revolution. By the 1830s, the demand for cotton was so high that
all spinning had to be carried out in these factories, and steam powered
spinning wheels were developed in urban areas where there were no powerful
rivers.
 29) 1776 - Adam Smith’s ‘The Wealth of Nations’ is Published

‘The Wealth of Nations,’ also known by its official title, ‘An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,’ was written by Scottish
philosopher and economist Adam Smith and published in 1776. Smith had
studied social philosophy in the high profile universities of the University of
Glasgow and Balliol College, Oxford. At the time of his writing, he was a
professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow. ‘The Wealth of Nations,’ his most
prolific work, was produced in the intellectual atmosphere of the Scottish
Enlightenment of the 18th century, characterized by academic and scientific
accomplishments. This was due to the increase in reading of new theories
alongside daily meetings to discuss these at intellectual gathering places. The
book is said to have comprised of seventeen years of research from these
discussions, taking another ten years to write and edit before ready for
production.

The book's first cover

It demonstrates the product of economist observations at the start of the
Industrial Revolution, indicating an important shift in economic theory away
from the mercantile system and into free market economics. Smith denigrated
the mercantile system, which believed that wealth is finite in gold. Instead,
Smith wrote of the importance of the flow of goods and services between
nations for increasing trade and productivity, thereby raising the wealth of the
nation. He believed that peoples’ natural self-interest in the free market
would lead to natural opulence, which he called the ‘invisible hand.’
Although controversial at the time, which is evident in his ideas becoming
satirized by the Tories, Smith’s work is now considered a defining piece of
economic theory. In 2005, it was named as one of the top 100 books to ever
come from Scotland. It has come to represent the birth of free market
capitalism and is believed to mark the beginning of modern economics.
 30) 1781 - The Battle of Yorktown

By 1781, America had been at war with the British for six years. General
Clinton of the British army was occupying New York City and Major
General Lord Cornwallis was fighting in the South. When General
Washington discovered that Cornwallis and his troops were camped out near
Yorktown, Virginia, their isolation led him to the decision to strike. He was
allied with Louis XVI of France at this time, who had been sending him
supplies, and at the prospect of an attack, Louis sent thousands of troops led
by Lieutenant General de Rochambeau to Rhode Island to assist. This was
due to the fact that England and France had been at war since 1778 and Louis
embraced the opportunity to destroy his enemy.

British surrendering to American and French troops

Big army camps were built around New York City to trick Clinton into
believing that they were committed to remaining there, whilst the American
and French armies began marching south. To prevent supplies and
reinforcements reaching Cornwallis by sea, a French fleet led by Rear
Admiral Comte de Grasse blockaded the Chesapeake Bay. This led to the
Battle of Chesapeake against the British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir
Thomas Graves, with the French driving the British fleet away and allowing
French reinforcements to arrive instead. As the American and French armies
arrived, they surrounded Yorktown and dug out siege trenches close to the
British line of defense. Cornwallis swiftly abandoned the fortifications on the
outside of the town, a move heavily criticized as unnecessary as the
fortifications would have held for weeks. This, alongside the bad weather
delaying Clinton from sending reinforcements from New York City, led the
British to the conclusion that they had lost. After a failed attempt at escaping
over the York River, they surrendered on October 19. Although troops
remained in America, it was a decisive defeat as Parliament were hesitant to
dedicate any more men and resources to a war they were increasingly losing,
especially as they were involved in a number of other military conflicts at the
time. As a result, in 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed by representatives of
America and Great Britain declaring America as an independent nation.
From Waterloo to the FA Rule
Book

Click Here To Go To Table Of

Content
 31) 1805 - The Battle of Trafalgar

The Battle of Trafalgar was a significant defeat of the French and Spanish
forces of Napoleon Bonaparte by the British Royal Navy, led by the famous
Admiral Lord Nelson. Napoleon wanted to invade England to destroy the
naval blockade that the British Royal Navy had imposed against France in
defiance of the growth of the French Empire. Napoleon ordered a fleet of
French and Spanish ships, led by Admiral Villeneuve, to take control of the
English Channel in order to allow his invasion. Nelson was prepared and as
the French and Spanish fleet sailed towards them in arc formation, the British
broke into two squadrons to break the formation a third of the way along the
line and attack the rear ships, leaving those in front unable to turn quickly
enough to help them.

Nelson’s plan succeeded, and nineteen French and Spanish ships were
destroyed and possibly over 10,000 of their men killed, while Great Britain
lost just over 1,000 men and not a single ship. Nelson, however, was shot
whilst fighting on his ship Victory through the back of the shoulder and into
the chest.Although he lived to hear that the British were going to succeed, he
died before the battle was over. His body was returned to England preserved
in a barrel of brandy, and he was given the state funeral of a hero before
being buried in St Paul’s Cathedral in London.

Britain’s naval dominance was never again threatened by Napoleon, and the
British Royal Navy remained the most powerful in the world for over 100
years. Nelson’s heroism has never been forgotten; the bullet that killed him is
on display at Windsor Castle in Berkshire, with a thread of his epaulette still
wrapped around it from where it entered his shoulder, and his ship Victory is
a popular tourist destination in the Portsmouth Historic Dockyard.
 32) 1807 - Abolition of the Slave Trade

The slave trade – a lucrative, transatlantic trade – saw millions of Africans

enslaved over a period of more than 200 years. In the late 18th century, the
Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, supporters of which became
known as abolitionists, began raising awareness of the atrocities of the slave
trade. This was essentially a human rights campaign. They decided to
campaign for the abolition of the trade itself, rather than the concept of
slavery altogether, as they believed this was more likely to be accepted and
would eventually lead to the dying out of slavery. They built significant
support quickly, but powerful opposition remained from the West India
Lobby, formed of planters with estates in British colonies and merchants
trading with Africa and the Caribbean, as well as shipbuilders, manufacturers,
and financiers who had economic interests in the trade.

Medallion created during the anti-slavery campaign

On top of this, the trade had become part of Great Britain’s imperial and
naval supremacy and people believed it to be economically necessary for the
country to thrive. The first bill to abolish the slave trade in 1791 was rejected
with 163 votes to 88. Partial measures to reduce overcrowding on the trading
ships were implemented, yet this did little to amend the terrible conditions
faced by slaves. Views slowly began to change with a rise in acts of slave
resistance, as well as with William Grenville coming to power as Prime
Minister, who was sympathetic to the abolitionist cause. Also, the Act of
Union with Ireland in 1800 led to an increased number of Irish MPs in
Parliament, many of whom were anti-slavery.

James Stephen, the economist and advisor, wrote the 1806 Bill banning the
slave trade with France, reducing the British slave trade enormously. This
paved the way for the 1807 Slave Trade Abolition Bill. After many hours of
debate and a passionate speech by the Prime Minister, the Bill passed in the
House of Lords 100 votes to 34 and in the House of Commons 283 votes to
16. The Act was finally passed in March and the slave trade was officially
banned in the British Colonies, making it illegal to carry any slaves on British
ships.The support of this Act shows how public interest had turned against
the slave trade as people became aware of the evils of it. It also makes
evident the importance of the momentum caused by the dedication of the
Government in assisting a cause, with the change in political parties being
hugely significant in the passing of this Act. It effectively ended the
monopoly of the Royal African Company in the slave trade and led to the
1833 Slavery Abolition Act banning the practice of slavery altogether.
 33) 1815 - The Battle of Waterloo

Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte had been attempting to establish a French

Empire in Europe since 1804, and after his defeat by the British at the Battle
of Trafalgar in 1805, he began to invade countries across Europe. By 1814,
he had been driven back and was forced to abdicate his throne and live in
exile in Elba. However, he quickly built support and at the beginning of
1815, he returned to Paris to begin what would become known as his
Hundred Days Campaign. The allied armies of the United Kingdom, Prussia,
Russia, and Austria declared war on him and he moved to invade Belgium
quickly, before all the armies could unite. He fought Wellington’s British
army and General Blucher’s Prussian army in the first skirmish.

Battle of Waterloo by William Sadler

The Prussians were forced to retreat and recuperate in Wavre, eighteen miles
from Waterloo. The British army blockaded the road to Brussels to hold
ground until the Prussians returned. Napoleon attacked strategic British
garrisons and made significant territorial gains, but he had waited for the wet
ground to dry before he began his attack, and this had given the Prussian
army a chance to get closer. As the Prussian army was seen approaching in
the distance, Napoleon divided his army to cut them off from the British.
Devastating attacks were made upon the British forces, but by the time
Napoleon’s army made it to the British line, Blucher and his men had finally
arrived, and the British advanced alongside the Prussian army. The
outnumbered French army fled the battlefield and the allied forces won.
Napoleon’s fight for European domination was over and he was exiled to St.
Helena, where he died in 1821. A peace deal was made with France and
Wellington had become such a popular figure that he went on to become
Prime Minister in 1828.
 34) 1829 - Metropolitan Police Act

As London became increasingly bigger and its population grew, maintaining

law and order became a governmental priority. The pressure of the Industrial
Revolution led to rising crime rates, which made new methods of crime
prevention necessary as the old system of the local watch of country parishes
and market towns was no longer effective. This system had been in place
since the Tudor period of the 16th century. Parliamentary committees were
set up to investigate and research policing and crime and the 1828 committee
established the concept of one organized police force. Sir Robert Peel, Home
Secretary at the time, thereby introduced the London Metropolitan police in
the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829. The powerful city corporation, however,
only agreed to the Act with the compromise that they would have their own
independent police force. This led to the establishment of the City of London
police in 1839, which still exists today.

London police patrolling during a protest at Westminster

The various small police forces that had been in place previously were
absorbed into the Metropolitan police and they became the model for police
departments all over the United Kingdom, as well as the British
Commonwealth and the United States of America. All the police were to
come under the authority of the Home Secretary, with their Headquarters at
Scotland Yard, where it remains today. 1,000 more men were recruited, the
role became a full time employment role, and they were provided with new
uniforms. These uniforms, intended to make the police look more like
ordinary civilians than the military, consisted of top hats and tailcoats. As
well as the prevention of crime and disorder, the police had other public
duties to fulfill, such as lighting street lamps, calling out the time, and
watching for fires. Peel also implemented an overhaul of the prison system
and Penal Code alongside this. Due to Peel’s pivotal role in establishing the
Metropolitan police, they became known as ‘Peelers’ or ‘Bobby’s Boys,’ and
the police are still known as ‘Bobbies’ in London today.
 35) 1837 - Queen Victoria Ascends to the
Throne of the United Kingdom
Before Victoria was born, her cousin, Princess Charlotte, was the only
legitimate heir to the throne. When Charlotte died unexpectedly after
childbirth, a succession crisis was feared. Pressure was put upon the sons of
George III to marry and have children, and so Victoria’s father Edward Duke
of Kent, married her mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in
1818. Princess Victoria gave birth to their daughter, Alexandrina Victoria,
soon shortened to just Victoria, in 1819, and this was to be their only child.
After her father died, her mother fell under the influence of Sir John Conroy,
and the two of them raised Victoria in a highly controlled environment in
Kensington Palace, becoming known as the ‘Kensington system.’ The two of
them hoped that in the likely event of Victoria inheriting the throne under the
age of 18, their influence would render them her regents. However, William
IV lived to see Victoria’s 18th birthday, dying only a month later. Thus,
Victoria became Queen.
 Coronation portrait of Queen Victoria

After the madness of George III, the excess of George IV, and the
unremarkable reign of the aging William IV, the people were excited to have
a young and vibrant woman on the throne. She was crowned in Westminster
Abbey on June 28, and around 400,000 people came to catch a glimpse of the
new Queen. She was the first monarch to take up residence at Buckingham
Palace, where the monarchy still resides today. Due to her unmarried status,
she had to reside at first with her mother, whom she sent to a remote part of
the Palace. Once married, she quickly sent her mother away. Victoria has
become famous for her passionate and loving relationship with her husband,
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, to whom she had had to propose
herself, as she was Queen. They had nine children together, most of whom
married into the royal families of Europe, granting Victoria the nickname of
the ‘Grandmother of Europe.’ Albert played an active part in Victoria’s reign,
assisting her in overseeing the transition of her role into a fully constitutional
monarchy. She was so depressed when he died that she withdrew from public
life for a short period, after which she continued to wear black for the rest of
her life in mourning. She is also famous for reigning over the advent of the
Industrial Revolution and the United Kingdom’s accession as a great Imperial
power, recognized in her title of Empress of India, given to her in 1876. At
her death in 1901, she was the longest reigning monarch the country had ever
seen, only recently being taken over by Queen Elizabeth II.
 36) 1850 - The Factory Act
The huge increase of factory workers due to the Industrial Revolution had a
huge impact on working life in the United Kingdom. Often, whole families
would be employed in a factory in some variety of employment, and life was
very hard. The workers were exploited with extremely long hours, which had
a negative impact on the health of the workforce. For this reason, a series of
Acts were passed from 1802 onwards with the aim to regulate the working
conditions in the factories. The 1844 Act had made an attempt at making
hours more favorable by shortening the working day to 10 hours, but it was
not expressed when these 10 hours of work should be done between the
factory hours of 5:30am and 8:30pm. This allowed employers to reintroduce
the relay system of split shifts, which easily evaded regulations on daily
working hours, and workers continued to be exploited.

Children working in a cotton mill

This led to the 1850 Factory Act, which outlined daily working hours in a
much more particular way. The working week was extended from 58 hours to
60 hours, which sounds like a step backwards but much more structured
shifts were created; summer hours were to be 6am to 6pm and winter hours
were to be 7am to 7pm. Furthermore, all work was to stop at 2pm on
Saturdays. The result was that workers had much more leisure time than
theyhad previously, which was an entirely new concept to the working
classes. In an attempt to prevent this from leading to a rise in the
consumption of alcohol, churches set up football clubs to bring workers
together in sport. This was a huge success, and this is the period in British
history accredited with the rise in popularity of football. Many clubs
established during this period are still active in the English league today.
Although the earlier Factory Acts, such as this one, concentrated on
regulating working hours, later Acts attempted to address other issues of
working conditions within the factories.
 37) 1857 - David Livingstone’s ‘Missionary Travels and
Researches in South Africa’ Is Published
David Livingstone became a missionary doctor after studying medicine and
theology in Glasgow. He was accepted by the London missionary society in
1838 and in 1841 was posted on the edge of the Kalahari Desert in Southern
Africa. Here, he became highly committed to spreading Christianity and
ending slavery within Africa, which was to inspire his subsequent travels that
filled his book. In 1849 and 1851, he travelled across the Kalahari Desert, the
second time discovering the upper Zambezi River, which he would return to
later. In 1852, he began an expedition to find the coast, believing that if he
could find a route to the Atlantic Ocean for commerce, he could undercut the
slave trade in Africa. This was a success, as he reached Luanda in 1854. He
then went on an expedition to find the west coast of Africa following the
Zambezi River and on the way in 1855, he found the spectacular Waterfall
that he named ‘Victoria Falls.’
In 1856, he reached the mouth of the Zambezi at the Indian Ocean, becoming
the first European to cross Africa. This was the high point of his career and
when he returned to the United Kingdom, he was regarded as a hero. He
travelled the country giving lectures on his experiences and in 1857 wrote his
famous book ‘Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa.’ His
subsequent rise in financial status pulled his family out of poverty for the first
time in many years. His passion led him to return to Africa in 1858, but this
mission was not to be a success. His wife died of malaria in 1862 and in
1864, when the Government became unimpressed at his observations of the
lack of development in the Zambezi regions, he was ordered home. He once
more returned to Africa in 1866 in search of the source of the River Nile.
Contact was lost with him for a few years until explorer and journalist Henry
Stanley joined him in 1871. Stanley travelled with him until his death in
1873. His body was sent on a long and arduous journey back to England and
he was given a grand funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey. He remains
famous for being a dedicated Christian, an anti-slavery activist, and a brave
explorer, heavily influencing Western attitudes towards Africa with his belief
in their ability to advance in the modern world.
 38) 1859 - Building of Red House Begins
In the mid-19th century, concerns began to grow over the impact of the
Industrial Revolution on the environment and on the dearth of creativity in
the process of mass production. This led to the Victorian ‘cult of domesticity’
in which the home became a respite from the negativity of work in the city.
William Morris, a London architect, was heavily influenced by the ideas of
the art critic and social thinker John Ruskin, who believed in returning to
handcrafting for the sense of pride and subsequent quality achieved. This
belief in traditional crafting methods has become known as medievalism, as it
celebrates the methods of the medieval guilds. With this in mind, in 1859,
Morris began designing Red House, a home for him and his family. To assist
him, he utilized the skills of Philip Webb, who he had met working for the
architect G. E. Street in London. Built in Southeast London, Morris wanted
the house to celebrate craftsmanship and community, using artisan skills in
the process.
They decided to design the house in the Tudor Gothic style, with exposed
beams, elevated chimneys and a sweeping roof. He liked this specifically
English form of architecture, as it seemed more naturally suited to the
English countryside. They used an exposed red brick exterior to demonstrate
the natural beauty of resources, as opposed to industrially produced materials.
Being built in an L-shape allowed the garden to be part of the domestic space,
bringing nature into their home. Many of his friends helped him design the
inside of the house, with painted walls and built-in furniture. Morris’ motto,
‘Ars Longa, Vita Brevis,’ meaning ‘life is short, art is forever,’ was carved
into the fireplace. It was during this time that Morris formed his design
company Morris, Marshall, Faulker,& Co., where his early wallpaper designs
were created. The house was completed in 1860 but sold only five years later
in 1865 due to Morris’ financial difficulties. It remained a private home until
2003 when it was acquired by the National Trust. It is now open to the public
and although most of the original interior is gone, the outside of the building
remains the same. It is a significant piece of architecture of the 19th century
and provides us with an early example of the arts and crafts movement from
1880-1910, which celebrated traditional craftsmanship in the same way that
Morris and his friends did.
39) 1859 - Charles Darwin’s ‘The Origin of Species’ is Published

Charles Darwin was the son of a successful English doctor and had an
interest in natural science from a young age. During his time at Cambridge
University, he met professors who shared this interest with him and helped
him to begin his scientific voyages, which eventually led to the publication of
his groundbreaking book ‘The Origin of Species’ in 1859. He began his
surveying as an unpaid botanist on the HMS Beagle in the 1830s, traveling to
South America and the Galapagos Islands. On this exploratory voyage, he
discovered several species of bird and tortoise, as well as many fossils. He
was amazed at the adaption of the species that he found and when he returned
to the United Kingdom in 1836, he became interested in transmutation, the
study of how one species transforms into another. He was influenced by the
works of philosopher Thomas Mathus, who wrote of the economic struggle
for existence in society, and applied this idea of a struggle to exist to natural
science.
 Darwin pictured shortly before publication

By the 1940s, he had come up with his idea of natural selection and he began
slowly compiling all his research into a book. It took Darwin a very long time
to publish his works, perhaps because he feared the response to such
revolutionary science in a society that was still steeped in religion. However,
after receiving papers by Alfred Russel Wallace on similar theories, Darwin
was driven to publish his work quicker. In 1859, his book ‘On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races
in the Struggle for Life’ was published, which quickly became known by its
shorter name ‘The Origin of Species.’ The initial press run sold out in two
days and subsequent press runs found similar success. The book attracted
huge scientific interest as well as public controversy, as his theory opposed
religious beliefs of creation. Darwin kept out of the controversy by keeping to
his research and writing, publishing a further six editions of the book. He
continued researching and writing for the rest of his life, publishing many
other works, including ‘The Descent of Man’ in 1871 and numerous books on
plant cultivation. He died in 1882 and was given a state funeral, being buried
in Westminster Abbey near Sir Isaac Newton. Through the publication of
‘The Origin of Species,’ he had achieved the status of a great British scientist
and it remains today one of the most influential books of all time. It is
considered the foundation of evolutionary biology and has aided subsequent
research such as studies into genetics.
 40) 1863 - The FA Rule Book is Created
The rules eventually adopted by the Football Association (FA), the governing
body of football in England, began being drafted in 1863. Particular sets of
rules in football began being adopted by different groups during this era as
football became more popular and widespread, and consequently more
difficulty was experienced when playing, as there was no singular set of rules
for everyone to play by. Popular sets of rules were the Cambridge Rules of
1848 and the Sheffield Rules of 1858. In 1863, the FA was founded, and in
their first meeting in the Freemason’s Tavern in London, Ebenezer Cobb
Morely, a founding member of the FA, presented his draft of a set of rules
based upon the Cambridge Rules. These were discussed and confirmed over
subsequent meetings. Disagreements over certain rules led to the breaking
away of a number of clubs who would go on to form the Rugby Football
Union in 1871.

The Royal Engineers team who reached the first FA Cup final

The rules were published in ‘Bell’s Life in London’ for appraisal and first
used in an experimental game in Mortlake on December 19, 1863. They were
then used for the first public game on January 9, 1864, at Battersea Park.
However, as of yet, they had not been adopted by all teams. The Sheffield
rules had been adopted by a group of teams in the Sheffield Football
Association at this stage.

As the FA began to grow, the FA cup was created, which is the longest
running association football tournament in the world today. This tournament
necessitated the Sheffield Football Association to compromise over rules for
the effective running of the games, and they were absorbed into the FA with
some of their rules consequently adopted. This is the first example of the
broadening and adapting of the rules that the FA would experience over time.
In 1886, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) was founded to
create clarity in rules between the Football Associations of England,
Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. In 1904, when FIFA was founded as the
international footballing association on the continent, they agreed to adhere to
the rules of the IFAB, who adopted new FIFA reps for this purpose. Today,
more than 200 nations adhere to the FA rules and the IFAB meets annually to
discuss new amendments.
From BBC to the Good Friday
Agreement

Click Here To Go To Table Of

Content
 41) 1913 - Suffragette Emily Davison Throws
Herself under the King’s Horse
The Women’s Social and Political Union, which would quickly become
known as the Suffragettes, was founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and
her two daughters Christabel and Sylvia with the aim to achieve voting rights
for women in the United Kingdom. They had become dissatisfied with the
lack of progress made by the National Union of Women’s Suffrage, founded
by Millicent Fawcett in 1897, which encouraged peaceful protest. Therefore,
the Suffragettes were quick to adopt methods of violence to further their
cause, adopting the motto ‘deeds, not words.’ For a number of years prior to
World War I, the Suffragettes committed acts of vandalism and violence
against public institutions and individuals who opposed women’s voting
rights; they burnt down buildings and churches, hurled abused at and attacked
politicians, refused to pay taxes, and chained themselves to railings of
prominent buildings in protest.
Many went to prison rather than paying the fine when arrested in order to
bring attention to their cause. After hunger strikes in prison, the women were
submitted to force-feeding, which led to public outrage at their treatment.
This led to the implementation of the Cat and Mouse Act of 1913, which
allowed women in prison to hunger strike but released them before they died,
leaving them too weak for political activism. Once restored to health, they
were rearrested. In response, Suffragette militancy increased, with bombs
surrounded with Suffragette propaganda found in well-known public places
such as the Bank of England and the Lyceum Theatre, and arson committed
against the homes of politicians. This culminated in Emily Davidson, a
leading Suffragette, throwing herself under the King’s horse at the Epsom
Derby on June 4, 1913. She became the first martyr to the Suffragette cause
and a huge reaction ensued, with the pavilion at Hurst Racecourse being
burnt down. Their violence continued into 1914, attacking cultural artifacts in
the National Gallery and the British Museum.

When World War I began, the efforts of the Suffragettes were aimed towards
the national cause and when it was over, in 1918, women were granted
limited voting rights. By 1928, this was extended to equal voting rights with
men, with all women over the age of 21 allowed to vote. It is debated as to
whether the political extremism of the Suffragettes, arguably a version of
terrorism, actually aided the cause or further hindered it due to their
unpopularity. Regardless, the Suffragettes have gone down in history as
heroes of female empowerment.
 42) 1916 - The Battle of the Somme
The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, was one of
the largest battles of World War I, and the first day of the offensive saw the
highest number of casualties ever seen in any battle in British history. The
British arrived at Verdun in France to relieve the French army, who had been
fighting a long and tiring battle of attrition with the German army. The
French and British agreed to conduct a joint offensive against the Germans,
beginning with a large-scale artillery bombardment to weaken them before
attacking. The British, led by Sir Douglas Haig, were to attack a fifteen-mile
front north of the Somme with fourteen divisions, whilst the weakened
French were to attack an eight-mile front south of the Somme with five
divisions. The British began their bombardment and after a week of heavy
artillery fire, where 1.6 million shells were fired, on July 1, 1916, British
troops were ordered to attack.

English soldiers marching to the frontline

Haig was so confident of the success of the bombardment that he expected
his troops to walk across no man’s land to the German lines and seize them.
This failed for several reasons. The poor quality of the British shells meant
that many did not even go off, lessening the impact of the bombardment and
leaving most of the German barbed wire intact. Moreover, the Germans had
constructed heavy concrete bunkers behind their lines that were extremely
well fortified and due to this, they only had to wait in their bunkers for the
bombardment to end. On top of this, the bombardment had served as a
warning that an attack was imminent, preparing the German’s for what was
about to come. As British soldiers began to move towards the German lines,
the German soldiers were already in place and began shooting them down.
58,000 British men died that day, two-thirds of the men involved in that
particular conflict. The French, who had been slightly more successful, were
unable to maintain their advances due to the lack of support from the British
and as such, lost the ground that they had gained. A stalemate began, which
continued for many months until November 18, when the harsh weather of
winter forced the British to withdraw. Only five miles had been gained by the
French and British forces and the British had lost 420,000 men, the French
200,000 and the Germans around 500,000.

Haig’s tactics during this offensive are seen as controversial even today;
some believe that he may have weakened German forces enough to have an
impact, whilst many believe that his flawed and repetitive tactics led to an
unnecessary loss of lives with very little gain. The only measure of success
that the British could claim was that they had managed to relieve the French
at Verdun.
 43) 1927 - British Broadcasting Corporation
is Established by Royal Charter
The British Broadcasting Corporation began life as a small company and had
to work hard to make broadcasting popular within the United Kingdom.
Britain’s first live radio broadcast took place in June 1920. However, after
only a few months, broadcasts were banned due to pressure from officials,
who believed that it interfered with official wireless communications.
However, by 1922, so many petitions had been presented to lift the ban,
alongside a plethora of broadcast licensing requests, that the General Post
Office, the licensing authority at the time, offered a single broadcasting
license for a company owned by a number of wireless manufacturers. This
became known as the British Broadcasting Company, with John Reith
appointed as General Manager.

The company was financed by royalties on the sales of their wireless

receivers but they soon outgrew this source of income. This was when a
licensing fee when purchasing a wireless receiver began, which would
eventually evolve into the annual television licenses that are paid today.
However, the General Strike of 1926 really solidified the popularity of the
BBC. The disruption in newspaper production due to the Strike meant that for
the first time people relied on the broadcasts of the BBC as a source of news,
and as a result, restrictions on their broadcasts were lifted. Now broadcasts
were sent out at regular intervals rather than only after 7pm.

The Government trusted Reith and did not take the BBC over as their
mouthpiece and although Reith was criticized by some for being too
compliant with their wishes, others celebrated his ability to present both sides
of the strike to his audience. Certainly, his ability to broadcast too strongly in
favor of the strikers would have been limited due to concerns of a
governmental take-over. Regardless, this period saw the popularity of their
broadcasts increase significantly, which cemented their national audience and
led to their transformation into the British Broadcasting Corporation under
Royal Charter. This came into effect January 1, 1927, with Reith receiving a
knighthood and becoming the first Director General. The Corporation
adopted a coat of arms and the motto ‘Nation shall speak peace unto nation’
to make their positive attitudes towards broadcasting clear. At first, they
received opposition from popular media of the time, such as theaters, concert
halls, and the recording industry. However, they soon forged a positive
relationship with the recording industry that remains a fruitful relationship
today. Television broadcasts started becoming regular in 1934 and in 1950,
they were one of 23 founding organizations of the European Broadcasting
Union. The BBC is the oldest broadcasting organization in the world and is
today run under the guidance of the Secretary of State for Culture, Media,
and Sport.
 44) 1940 - The Blitz Begins
When Hitler’s forces successfully occupied France in 1940, his next move
was to attempt to neutralize Britain. This was required so that he could turn
his attention towards an invasion of the Soviet Union, which he did not want
to do with the potential of British support in Russia. After his attempts at
defeating the English in the Channel and through aerial battle failed, Hitler
decided upon a campaign to relentlessly bomb London and other English
cities into submission. He was hoping that this would lead Prime Minister
Winston Churchill to negotiate peace with him. This period of bombing
became known as the Blitz, beginning on September 7, 1940. This was
followed by 57 days of continuous bombing, killing thousands of people with
30,000 bombs dropped. Major landmarks were hit, such as Buckingham
Palace, St. Paul’s Cathedral, St. Thomas’ Hospital, the House of Commons,
and many, many more. Although it was discouraged by the Government at
first, people took to sheltering in the numerous underground stations in
London and it soon became commonplace to find men, women, and children
sleeping down there.
 Tube stations being used as a bomb shelters

On top of this, people used basements of old warehouses, as well building

shelters in their own gardens. As bombing continued relentlessly, people
were virtually living in their shelters. Air raids continued until May 11, 1941,
when Hitler ordered his troops away to prepare for the invasion of the Soviet
Union that he had been planning. Around a third of London was destroyed,
32,000 civilians were killed, another 87,000 seriously injured and two million
homes destroyed, leaving hundreds of thousands of people homeless.
However, the British people had not been defeated, and the bombing served
to create a new spirit of solidarity and community. This was a testament to
the determination of the British people as well as Churchill’s leadership, who
spoke to his people through regular radio broadcasts and made public
appearances to raise their spirits. Failing to gain air supremacy over Britain
led Hitler to abandon an invasion indefinitely, and London was slowly rebuilt
from the rubble left behind.
 45) 1941 - Frank Whittle’s Jet Engine Takes Its First Flight
In 1923, Frank Whittle became an apprentice at the RAF College at Cranwell.
It was his third attempt, having previously been deemed too small to be taken
on. He graduated as a pilot officer in 1928, and in his thesis, he put forward
his idea for a jet propulsion engine to achieve flights at higher altitude, which
would thereby allow for higher speed journeys and thus much longer-range
flights. He presented his ideas to the Air Ministry, who ridiculed them as
flawed and impractical. Nevertheless, he obtained a patent for his turbojet
engine in 1930. This design solved the issue of creating a chamber strong
enough for an engine to create significant heat and thrust by using ten
combustion chambers rather than one. This divided the combustion, making
the heat manageable, whilst maintaining the power created. In 1936, he
formed a company with his associates called Power Jets Ltd and they
succeeded in testing the first jet engine on the ground in 1937.

Frank Whittle at the Ministry of Aircraft Production

Although he had proved his theory, this was not enough for the Air Ministry,
who only funded the development of his engine following the outbreak of
World War II. They finally allowed a jet engine based on his design to be
fitted into a Gloster E.28/39, and it was first flown on May 5, 1941, turning
out to be a resounding success. His engine was then placed into a Gloster
Meteor and entered RAF service in 1944. Although Whittle is credited with
inventing the first jet engine, his was not the first to be flown, as the Heinkel
He178 had already flown in Germany in 1939. In spite of the reservations of
his home country, the United States were extremely enthusiastic about the
technology, using his engine before the United Kingdom in their XP 59A
Airacomet in 1942.

Whittle retired in 1948 as an Air Commodore and was knighted shortly after
for his contribution to engineering. He went on to become a Professor at the
U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, and his invention was later
developed for use in passenger airplanes, transforming international travel.
 46) 1948 - The SS Windrush Arrives in Tilbury
During World War II, many Caribbean men and women had been recruited to
serve with the British forces, and as a result, in 1948, the SS Windrush, a
former German cruise boat, travelled to Jamaica to collect servicemen on
leave from their units. On top of this, due to labor shortages and the
enormous amount of work needed to rebuild London after the devastation
caused in the War, places on the ship were offered to those who wanted to
travel to London for employment. Although immigrants from the West Indies
formed the majority of this labor, immigration was being encouraged from all
Commonwealth countries at this stage. Around 500 people, including a
number of stowaways, came to London on this voyage. Most were men, but
there were also a number of families on board.

HMS Empire Windrush underway

After a short, tense period when it was unclear whether the ship was going to
be allowed to land, as immigration was a new and delicate subject, the SS
Windrush pulled into Tilbury in Essex on June 22, 1948. Those who did not
already have accommodation moved into the air raid shelter under Clapham
Common and as the nearest employment exchange was in Brixton, this is
where the first Caribbean community was formed. Windrush Square can be
found in Brixton today to commemorate their arrival. Jobs were vastly
available in state run services such as the NHS and transport, and there were
many jobs in urban labor, yet executive jobs were closed off to the
immigrants.

The first clashes with the British took place over accommodation, as there
was a huge shortage due to the destruction of homes in the War. This,
alongside other discrimination, led the Jamaicans to begin using their own
systems such as co-operative saving systems and opening their own churches.
From this, a Caribbean infused British culture began to emerge alongside
new debates about identity and citizenship that continue today. By 1955,
18,000 Jamaicans had travelled to England in search of work and this
continued into the 1960s. This first wave of immigrants began to change what
it meant to be British by earmarking the beginning of multiculturalism here
and as such, this Caribbean migration was pivotal in the history of the United
Kingdom.
 47) 1948 - Birth of the National Health Service
The National Health Service, known as the NHS, was a concept that had been
discussed in the United Kingdom since the 19th century. Arguments were
made that access to healthcare, regardless of wealth, was something integral
to civilized society. The creation of an emergency service in World War II
showed what the medical service was capable of and gave people access to a
level of healthcare they had not received before. However, the volume of
casualties left the health service almost bankrupt. At this time, hospitals were
all run by charities and councils, and the staff were working for almost
nothing; extreme change was needed. The Beveridge Report of 1943 outlined
the main issues afflicting society in order to prepare for post-War
redevelopment and this led to the production of an extensive program of
welfare, including free healthcare for all. In 1945, the Labour Government
under Clement Attlee came to power, promising a revolution in the health
service and the job of Health Minister, which had previously been a minor
governmental role, was filled by Anthony Brevin, an influential Labour
politician.
 The New National Health Service leaflet

Brevin developed a plan for a free health service funded entirely by tax to be
made available to everyone. In spite of the fact that it seems uncontroversial
now, the NHS was opposed at this time by many in the Conservative party, as
well as members of Labour itself. Furthermore, some of the wealthiest
members of society resented the fact that they would be contributing more
than the poor to a service that they would use less, and there was trepidation
in the medical profession over a governmental takeover. A compromise had
to be made with GP surgeries and dentists, maintaining their status as private
businesses working on a governmental contract. Thus, on July 5, 1948, the
NHS was introduced. Many were concerned that it would be overused by the
poor, and this appeared to come true when the budget granted for the first
year was overshot by a huge amount. However, Brevin argued this was due to
the long lack of healthcare in society, and it did indeed calm down after the
first year. However, a prescription fee was quickly introduced, which made
Brevin furious, as this undermined his commitment to keeping the NHS
completely free. In spite of this, it was a success in many ways, with 95% of
doctors joining the NHS in the first year and only 2.5% of 240,000 hospital
beds in that year being private. It continued to develop, despite rising costs
with advances in medical knowledge, and is now considered an integral part
of British society.
 48) 1973 - United Kingdom Joins
the European Economic Community
The European Economic Community (EEC), now called the European Union
(EU), began as a means to avoid further extremism in Europe after World
War II through integration of the countries that formed the continent. This
began with trade, with the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
established in 1952, followed by the EEC in 1957 at the Treaty of Rome.
This began with six member states of Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
The Netherlands, and West Germany. The United Kingdom joined in 1973
alongside Denmark and Ireland, but only after two failed attempts, which
were believed in the UK to be due to the fear of the domination of the
English language, although official reasoning was over the UK’s political
will.

Founding members of EEC (green), later members of EEC (blue)

During this time, the EEC was often referred to as the Common Market,
which outlines exactly what it was trying to achieve; a single market
benefitting those who were members. The general public of the UK were not
involved in the decision making process in becoming a member state, which
generated discontent over their membership. However, only two years later
when the newly appointed Labour Government gave people their say in the
post-legislative referendum, 67% voted in favor in a 65% turn out. Thus,
membership was solidified.

By 1993, the EEC had developed into the EU, which had a competent system
of laws and common trading policies. Their policy today is to ensure the free
movement of goods, services, capital, and people throughout the EU. This led
to passport control being abolished in certain regions and the introduction of
a single currency, the Euro, adopted by 19 member states. The United
Kingdom, however, did not adopt either of these developments, and has
historically remained a fairly distant member state, maintaining autonomy on
a number of issues.
 49) 1991 - Two Sides of the Channel Tunnel Become Connected

The first ideas for a tunnel underneath the English Channel were proposed as
far back as 1802 by Napoleon’s engineer Albert Mathieu. This was rejected
due to fears of a French invasion and proposals continued to be discussed
periodically until digging actually began in 1974. This was abruptly stopped
with the Labour Party coming to power in 1975, leading to uncertainty over
the United Kingdom’s membership to the European Economic Community.
In 1981, Margaret Thatcher and Francois Mitterrand, Prime Ministers of the
UK and France respectively, agreed to revisit the topic with discussions over
a privately funded project, and put together a group to pursue funding and
assess proposals. Although ideas for a bridge across the Channel were
proposed, a tunnel was agreed upon and digging commenced in 1988 using
the abandoned tunnel entrance of 1974.

Thomé de Gamond's plan for a cross-Channel link in 1856

Digging in England began at Shakespeare Cliff near Dover and in France,
near the village of Sangatte. The digging was done by huge tunnel boring
machines called TMBs and as they progressed, the tunnels were lined with
concrete to support them and make them waterproof. Laser and surveying
equipment was used to ensure that the two sides would meet at the same
point and the service tunnel was the first one to be completed in December
1990. The following year, digging was completed, with the two sides of the
North-running tunnel meeting on May 22 and the two sides of the South-
running tunnel meeting on June 28. Celebrations took place due to the
successful completion of the largest part of the project, which required
13,000 workers to complete.

The tunnel is an amazing 31.4 miles long and at its deepest point is 75 miles
deep. The first test run took place on December 10, 1993, and the Channel
Tunnel officially opened May 6, 1994. Unfortunately, the project had vastly
exceeded its budget and almost went bankrupt early on. However, a
significant amount of their loan was swapped with banks for shares, easing
their burden and allowing them to operate until they made their first profit in
1999. Today, the Channel Tunnel is used for thousands of freight and
passenger trains every year, and has been named as one of the Seven
Wonders of the World.
 50) 1998 - Good Friday Agreement

Also known as the Belfast Agreement, the Good Friday Agreement gained its
name by being signed on Good Friday, April 10, 1998. The agreement was
put into place in response to thirty years of communal violence in Northern
Ireland. A civil rights movement had developed there in the 1960s due to the
demographic majority of the Protestants, which secured their control of state
institutions. This was claimed to have led to the suppression of Catholics,
although the extent of this suppression has been contested. British forces
intervened in the violence, and bombings, riots, and assassinations continued
into the 1990s. Calls for a peace treaty led to a ceasefire in 1994 and
discussions between political representatives of the Republic of Ireland,
Northern Ireland, and the United Kingdom began in 1996.

The Good Friday Agreement was developed in three strands into a multi-
party agreement to establish peace. The first strand was the devolution of the
system of government in Northern Ireland, which led to the creation of the
Northern Ireland assembly in Stormont. This was to be a democratically
elected institution to deal with local matters.
The second strand was to build agreement and compromise between the
Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, leading to their cooperation on a
number of issues such as civil rights, equality between Protestants and
Catholics and the decommissioning of weapons. The third strand was an
agreement between the UK and the Republic of Ireland, acknowledging and
thereby legitimizing the aspiration towards a united Ireland, whilst
recognizing the majority wish for Northern Ireland to remain part of the UK.
This followed the principle of consent, giving the power of membership to
the United Kingdom to the people of Ireland. The vague wording of many of
the provisions allowed for a degree of autonomy for the political
representatives and ensured its acceptance. On May 22, 1998, a referendum
for the agreement was held across Ireland, resulting in a 94% yes vote in the
Republic of Ireland and a 71% yes vote in Northern Ireland, and the
agreement was implemented in December 1998. However, much fewer
Protestants than Catholics voted for the agreement and this meant that
sporadic violence continued, leading to the reintroduction of direct London
rule in Northern Ireland in 2002, which was rescinded one more in 2007. In
spite of this, cooperation between extremist parties in Northern Ireland
continues to grow.
 Bonus Content: 20th Century in 50 Events
(First 15 Events)

Introduction

From the Boxer Rebellion to World War I

1) 1900 - Sigmund Freud Publishes “The Interpretation of Dreams”

2) 1900 - Boxer Rebellion
3) 1903 - The Wright brothers Fly First Motorized Airplane
4) 1903 - Henry Ford Founds Ford Motors
5) 1904 - Construction of Panama Canal
6) 1905 - Einstein Announces His Theory of Relativity
7) 1909 - Robert Peary Reports To Have Reached the North Pole
8) 1910 - The Mona Lisa is Stolen
9) 1912 - Sinking of the Titanic
10) 1914 - World War I Begins

From the Russian Revolution to the Rise of Adolf Hitler

11) 1917 - Lenin Leads the Bolshevik Revolution

12) 1918 - Spanish Flu Pandemic
13) 1920 - League of Nations Holds First Meeting in Geneva
14) 1920 - Prohibition Begins
15) 1921 - Hyperinflation Destroys German Economy
16) 1924 - First Olympic Winter Games
17) 1928 - Alexander Fleming Discovers Penicillin
18) 1929 - Stock Market Crash Precipitates
19) 1929 - First Academy Awards
20) 1930 - Pluto Discovered
21) 1933 - Adolf Hitler Appointed Chancellor

From the New Deal to the First Satellite

22) 1933 - Franklin D. Roosevelt Launches

23) 1936 - Spanish Civil War Begins
24) 1939 - Adolf Hitler Invades Poland
25) 1946 - Churchill's “Iron Curtain” Speech
26) 1947 - Marshall Plan
27) 1947 - Gandhi's Civil Disobedience
28) 1949 - Communist Victory in China under Mao Zedong
29) 1950 - Korean War Begins
30) 1950 - Princess Elizabeth
31) 1953 - Hillary and Norgay Climb Mount Everest
32) 1956 - Suez Crisis
33) 1957 - First Satellite, Sputnik I Launched

From the Berlin Wall to the ‘73 Oil Crisis

34) 1959 - Castro Becomes Dictator of Cuba

35) 1961 - Berlin Wall Built
36) 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis
37) 1963 - John F. Kennedy Assassinated
38) 1968 - Tet Offensive
39) 1969 - Apollo 11 Lands on the Moon
40) 1969 - ARPANET Goes Online: The Internet Is Born
41) 1972 - Munich Massacre
42) 1973 - Oil Crisis

From the First Test Tube Baby to the New Millennium

43) 1975 - Civil War in Lebanon

44) 1978 - First Test Tube Baby Born
45) 1986 - Space Shuttle Challenger Explodes
46) 1986 - Chernobyl Disaster
47) 1989 - Fall of Communism
48) 1990 - Nelson Mandela Released From Prison
49) 1997 - Scientists Clone Sheep
50) 1999 - Fear of Y2K Bug
Introduction

The 20th century marked a period of great change. A general shift in political
power from the privileged few (monarchs and nobility) to the majority in
society began in the 19th and the early 20th century. Many countries in
Europe abolished monarchy or greatly reduced its sphere of influence. It was
replaced with either democracy in Western Europe or communism in Russia,
Cuba, and China.

With the United States involved in the century’s great wars – the First and
Second World War – a new economic and military power emerged. From
1945, it dominated world politics along with the Soviet Union, and their
differences ultimately led to the Cold War. At the same time, the once mighty
European colonial powers lost much of their former empire when great parts
of Asia and Africa gained independence. Often, this led to bloody conflicts
and wars such as the Vietnam War or the Lebanese Civil War.

Regarding economic changes, the 20th century witnessed an increase in

production and productivity never seen before. New technologies and
international trade have increased living standards and established the
“middle class” as a social institution in many countries. Medicine and health
care have greatly improved living conditions of much of the population and
increased life expectancy around the globe. Unfortunately, due to political
instability and a series of civil wars, almost the entire continent of Africa has
seen little of these improvements.

The fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequently of the Soviet Union marked the
end of the Cold War and the beginning of a period that many historians call
post-modern. The invention of the Internet along with the rise of terrorism
have brought new possibilities as well as challenges to mankind, and only
time will tell what the next hundred years will bring.

- James Weber
From the Boxer Rebellion to World
War I
 1) 1900 - Sigmund Freud Publishes
“The Interpretation of Dreams” (Austria)

The Interpretation of Dreams first introduced Freud's theory of the

unconscious and the possibility of dream interpretation. The book laid the
foundation of what would later become the theory of the Oedipus complex.
The initial print sold very slowly, and it took several years to sell out the first
six hundred copies. However, once Freud gained popularity, the book was
introduced to a wider audience, and seven more editions were printed during
Freud’s life.

Freud in 1905

Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 in the Austrian Empire and quickly got
interested in medicine. In 1881, he qualified as a doctor at the University of
Vienna and went on to conduct research on the brain at the General Hospital
in Vienna. A few years later, when he became an affiliated professor at the
University of Vienna, he began creating a new method called psychoanalysis,
which treats psychopathology by using dialogue between a psychoanalyst and
the patient. He established several therapeutic techniques, which earned him
the name “the father of psychoanalysis.” Today, Freud is known for his work
on the human sexuality and its impact on the mind. His later works also
included a wider range of topics such as a variety of essays on religion and
culture, making him one of the most discussed intellectuals of the 20th
century.
 2) 1900 - Boxer Rebellion (China)

The Boxer Rebellion began when local Chinese peasants began attacking
foreigners deployed throughout China, as well as the Western influences that
were spreading in their country. During the late 19th century, the Qing
dynasty suffered military losses to several Western groups. As a result, the
US and other European countries were able to wield their influence in
China’s politics, commerce, and religion, bringing in Christian missionaries
into the country.

A Boxer during the revolts

The rebellion was initiated by a group known as the Yihequan in Northern

China. Largely comprised of peasants and unemployed Chinese people, the
group got its name “The Boxer” from foreigners due to their calisthenics
similar to shadow boxing. Members practiced spiritual rituals and believed
that they were not vulnerable to attacks including canyons and bullets.
Initially, the attacks were made to end the Qing dynasty and to suppress
foreign influence, but after Empress Dowager showed support for the group,
attacks were solely directed to the foreigners by killing Christian missionaries
and foreign ministers. To help their countrymen, Western nations sent an aid
group on August 14, 1990, to suppress attacks that were already spreading
from the North to China’s capital, Beijing. The troop was comprised of
around 20,000 men from Japan and other European countries, such as
Germany, and successfully rescued most foreigners, as well as Christian
missionaries. By September 1901, the rebellion has formally ended through
the Boxer Protocol, which punished involved Chinese officials and made
China pay $330 million as a reparation fee to the foreign countries involved.
After the rebellion, The Qing dynasty gradually lost influence until it ended
in 1912, when China became a republic.
 3) 1903 - The Wright brothers Fly First Motorized Airplane
(USA)

On December 17, 1903, Orville Wright piloted the first powered airplane 20
feet above a wind-swept beach in North Carolina. The flight lasted 12
seconds and covered 120 feet. This success was the result of years of
preparation.
The brothers began their experimentation in flight in 1896 at their bicycle
shop in Dayton, Ohio. They selected the beach at Kitty Hawk as their proving
ground because of the constant wind that added lift to their craft. In 1902,
they came to the beach with their glider and made more than 700 successful
flights.

First flight of the Wright Flyer I, December 17, 1903, Orville piloting, Wilbur running at wingtip.

Having perfected glided flight, the next step was to move to powered flight.
No automobile manufacturer could supply an engine both light enough and
powerful enough for their needs, so they designed and built their own. All of
their hard work, experimentation, and innovation came together that
December day as they took to the sky and forever changed the course of
history. The brothers notified several newspapers prior to their historic flight,
but only one – the local journal – made mention of the event.
 4) 1903 - Henry Ford Founds Ford Motors (USA)

Today, the Ford Motor Company is one of the top-producing companies of automotive cars and has
been family-controlled for over a hundred years. Henry Ford’s creation of engine-powered vehicle
began in 1896 when he built the Quadricycle. By the year 1899, Ford joined the Detroit Automobile
Company, but soon left to start a new automotive company with the help of a coal dealer named
Alexander Y. Malcomson. The Ford and Malcomson partnership began designing and ordering car
parts, but soon faced financial problems. To resolve the issue, Malcomson sought the help of his uncle,
John Gray, who was also the president of the Savings Bank. Gray’s name pulled in several investors,
and by the year 1903, the partnership was incorporated with a total of 12 investors and 1000 shares
under the name Ford Motor Company.

The Ford Assembly Line around 1913

Gray was elected as president and Ford as the vice president. The company was faced with internal
conflicts as most of the investors had other businesses. Ford and Malcolm differences led to Malcolm’s
withdrawal of shares, which were sold to Ford. When Gray died in 1906, Ford became president of the
company. Back then, automobiles were complicated to operate and expensive, being affordable only by
the upper class. Ford’s goal was to create a car that would be within the financial reach of an ordinary
American citizen. He developed a design targeted to lower the price of cars, and under the leadership of
Henry Ford, Ford Motors soon sold more units than other automotive companies. The first car
produced and sold by the company was the so-called Model A, which sold over a thousand units. It was
soon replaced by Model C. With the development of an assembly line, which increased production
while reducing cost, the Model T was developed and became the first affordable car to be sold for
middle-class American citizens.
 5) 1904 - Construction of Panama Canal

Years before the US took over the construction of Panama Canal, many similar proposals had been
made, including that of the King of Spain in 1534. However, the first effort to build a canal in Panama,
which was at the time a province of Colombia, was made by the French in 1881. The constructions
were organized by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the mastermind behind the success of the Suez Canal. Due to
infrequent visits in the area during dry season, de Lesseps’ men were faced with several obstacles,
including wild animals, the torrent, and mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and yellow fever (though
it was not yet known back then that mosquitoes carry such infections).

The Canal's location today

Along with accidents, during 1884, the death rate increased to about 200 people per month, leading to a
large reduction in efficient workforce. Though another group was assigned, the French still failed to
complete the project. In the following years, the Hay-Herran Treaty was proposed, which offered
Colombia $10 million along with an annual fee from the US government. However, due to unknown
reasons, the treaty was rejected by Colombia. When Panama attempted to separate from Colombia,
President Roosevelt sent warships to the region in order to secure his goodwill with the Panamese.
When the country gained independence in 1903, a new treaty with comparable conditions was signed.
In 1904, the US reinitiated constructions after buying French equipment for US $40 million. The ICC
(Isthmian Canal Commission) was founded to look over the Canal Zone and prevent the disasters faced
by the French group. When the originally appointed chief engineer, John Wallace, resigned, John Frank
Stevens took over and created a more suitable workplace for the workers and a new sanitation engineer
was appointed to lessen the spread of diseases. Although faced with several problems throughout the
construction, the project was completed 10 years later, and the canal was opened on August 1914.
 6) 1905 - Einstein Announces His Theory of Relativity
(Switzerland)

On June 30, 1905, Swiss patent clerk Albert Einstein published “On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” introducing his relativity theory and
launching a new era in physics. There were two main parts of his theory.
First, Einstein discovered that the speed of light is constant. Secondly,
Einstein determined that space and time are not absolutes; rather, they are
relative to the position of the observer. In a follow-up paper published that
same year, Einstein determined the relationship between mass and energy.
Not only are they not independent entities, which had been a long held belief,
but their relationship can be explained with the formula E=mc2 (E=energy,
m=mass, c=speed of light).
Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian
cantonal school (on a scale of 1–6, with 6 being the best mark)
Note: he got his worst grade in French
 7) 1909 - Robert Peary Reports to Have Reached the North Pole

With the beginning of the 20th century, the only “prize” left for explorers in
the Northern Hemisphere was the earth’s North Pole. Several nations then
sent out their best explorers in a race to the Arctic Ocean, most notably
Norway, Britain, and the US. The American Navy commander Robert Peary
began his first attempt to reach the Pole in 1893. Due to complications with
the ship and the unknown territory, the expedition, as well as another several
years later, fell short of the mark. In 1908, he made one more try to reach his
goal. When he returned from the Arctic a year later, Peary announced that his
trip had been a success and he was the first man to have reached North Pole
on April 6. He died in 1920 at the age of 63.

Robert Peary around 1911

Peary's claim later ran into trouble, as there was little evidence for his
achievements and he was unwilling to disclose his diaries and logbooks,
which may have helped in discovering the truth. Nevertheless, the US
Congress recognized Peary's claim in 1911, though the scientific community
at the time continued divided in its judgement. Modern historians generally
believe that Peary did not reach the pole, even though he might have been
within a range of 60 miles (97 km). The first recorded and undisputed
explorer to set foot on the North Pole ice was British explorer Wally Herbert
in 1969.
 8) 1910 - The Mona Lisa is Stolen

On August 22, 1911, news spread about the theft of the famous painting
Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. The painting first arrived in France when
King Francis I bought it from Leonardo. During the French Revolution, the
painting was hung inside the Louvre and moved during a short period under
the rule of Napoleon. In the morning hours of August 22, many were
surprised when they found the spot where the Mona Lisa normally hung to be
empty. Initially, it was assumed that the painting had been with the
photographers, but after this turned out not to be the case, an investigation to
find the lost painting was initiated. The frame that usually held the painting
was found on a stairwell. Unfortunately, there was not enough evidence as to
who stole the painting, and the Mona Lisa went missing for more than two
years. In 1912, Alfredo Geri was offered the painting by Vincenzo Peruggia
in exchange for 500,000 lire. Geri then informed the police and Peruggia was
arrested.
 Vincenzo Peruggia, after being arrested

Vincenzo Peruggia had worked in the Louvre and waited for the museum to
close on Monday for its weekly cleaning. Once the Salon Carré was empty,
he took the painting and removed it from its frame. He was able to conceal
the painting under his smock and went home when a guard left his post. For
two years, he hid the painting in his apartment until he contacted Geri and
traveled to Italy. When asked about his motives, Peruggia insisted that he did
it for patriotic reasons. He wanted to return the painting to Italy, not knowing
that it was in fact brought into France by Leonardo himself. Considering his
reasons, Peruggia was convicted to just over a year in jail.
 9) 1912 - Sinking of the Titanic

The sinking of RMS Titanic began on the night of April 14, 1912 and
continued until the morning of April 15 in the North Atlantic Ocean. The ship
was owned by the British company White Star Line and made its first voyage
from Southampton to New York City, though never reached its destination
due to a fatal iceberg crash that resulted in the deaths of thousands of
crewmembers and passengers. As one of the three Olympic class liners
owned by White Star, the Titanic was considered the largest ship of its time,
with room for more than 3,500 passengers. It was meant to provide
magnificent accommodation even for lower classes between England and the
US. On April 10, 1912, the Titanic left for its maiden voyage. On board were
more than 800 crewmembers and more than 1,300 passengers, totaling to
around 2,100 people – just over half of its carrying capacity.

The RMS Titanic leaving Southampton on April 10, 1912

With Edward Smith as the captain, the ship carried some of the wealthiest
and influential people at the time. Although equipped with superior safety
features, the ship’s lifeboats could accommodate a total of 1,178 people;
nowhere near the actual number of spots needed. Despite several iceberg
warnings, the Titanic’s crew was not able to maneuver the ship around an
iceberg that appeared directly in front of the ship around 11pm. The ship
collided with the ice at 11:40pm at a speed of 22 knots (max of 24 knots),
opening 5 of its 16 watertight compartments. Water gradually filled the ship
while passengers evacuated using the lifeboats. Unsupervised evacuations led
to some boats being only partially filled. Just within two hours, the ship broke
down, causing the death of around 1,500 people and making it the most
disastrous maritime event in our modern history.
 10) 1914 - World War I Begins (Serbia)

The immediate trigger for World War 1 was the June 28, 1914, assassination
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-
Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. This set off a
diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the
Kingdom of Serbia, and entangled international alliances formed over the
previous decades were invoked. Within weeks, the major powers were at war,
and the conflict soon spread around the world.

German film crew recording the war

The impact of the war on later history is usually underestimated. Besides

being more violent than any war before it (World War I killed more than 9
million soldiers, sailors, and flyers, and another 5 million civilians), just
about everything that happened in the remainder of the century was in one
way or another a result of it, including the Bolshevik Revolution in
Russia, World War II, the Holocaust, and the development of the atomic
bomb. The Great Depression, the Cold War, and the collapse of European
colonialism can also be traced, at least indirectly, to the First World War.
From the Russian Revolution to the
Rise of Adolf Hitler
 11) 1917 - Lenin Leads the Bolshevik Revolution (Russia)

In 1917, Russia went through two revolutions: The February Revolution and
The October Revolution. The first revolution overthrew the tsarist
government and replaced it with a Provisional Government of Duma
members, which allowed a Contact Commission of the Petrograd Soviet to
advise the government. Protests and strikes against the new government
quickly grew as Russia's involvement in World War I lingered on, and the
Provisional Government responded by establishing a Coalition Government
with the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet.

Bolshevik forces marching on Red Square

The following October Revolution in Petrograd overthrew the provisional

government and gave the power to the local Soviets. The Bolshevik party was
heavily supported by the Soviets. After the Congress of Soviets, now the
governing body, had its second session, it elected members of the Bolsheviks
as well as other leftist groups such as the Left Socialist Revolutionaries to
key positions within the new state of affairs. This immediately initiated the
establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the world's
first self-proclaimed socialist state. As the revolution was not universally
recognized, there followed the struggles of the Russian Civil War (1917–
1922) and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
 12) 1918 - Spanish Flu Pandemic (Across the World)

By the year 1918, just when World War I reached its end, a new disaster
arose which ultimately killed more people than the war itself. The Spanish
flu, so called because the Spanish media were the first to forecast the
pandemic, spread rapidly across the globe, infecting 1/5 of the world’s
population and attributing to around 50 million of deaths worldwide. It
caused more deaths in one year than the Bubonic plague had caused
throughout the 14th century. This made the Flu one of as the deadliest
disasters in human history. The pandemic came in two waves, with the
second being more deadly than the first. During the first wave, the flu
infected those who had weaker immunity, while the people who survived it
incurred immunity to the virus.

Infected at a military hospital in the US

The second wave of the flu differed from the common flu in that it affected
healthy people just as much as “vulnerable” people such as children and
elderly. Most of the infected that died were 20-40 years old. Scientists later
found out that the flu caused a cytokine storm wherein a stronger immune
system will cause more profound effects than a weakened immune system.
The quick spread of the virus worldwide was somehow attributed to the
movement of troops during the war as well as improved transportation
systems. People infected suffered from the typical symptoms of a flu, which
would later on progress to cyanosis, nose bleeding, and spitting of blood. The
mortality rate of the flu is believed to have been around 20% as compared to
the 0.1% of the regular flu.
 13) 1920 - League of Nations Holds First Meeting in Geneva

The League of Nations was founded following World War I on January 10,
1920, directly after the Paris Peace Conference. As an international
organization, its goal was to maintain world peace through the prevention of
wars and collective disarmament. Other problems included global health,
labor conditions, human and drug trafficking, and various social issues.
During its biggest extent from September 1934 to February 1935, the League
of Nations had 58 member nations.

The opening of the League of Nations in November 1920

Unlike predecessors, the new organization possessed no armed forces and

relied entirely on its members to enforce resolutions and provide an army if
needed. This structure represented a significant shift from the preceding
decades. Unfortunately, many Great Powers and the strongest members of the
league were often reluctant to carry out sanctions, as they could hurt other
members and/or their allies.

The league had some notable successes during the 1920s when several
conflicts were avoided through smart diplomacy. Nevertheless, it was unable
to prevent Axis powers in the 1930s after Germany withdrew from the
League, later followed by Italy, Japan, and others. When World War II broke
out, it became clear that it had missed its primary purpose to secure world
peace. In total, the League lasted for 26 years and was replaced by the United
Nations after the war.
 14) 1920 - Prohibition Begins (United States)

The Prohibition in the United States lasted from 1920-1933, when it was made illegal to transport,
manufacture, and sell alcoholic beverages. However, it was still legal to consume and possess alcohol.
The Prohibition’s primary purpose was to lessen crimes, lower corruption rates, improve the workforce
and health, and reduce the amount of taxes spent on prisons. The ban on alcoholic drinks was
implemented through the 18th Amendment, passed by the Congress in 1917, and approved on January
17, 1920. Though alcohol consumption did in fact reduce, many collateral
effects soon became an obvious problem.

Disposal of illegal alcohol during the prohibition

Illegal production of beer and other alcoholic drinks was done in “underground” distilleries. Since there
was no governing body to oversee the safety of the spirits produced, more toxic drinks flooded the
market and intoxication greatly increased. After importing was forbidden, the transport of alcoholic
beverages from outside the country continued illegally, often by crime syndicates and through bribes.
The percentage of organized criminal groups increased, which led to numerous cases of corruption and
murder. In many places, alcohol was replaced with other drugs, leading to a general decrease in health.
Instead of reducing the number of prisoners in American jails, the prohibition actually led to an
increase. With the high cost of implementation and with no apparent advantage, the 18th Amendment
was repealed by the Congress in 1933. After this, the amount of crimes significantly decreased and the
opening of distilleries opened up several working opportunities for the unemployed.
 15) 1921 - Hyperinflation Destroys German Economy

The devaluation of the German Mark began with the First World War. In
order to pay for the war, the country suspended its Gold Standard and
decided to fund the conflict entirely by borrowing. After Germany lost the
war and was forced to pay large sums of reparation to the allies, the value of
the Mark fell to 32 paper Marks for one US dollar. When the government
began to print money in mid-1921 in order to buy foreign currency, which in
return would be used to pay reparations, inflations rates sprung.

One of the 5 billion mark postage stamps, which were sold during the hyperinflation

The Allies then called for an international reparations conference in order to

find a solution to the problem. When this conference produced no satisfactory
solution, the inflation turned into hyperinflation as the currency fell to 800
Marks per US Dollar by the end of 1922. Once the Mark became practically
worthless, the German government could no longer buy foreign currencies in
order to pay reparations. In January the next year, Belgian and French troops
then occupied the Ruhr, the German industrial region, to ensure that all
reparations were paid in goods. The inflation rate rose once again when
workers in the Ruhr went on a collective strike and the German government
decided to print more money as payment for their passive resistance. By the
end of 1923, one US dollar was worth 4,210,000,000,000 German marks.
 Thank You For Reading
If You Enjoyed This Book, Please Consider Leaving
A Review. Reviews Help Us Authors Out
Tremendously
 Other Books in the
History in 50 Events Series

Click on the image to go to the book page