THE STAGES IN THE UK HISTORY – GROUP 4

BRITAIN’S PREHISTORIC (BEFORE AD 43)

To deal with the massive spans of time in this period, archaeologists traditionally divide
prehistory in three main periods: the Stone, Bronze and Iron ages, named after the main
technologies used at the time.

THE STONE AGE

The prehistory of the UK unfolds as a
fascinating journey through various
epochs, beginning with the Paleolithic
era (Old Stone Age). around 3.3 million
years ago, down to roughly around
11,650 years ago. During this time,
early humans, such as Homo
heidelbergensis, occupied the region,
Paleolithic weapons and tools
leaving behind evidence of their
existence in the form of tools and
artifacts.

Following the Palaeolithic Age ('Old-

Stone Age'), the Mesolithic ( 'Middle-
Stone Age') roughly spanning from
about 9000-4300 years ago, witnessed a
shift towards more sophisticated hunting
and gathering practices. Communities in
this era were adept at utilizing the
natural resources around them, and Mesolithic worked flint from the Ness of
Brodgar
evidence suggests a nomadic lifestyle as
well as the creation of tools from bone,
antler, and microliths.
The Neolithic period (New Stone
Age) lasted from around 4300 BC
down to 2000 BC. The Neolithic
period brought about a transformative
phase with the advent of agriculture.
Communities began cultivating crops
like wheat and barley and
domesticating animals. This shift from
a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled The inside of the Neolithic houses constructed at
farming communities had profound Skara Brae in Orkney, northern Scotland, 3180–
2500 BC
implications for social structures and
marked the construction of megalithic
structures, including the iconic
Stonehenge. These structures, with
their intricate design and alignment,
hint at ceremonial or religious
significance.

The Neolithic era gave way to the Bronze

Age in Britain lasted from around 2500 to
700 BC, with the arrival of the so-called
Beaker culture at the start of the earlier
phase heralding the change into the
Bronze Age and metalworking became a
prominent skill. Bronze tools and weapons
replaced their stone counterparts, ushering
in a new era of technological
advancement. Communities engaged in
trade networks, exchanging goods over
long distances.

Bronze Age and Iron Age artefacts from East Anglia

The Iron Age in Britain, beginning
around 750 BC, saw the arrival of Celtic
cultures in Britain. It was the arrival of
iron working techniques from southern
Europe that brought Britain into the Iron
Age. Iron was stronger and more plentiful
than bronze and iron working
revolutionised many aspects of life, most
importantly agriculture. There was a Gold Celtic coins from the Farmborough Hoard
landscape of arable, pasture, and managed
woodland. There were many enclosed
settlements and land ownership was
important. For instance, Hillforts, fortified
settlements situated on elevated terrain,
became a distinctive feature of this period,
reflecting both defensive needs and social
organization.
Warwickshire Bronze Age axe ca.2500-800BC
Herbert Gallery and Museum
 Anglo-Saxon England
The period of Anglo-Saxon (Early
Medieval England)
When the Anglo-Saxon tribes migrated from
northern Europe to the islands of England around
the 5th century, they probably found the remnants of
towns and some roads that the Romans had left
behind when they withdrew from England about 50
years earlier. During their three hundred years of
occupation, the Romans gradually exploited the
forests, marshes, and lakes. Before their arrival, the
native Celts had settled on this island, and their
civilization coexisted with the civilization brought
by the Romans. Because the Celts did not have a
writing system, their myths and legends were passed down orally for centuries and were not
recorded. English literature truly began with the settlers who came after the Romans – the
Anglo-Saxons.
The Germanic invasions:
They may be called by many different names, but the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons all
belong to the same Germanic tribe (German we often translate as German, but this word does
not refer to modern Germans but rather encompasses a type of people who lived in central
Europe in ancient times). They came to England to conquer and settle. In a short period of
time, they faced resistance from the native Britons (Celts) under the leadership of the
legendary King Arthur. Eventually, the native tribe fled to Wales and Ireland. The Angles and
Saxons turned this place into their new home. They gave birth to many kingdoms, the largest
of which was Mercia, and divided the land in the central region of England. The names of the
Saxon kingdoms are still preserved in the names of the counties Essex, Sussex, and
Middlesex.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Danes threatened to overthrow the Saxon rule as they raided
villages, seized plunder, and demanded tributes. They arrived by boats, carried out raids, and
set fire to wherever they went before departing. However, later on, they conquered, settled,
and controlled a significant portion of the northeastern territories, known as the Danelaw,
Danish invasions became part of the ethnic blending that would later shape England.
 The Medieval Period

The Medieval Period in the history of the United Kingdom spans roughly from the 5th
century to the late 15th
century. It is characterized by significant social, political, and cultural developments.
1. Early Medieval Period (5th-11th centuries):
Anglo-Saxon England: The period begins with the Anglo-Saxon migrations and the
establishment of several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Key events include the Battle of
Hastings in 1066, leading to the Norman Conquest and the ascension of William the
Conqueror as King of England.
2. Norman Conquest and Feudalism (11th-12th centuries):
• William the Conqueror: William's rule brought about the introduction of feudalism,
centralized governance, and the compilation of the Domesday Book in 1086.
• Henry II and Common Law: Henry II's reign saw the development of common law,
strengthening the royal legal system and establishing the basis for the English legal
tradition.
3. Plantagenet Dynasty (12th-15th centuries)
• Magna Carta (1215): King John's reign witnessed the sealing of the Magna Carta, a
foundational document that limited the power of the monarchy and laid the
groundwork for constitutional principles.
• Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): The conflict between England and France saw
notable figures like Edward III and Henry V. The war had significant implications for
English society and the emergence of a national identity.
 • The Black Death (1348-1350): The bubonic plague swept through Europe, causing
widespread death and social upheaval. Its impact influenced labor relations and
economic structures.
4. Wars of the Roses (1455-1487):
• Dynastic Conflict: The Wars of the Roses were a series of civil wars fought between
the rival houses of Lancaster and York for control of the English throne.
• Richard III and Battle of Bosworth Field: The conflict culminated in the Battle of
Bosworth Field in 1485, where Henry Tudor (Henry VII) defeated Richard III,
marking the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty.
The Medieval Period in the UK was characterized by feudal structures, the development of
common law, significant battles, and the emergence of foundational documents such as the
Magna Carta. It laid the groundwork for the evolving political and social structures that
would shape the nation's history in the centuries to come.

THE WARS OF THE ROSES

The War of the Roses was a series of civil wars fought in England from 1455 to 1487, the
series of dynastic civil wars whose violence and civil strife preceded the strong government
of the Tudors. These wars were fought between two rival branches of the royal House of
Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne.

Nomenclature and symbolism

The term "Wars of the Roses" was coined by later historians to describe the conflict between
the House of Lancaster and the House of York. The name is derived from the badges
associated with each house, the Red Rose for Lancaster and the White Rose for York.
Red and White Roses Merged:
The ultimate resolution of the conflict occurred at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.
Henry Tudor, who represented the Lancastrians, married Elizabeth of York, symbolically
merging the red and white roses. This union is often depicted as the creation of the Tudor
Rose, which became a symbol of the Tudor dynasty's claim to the throne.
The Tudor Rose, a combination of the red and white roses, represented the union of the
Lancastrian and Yorkist claims. It symbolized the end of the Wars of the Roses and the
beginning of the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII.
CAUSES
The Wars of the Roses, fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York for
control of the English throne, were complex and multifaceted, arising from a combination of
political, dynastic, and social factors. Here are some key causes of the Wars of the Roses:
Dynastic Rivalry:
• Weakness of Henry VI: The reign of King Henry VI was marked by weakness, mental
instability, and ineffective governance, creating a power vacuum. The question of
succession became crucial.
• Yorkist Claim: The House of York, led by Richard, Duke of York, contested the
Lancastrian claim to the throne, arguing that their lineage had a stronger legitimate
right.
Noble Ambitions:
• Noble Power Struggles: Ambitious noble families sought to enhance their influence
and power. The struggle for control over key positions in government and the military
intensified as nobles vied for supremacy.
Disputed Succession:
• Questionable Legitimacy: The legitimacy of Henry VI's heir, Edward of Westminster,
was questioned by those favoring the Yorkist claim. Uncertainty over succession
fueled the conflict, as competing factions sought to secure their preferred candidate.
Role of Queen Margaret:
• Margaret of Anjou: Queen Margaret, known for her assertiveness, played a pivotal
role in advancing Lancastrian interests. Her efforts to consolidate power and secure
the position of her son, Edward of Westminster, intensified hostilities..
Battlefield Dynamics:
• Battlefield Successes and Losses: The outcome of key battles, such as the Lancastrian
victory at Wakefield (1460) and the Yorkist triumph at Towton (1461), influenced the
 trajectory of the conflict. Successes bolstered the confidence of the winning faction,
while losses fueled the determination of the losing side.

GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR

First Phase (1455-1461):
• First Battle of St Albans (1455): The conflict began with a Lancastrian victory.
Richard, Duke of York, sought to assert his claim to the throne.
• Yorkist Ascendancy: Yorkist successes at battles like Blore Heath (1459) and
Northampton (1460) led to Richard, Duke of York, pressing his claim more forcefully.
• Battle of Wakefield (1460): Despite earlier successes, the Yorkists suffered a setback
when Richard, Duke of York, was killed at Wakefield. The Lancastrians, led by Queen
Margaret, displayed Richard's head on a spike in York.
Second Phase (1461-1471):
• Towton (1461): Towton was a decisive battle where Edward IV, son of Richard, Duke
of York, defeated the Lancastrians. It was the bloodiest battle of the conflict,
solidifying Edward's claim and forcing Henry VI into exile.
• Edward IV's Rule: Edward IV's reign brought a period of relative stability, marked by
economic growth and military success. However, internal strife and external threats,
including conflicts with the Earl of Warwick, emerged.
Third Phase (1470-1471):
• Readeption (1470): Henry VI was
briefly restored to the throne in the
Readeption period, orchestrated by
the Earl of Warwick, who had turned
against Edward IV. However, the
alliance proved short-lived.
• Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury
(1471): The Yorkists, under Edward
IV and his brothers, faced the
Lancastrians at Barnet and
Tewkesbury. The death of Edward of
Westminster at Tewkesbury marked a
significant Lancastrian defeat.

Miniature of the Battle of Tewkesbury, late

 15th century
Fourth Phase (1483-1487):
• Edward IV's Death (1483): Edward IV's death in 1483 led to a power struggle. His
young sons, including the future Edward V, were placed in the Tower of London.
• Richard III's Rule: Richard, Duke of Gloucester, became Richard III and assumed the
throne. His reign faced challenges to his legitimacy, including the mysterious
disappearance of the Princes in the Tower.
• Bosworth Field (1485): The final battle saw Henry Tudor (Henry VII), a Lancastrian
claimant, defeating Richard III. Richard was killed in the battle, and Henry VII
became the first monarch of the Tudor dynasty.

THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR (1642-1651)

The Battle of Naseby, 14 June 1645;
Parliamentarian victory marked the decisive
turning point in the English Civil War.
Charles I's attempt to rule without Parliament, the convening of the Long Parliament, and the
outbreak of the Irish Rebellion.
The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a
series of conflicts between supporters of the
monarchy (Royalists or Cavaliers) and those
supporting Parliament (Parliamentarians or
Roundheads). The war was fueled by political
tensions, religious differences, and conflicts
over royal authority. Key events leading to the
war included Charles I's attempt to rule
without Parliament, the convening of the Long
Parliament, and the outbreak of the Irish
Rebellion.m The English Civil War (1642-
1651) was a series of conflicts between
supporters of the monarchy (Royalists or
Cavaliers) and those supporting Parliament
(Parliamentarians or Roundheads). The war
was fueled by political tensions, religious
differences, and conflicts over royal authority.
Key events leading to the war included
Military campaigns such as the battles of Edgehill, Marston Moor, and Naseby shaped the
course of the war. The decisive Naseby battle in 1645 effectively sealed the fate of Charles I.
His capture, trial, and execution in 1649 marked a turning point, leading to the establishment
of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell's leadership. The Interregnum
(1649-1660) saw England as a republic, experimenting with different forms of government
like the Commonwealth and Protectorate. The monarchy was eventually restored in 1660
with the return of Charles II, ending the Interregnum. The English Civil War had long-term
consequences, influencing constitutional changes, religious diversity, and shaping political
thought in England.

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