Theme: Historical outline of UK

I. Questions.

1) Ancient Britain.

a. What monuments of pre-Roman England can you name? What do you know about it?

Salisbury is a pretty walled city with Medieval lanes and a cathedral with the tallest spire in
Britain. It's a great base for exploring the many attractions of the Wiltshire and nearby
Somerset regions. But for anyone interested in prehistoric Britain, Salisbury is the gateway to
what is arguably one of the most important prehistoric landscapes in the world.

Not a castle in the modern sense, Maiden Castle, about 8 miles from Weymouth in Dorset, is
a hugh and intimidating Iron Age fort, a giant earthwork that covers 47 acres (big enough for
50 soccer pitches) and dates from about 3,500 BC. It was still being used to defend the
surrounding countryside when the Romans invaded in AD44. British archaeology expert, Dr.
Francis Pryor - who has made a BBC program about Maiden Castle - says the ramparts are
frighteningly high and steep and reports that when it was excavated, the bodies of a number
of defenders, buried by the Romans, were discovered. According to Pryor, the Romans
thoughtfully provided each buried Briton with a flagon of beer and some meat for the
afterlife.

At one time, the fortress was densely populated. Evidence of many roundhouses, grain
storage, textile and metal working have been found. Excavations in the 1930s also found
about 20,000 "slingstones", small rounded pebbles from nearby Chesil Beach, stored in large
pits and ready to be thrown at enemies.

Orkney is covered with remarkable Stone Age monuments, so many and so important that in
1999, a large part of the the Orkney mainland was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Some of the most interesting, at more than 5,000 years old, predate both Stonehenge and the
Pyramids by millennia. Visit the island northeast of the Scottish mainland to see:

● The giant Standing Stones of Stenness with their ceremonial hearth stone
● The Ring of Brodgar, a nearly perfect circle of standing stones that is more than 340
feet in diameter
● Maeshowe, a chambered burial mound desecrated with graffitti...carved by Vikings
● Skara Brae, a 5,000 year old village that still looks familiarly domestic.

b. What imprint did the Roman Empire leave on England and what physical evidence of its
occupation can still be found?

The Roman conquest of Britain is a long process of conquest of the island of Britain and the
Celtic tribes inhabiting it by the Romans, which began in 43 AD. e.
In 43, four Roman legions under the command of the consul Aulus Plautius landed in Britain.
One of the legions was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. The legionaries landed
in Kent, near Richborough, and within a short time captured the southeast of the island. The
Celts tried to resist, but the Roman army was stronger. Claudius personally arrived in Britain
in June of that year and accepted the surrender of twelve local rulers.

The conquest of Britain by the Romans dragged on for 40 years. A number of lands, such as,
for example, Dorset, did not want to submit to the conquerors for a long time. In addition,
uprisings often broke out in the occupied territories, caused by the cruelty of the conquerors,
the introduction of military duty for the Celts, etc.

Britain remained part of the Roman Empire for several centuries. However, in the IV century,
the weakening of the empire began. In 395, it split into two parts - the Western and Eastern
Roman Empires. The power of the Romans on the outskirts became more and more unstable,
and in 407 they were forced to leave the island.

c. What were the most ancient tribes on English territory and who were the invaders after
the Romans?

Prehistoric Britain is the period between the appearance of the first people in the British Isles
and the beginning of the written history of the future Great Britain and Ireland. The period
before the settlement of the territory of the islands by the genus Homo is part of the geology
of the British Isles. Traditionally, the beginning of the history of England is considered to be
43 AD. e., that is, the Roman conquest of Britain, although there are few historical records
preceding this period.

The prehistoric period is usually divided chronologically into different periods based on the
use of tools made of stone, bronze or iron, as well as changes in culture and climate, but the
boundaries of these periods are rather arbitrary, and the transition from period to period
occurred gradually. The dating of periods in Britain, as a rule, differs from the dating of
similar periods in continental Europe.

England has been inhabited by members of the genus Homo for hundreds of thousands of
years, and Homo sapiens for tens of thousands of years. DNA analysis showed [source not
specified 2567 days] that modern man arrived in the British Isles before the start of the last
ice age, but retreated to southern Europe, when most of England was covered by glacier and
the rest by tundra. By that time, the sea level was about 127 m lower than the current one, so
there was a land bridge between the British Isles and continental Europe - Doggerland. With
the end of the last ice age (about 9500 years ago), the territory of Ireland separated from
England, and later (about 6500 BC), England was cut off from the rest of Europe.

After 12,000 B.C. e., according to archaeological finds, the British Isles were re-inhabited.
Around 4000 BC e. the island was inhabited by people of the Neolithic culture. Due to the
lack of written evidence of the pre-Roman era, events from the Neolithic to the arrival of the
Romans are reconstructed exclusively from archaeological finds. Since the end of the 20th
century, the amount of information based on genetic material has been growing. There is also
a small amount of toponymic data on the Celtic and pre-Celtic populations of Britain.

The first significant written information about Britain and its inhabitants was that of the
Greek navigator Pytheas, who explored the coastal regions of Britain around 325 BC. e. Also,
some evidence is given by "Ora Maritima". The ancient British had trade and cultural ties
with continental Europe since the Neolithic. First of all, they exported tin, which was
available in abundance on the islands. Julius Caesar writes about Britain around 50 BC. e.

Situated on the periphery of Europe, Britain received foreign technological and cultural
advances much later than the prehistoric continental regions. The history of ancient England
is traditionally seen as successive waves of migrants from the continent, bringing with them
new culture and technology. More recent archaeological theories question these migrations
and draw attention to more complex relationships between Britain and continental Europe,
such as cultural change without conquest.

2) The House of Wessex.

The House of Wessex, also known as the House of Cerdic (Cerdicingas in Old English),
refers to the family that originally ruled the kingdom in southwest England known as
Wessex, from the 6th century to the Cerdic of Wessex until the unification of the Kingdom of
England by Alfred the Great and his successors. Alfred and his successors would also be part
of this dynasty, which would continue to rule in the main line until Alfred's descendant,
Æthelred the Unready, whose reign in the late 10th and early 11th centuries was marked by a
brief period of Danish occupation and after his reign and his son Edmund Ironside death,
kingdom of the Danes by Cnut the Great and his successors until 1042. Then the House of
Wessex briefly regained its power for 24 years, but after the overthrow of his last heir,
Æthelred's great-grandson Edgar Ætheling, he disappeared into the annals of history. Edgar
himself died after a long and adventurous life sometime after 1125. All the kings of England
and Great Britain since Henry II have nevertheless descended from the house of Wessex
through Henry I's wife Matilda of Scotland - daughter of Edgar Ætheling's sister, Margaret of
Wessex.

3) England in the Middle Ages (11th-15th centuries).

a. Evaluate the historical significance of Magna Charta.

The "Magna Carta" was mainly intended to limit the power of the king in the interests of the
feudal barony. To the extent that the rebellious barons needed the support of the knights and
townspeople, the charter also reflects the interests of the knights and townspeople, but the
interests of the peasantry, which constituted the majority of the English people, are not
reflected in this document. Since the barons sought to limit the rights of the central royal
power by the charter, one can speak of it as a monument of a reactionary nature.

In subsequent years, as royal power strengthened and the centralization of the country
developed, the charter, never, strictly speaking, never implemented, became less and less
important. The Magna Carta was almost completely forgotten in the era of absolute
monarchy, and was remembered again only on the eve of the English bourgeois revolution,
when the struggle began against royal absolutism, which was already pursuing a reactionary
policy. At that time, the ideologists of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility again brought the
charter to light and turned it into a weapon in the struggle against absolutism. They regarded
it as a document that laid the foundation for all constitutional freedoms, a document that
ensured the rights of the people. That is how the charter was interpreted in the era of the
bourgeois revolution. Precisely this understanding of this document is also inherent in the
English bourgeois historiography of the 19th-20th centuries. This understanding distorts the
real historical significance of the charter, which at one time (thirteenth century) protected the
rights of the reactionary barony.

At the same time, it should be noted that when drawing up the charter, for the first time in the
history of England, the knights and citizens of the country declared their demands, which is
undoubtedly of great importance.

b. The War of the Roses in the history of England.

The War of the Scarlet and White Roses (1455-1485) was a dynastic conflict between the
English monarchs and the nobility that lasted four decades of incessant hostilities, executions,
and conspiracies. The English nobility was divided into 2 opposing royal families, each of
which was the descendants of Edward III (1327-1377) from the Plantagenet dynasty -
Lancaster and York.

The name of this war comes from the depiction of the coats of arms of each side, although at
that time they were not so often used: the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster.
Richard, 3rd Duke of York (1411-1460) declares his rights to the throne and removes Henry
4, who suffered from sudden fits of anger, subsequently, Richard's son, Henry VI (1422-1470
(71)) becomes King of England (1461-70) ; 1471-1483). After him, his brother, Richard III
(1483-1485), ascends the throne, whose name is infamous for the murder of the heirs of
Edward IV, the "princes of the Tower", which outraged the nobility. Richard soon dies at the
Battle of Bosworth in 1485, and thus the throne of England is taken by Henry VII (1485-
1509) of the Tudor dynasty. By marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, he united the
Lancaster and York dynasties. Having formed a new one - Tudor. Probably, this whole
dynastic conflict did not affect the general population as much as it did the English nobility
and the very precarious position of English families. It is this phase of English history that
has inspired many works of fiction, from Shakespeare to the novels of J.R.R. Martin and the
television series Game of Thrones.

As a result, the War of the Scarlet and White Roses left an indelible mark on the history and
culture of England, and numerous intrigues, conspiracies, intrigues, executions, the ups and
downs of royal families still inspire the writing of works of fiction to this day. As you know,
"history is written by the victors," so the Tudors tried to embellish their triumph and portray
the Yorks in an unfavorable light, and their kings as victors. William Shakespeare (1564-
1616) wrote extensively about that period, which was the reason for writing such historical
plays as "Henry VI" and "Richard III", in which the characters of the same name are present,
and the lines of these plays are quoted to this day.

4) The House of Normandy.

a. The Duchy of Normandy. The Normans in England, in Scotland, Ireland and Wales.

In 1066, William conquered England, and thus the house of the Dukes of Normandy received
the English crown. William's heir in Normandy was his eldest, incapacitated son Robert, who
had to fight with his younger brother, the English king William II the Red. Setting off on the
first crusade in 1096, Robert pledged Normandy to William, who occupied the duchy and
fought against King Philip because of the French Vexin. In addition, Wilhelm was at war
with Maine. After the death of William the Red, Normandy and England were again divided.
Returning from a crusade (1101), Robert entered into a struggle with his younger brother
Henry, who, contrary to Robert's rights, seized the English throne. On September 28, 1106, at
the Battle of Tanchebra, Robert was defeated, captured and imprisoned in Cardiff Castle,
where he died in 1134.

Normandy was again united under the same authority with England. Louis VI of France was
to cede suzerain rights over Maine and Brittany to Henry. Henry I had to endure another
stubborn struggle over Normandy with Robert's son, Wilhelm, who was supported by many
Normans and the French king Louis VI (the counts of Flanders and Anjou helped the king),
but Henry happily got out of this struggle. Even during the life of Henry I, his daughter
Matilda was recognized as the heiress of England. Upon the death of Henry I (1135), a
struggle began between Stephen of Blois and Matilda, who was in her second marriage to
Geoffroy Plantagenet of Anjou. Geoffroy Plantagenet captured Normandy in 1142. Some
time later, Louis VII recognized Geoffroy's son, Heinrich Plantagenet, as Duke of Normandy.
Henry succeeded Stephen in England in 1154, and thus Normandy was reunited with her. The
murder of Arthur by John Landless and his refusal to appear at the court of peers gave the
French king Philip II Augustus an excuse to start a war with John, against whom many
Norman barons rebelled.

b. The Normans Culture.

5) The development of England in the 16th century.

a. Henry VIII reign.

Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until
his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his
first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII
about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church
of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of
England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated by the
pope. Henry is also known as "the father of the Royal Navy" as he invested heavily in the
navy and increased its size from a few to more than 50 ships, and established the Navy
Board.
Domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in
the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy. He also greatly
expanded royal power during his reign. He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to
quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial by means of bills
of attainder. He achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers,
some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey,
Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and Thomas Cranmer all figured
prominently in his administration.
Henry was an extravagant spender, using the proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries
and acts of the Reformation Parliament. He also converted the money that was formerly paid
to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was continually on the
verge of financial ruin due to his personal extravagance, as well as his numerous costly and
largely unsuccessful wars, particularly with King Francis I of France, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V, King James V of Scotland and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and
Mary of Guise. At home, he oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in
Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland
following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542.
Henry's contemporaries considered him to be an attractive, educated and accomplished king.
He has been described as "one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and
his reign has been described as the "most important" in English history. He was an author and
composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. He is
frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid and tyrannical
monarch. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI.
b. Elizabeth I reign.

Elizabeth I - the last Tudor monarch - was born at Greenwich on 7 September 1533, the
daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn.

Her early life was full of uncertainties, and her chances of succeeding to the throne seemed
very slight once her half-brother Edward was born in 1537. She was then third in line behind
her Roman Catholic half-sister, Princess Mary. Roman Catholics, indeed, always considered
her illegitimate and she only narrowly escaped execution in the wake of a failed rebellion
against Queen Mary in 1554.

Elizabeth succeeded to the throne on her half-sister's death in November 1558. She was very
well-educated (fluent in five languages), and had inherited intelligence, determination and
shrewdness from both parents.

Her 45-year reign is generally considered one of the most glorious in English history. During
it a secure Church of England was established. Its doctrines were laid down in the 39 Articles
of 1563, a compromise between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.

Elizabeth herself refused to 'make windows into men's souls ... there is only one Jesus Christ
and all the rest is a dispute over trifles'; she asked for outward uniformity.

Most of her subjects accepted the compromise as the basis of their faith, and her church
settlement probably saved England from religious wars like those which France suffered in
the second half of the 16th century.

Although autocratic and capricious, Elizabeth had astute political judgement and chose her
ministers well; these included William Cecil, later Lord Burghley (Secretary of State), Sir
Christopher Hatton (Lord Chancellor) and Sir Francis Walsingham (in charge of intelligence
and also a Secretary of State).

Overall, Elizabeth's administration consisted of some 600 officials administering the great
offices of state, and a similar number dealing with the Crown lands (which funded the
administrative costs). Social and economic regulation and law and order remained in the
hands of the sheriffs at local level, supported by unpaid justices of the peace.

Elizabeth's reign also saw many brave voyages of discovery, including those of Francis
Drake, Walter Raleigh and Humphrey Gilbert, particularly to the Americas. These expeditions
prepared England for an age of colonisation and trade expansion, which Elizabeth herself
recognised by establishing the East India Company in at the very end of 1599.

The arts flourished during Elizabeth's reign. Country houses such as Longleat and Hardwick
Hall were built, miniature painting reached its high point, theatres thrived - the Queen
attended the first performance of Shakespeare's 'A Midsummer Night's Dream'. Composers
such as William Byrd and Thomas Tallis worked in Elizabeth's court and at the Chapel Royal,
St. James's Palace.

The image of Elizabeth's reign is one of triumph and success. The Queen herself was often
called 'Gloriana', 'Good Queen Bess' and 'The Virgin Queen'.

Investing in expensive clothes and jewellery (to look the part, like all contemporary
sovereigns), she cultivated this image by touring the country in regional visits known as
'progresses', often riding on horseback rather than by carriage. Elizabeth made at least 25
progresses during her reign.

However, Elizabeth's reign was one of considerable danger and difficulty for many, with
threats of invasion from Spain through Ireland, and from France through Scotland. Much of
northern England was in rebellion in 1569-70. A papal bull of 1570 specifically released
Elizabeth's subjects from their allegiance, and she passed harsh laws against Roman Catholics
after plots against her life were discovered.

One such plot involved Mary, Queen of Scots, who had fled to England in 1568 after her
second husband, Henry, Lord Darnley's, murder and her subsequent marriage to a man
believed to have been involved in his murder, James, Earl of Bothwell..

As a likely successor to Elizabeth, Mary spent 19 years as Elizabeth's prisoner because Mary
was the focus for rebellion and possible assassination plots, such as the Babington Plot of
1586.

Mary was also a temptation for potential invaders such as Philip II. In a letter of 1586 to
Mary, Elizabeth wrote, 'You have planned ... to take my life and ruin my kingdom ... I never
proceeded so harshly against you.' Despite Elizabeth's reluctance to take drastic action, on the
insistence of Parliament and her advisers, Mary was tried, found guilty and executed in 1587.

In 1588, aided by bad weather, the English navy scored a great victory over the Spanish
invasion fleet of around 130 ships - the 'Armada'. The Spanish Armada was intended to
overthrow the Queen and re-establish Roman Catholicism by conquest, as Philip II believed
he had a claim to the English throne through his marriage to Mary.

During Elizabeth's long reign, the nation also suffered from high prices and severe economic
depression, especially in the countryside, during the 1590s. The war against Spain was not
very successful after the Armada had been beaten and, together with other campaigns, it was
very costly.

Though she kept a tight rein on government expenditure, Elizabeth left large debts to her
successor. Wars during Elizabeth's reign are estimated to have cost over £5 million (at the
prices of the time) which Crown revenues could not match - in 1588, for example, Elizabeth's
total annual revenue amounted to some £392,000.

Despite the combination of financial strains and prolonged war after 1588, Parliament was not
summoned more often. There were only 16 sittings of the Commons during Elizabeth's reign,
five of which were in the period 1588-1601. Although Elizabeth freely used her power to veto
legislation, she avoided confrontation and did not attempt to define Parliament's constitutional
position and rights.

Elizabeth chose never to marry. If she had chosen a foreign prince, he would have drawn
England into foreign policies for his own advantages (as in her sister Mary's marriage to
Philip of Spain); marrying a fellow countryman could have drawn the Queen into factional
infighting. Elizabeth used her marriage prospects as a political tool in foreign and domestic
policies.

However, the 'Virgin Queen' was presented as a selfless woman who sacrificed personal
happiness for the good of the nation, to which she was, in essence, 'married'.

Late in her reign, she addressed Parliament in the so-called 'Golden Speech' of 1601 when she
told MPs: 'There is no jewel, be it of never so high a price, which I set before this jewel; I
mean your love.' She seems to have been very popular with the vast majority of her subjects.

Overall, Elizabeth's always shrewd and, when necessary, decisive leadership brought
successes during a period of great danger both at home and abroad. She died at Richmond
Palace on 24 March 1603, having become a legend in her lifetime. The date of her accession
was a national holiday for two hundred years. James VI of Scotland was Elizabeth's successor
and became James I of England.

c. King James I of England.

6) The reign of Charles I. The Struggle between the Crown and the Parliament.

The crisis of 1629-60 originated in Charles I's belief that by the royal prerogative he could
govern without the advice and consent of Parliament.

This was matched by Parliament's insistence that it had a necessary role in Government,
particularly in the granting of supply (tax income) to the Crown and in redressing the
grievances of those ruled by the King.
Charles I came to the throne in March 1625. Throughout his reign (1625-49) he continued to
collect customs duties, known as tonnage and poundage, by the royal prerogative. This
continued even though Parliament had voted in 1625, against long-standing custom and
precedent, that he could collect this revenue only for one year.

Charles I also tried to raise money without Parliament through a Forced Loan in 1626, and
imprisoned without trial a number of those who refused to pay it.

As a precondition to granting any future taxes, in 1628 Parliament forced the King to assent
to the Petition of Right. This asked for a settlement of Parliament's complaints against the
King's non-parliamentary taxation and imprisonments without trial, plus the unlawfulness of
martial law and forced billets. However, the King ensured that the Petition was enrolled in
such a way that there would be doubts about its force as law: it was granted by his grace,
rather than 'of right'.

This and Charles's other high-handed acts in relation to the appointment of bishops, angered
some less moderate Members in the Commons. On 10 March 1629 when the Speaker, Sir
John Finch, tried to adjourn the House on the King's command, he was forcibly held down in
his chair by three Members - Sir John Eliot, Denzil Holles and Benjamin Valentine - while
the Commons passed a number of motions against the King's recent actions.

Speaker Finch said in justification of his actions: "I am none less the King's servant for being
yours." This illustrated the dilemma which moderate Members in the Commons began to find
themselves in from this period onwards.

Charles I was furious and dissolved the Parliament that very same day. He did not call
another one for 11 years, making clear his distaste for dealing with Parliament and his belief
that the royal prerogative allowed him to rule and to raise money without it.

7) Civil War and Oliver Cromwell.

Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell was a Parliamentary commander during the British

Civil Wars and later became Lord Protector. A natural cavalry leader, he played a vital role in
Parliament's victories at the Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby, before leading successful
campaigns in Ireland and Scotland.

As an extreme Puritan, he hated the Catholics and had never forgiven them for their alleged
massacre of Protestants in 1641. He therefore felt he was justified in seeking revenge and was
responsible for the Massacre of Drogheda in September 1649.

When the Civil war began in 1642, Cromwell was sent to organize the defense of Norfolk. He
was noted for his organizational skills and bravery and when the East Anglian counties
formed the Eastern Association, Cromwell was put in charge of the cavalry. His reputation
was further enhanced when his cavalry made a notable contribution to the Battle of Marston
Moor. When the New Model Army was formed, Cromwell was made General of the Horse
and he played an important part in the defeat of the King in the Battle of Naseby.

8) English Bill of Rights 1689.

In the summer of 1787, delegates from the 13 states convened in Philadelphia and drafted a
remarkable blueprint for self-government -- the Constitution of the United States. The first
draft set up a system of checks and balances that included a strong executive branch, a
representative legislature and a federal judiciary.

The Constitution was remarkable, but deeply flawed. For one thing, it did not include a
specific declaration - or bill - of individual rights. It specified what the government could do
but did not say what it could not do. For another, it did not apply to everyone. The "consent
of the governed" meant propertied white men only.

The absence of a "bill of rights" turned out to be an obstacle to the Constitution's ratification
by the states. It would take four more years of intense debate before the new government's
form would be resolved. The Federalists opposed including a bill of rights on the ground that
it was unnecessary. The Anti-Federalists, who were afraid of a strong centralized
government, refused to support the Constitution without one.

In the end, popular sentiment was decisive. Recently freed from the despotic English
monarchy, the American people wanted strong guarantees that the new government would
not trample upon their newly won freedoms of speech, press and religion, nor upon their right
to be free from warrantless searches and seizures. So, the Constitution's framers heeded
Thomas Jefferson who argued: "A bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against
every government on earth, general or particular, and what no just government should refuse,
or rest on inference."

The American Bill of Rights, inspired by Jefferson and drafted by James Madison, was
adopted, and in 1791 the Constitution's first ten amendments became the law of the land.

9) The First Prime-Minister of Great Britain. Sir Robert Walpole.

Major acts

Parliamentary Privilege Act 1737: to amend an act passed in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Year
of the Reign of King William the Third, intituled “An act for preventing any Inconveniences
that may happen by Privilege of Parliament.” Distress for Rent Act 1737: for the more
effectual securing the Payment of Rents, and preventing Frauds by Tenants Gaming Act
1738: an act for the more effectual preventing of excessive and deceitful Gaming.

Today often viewed as the first British Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole was described by
contemporary opponents as the ‘Screen-Master General’, adept at pulling all the political
strings.

He was First Lord of the Treasury for over twenty years, an unusually long period in office
by any standard. During this time he played an important role in restoring government credit
after the the South Sea Bubble financial crisis.

Walpole lived in 10 Downing Street from 1735 having insisted that it become the residence
of the First Lord of the Treasury, rather than being given to him personally.

10) Great Britain at the End of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th Century. World War
I and ‘inter-war’ years.
In the United Kingdom, the interwar period (1918–1939) was a period of relative stability
after the division of Ireland, though of economic stagnation. In politics, the Liberal Party
collapsed and the Labour Party became the main challenger to the dominant Conservative
Party throughout the period. The Great Depression affected Britain less severely
economically and politically than other major nations, although some areas still suffered from
severe long-term unemployment and hardship, especially mining districts and in Scotland and
North West England.
Historian Arthur Marwick sees a radical transformation of British society resulting from the
Great War, a deluge that swept away many old attitudes and brought in a more egalitarian
society. He sees the famous literary pessimism of the 1920s as misplaced, arguing there were
major positive long-term consequences of the war for British society. He points to an
energised self-consciousness among workers that quickly built up the Labour Party, the
coming of partial women's suffrage, and an acceleration of social reform and state control of
the economy. He sees a decline of deference toward the aristocracy and established authority
in general, and the weakening among youth of traditional restraints on individual moral
behaviour. The chaperone faded away; village chemists sold contraceptives. Marwick says
that class distinctions softened, national cohesion increased, and British society became more
equal during the period.

11) Britain and the Second World War. Postwar Britain.

Labour rejoiced at its political triumph, the first independent parliamentary majority in the
party’s history, but it faced grave problems. The war had stripped Britain of virtually all its
foreign financial resources, and the country had built up “sterling credits”—debts owed to
other countries that would have to be paid in foreign currencies—amounting to several billion
pounds. Moreover, the economy was in disarray. Some industries, such as aircraft
manufacture, were far larger than was now needed, while others, such as railways and coal
mines, were desperately short of new equipment and in bad repair. With nothing to export,
Britain had no way to pay for imports or even for food. To make matters worse, within a few
weeks of the surrender of Japan, on September 2, 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman, as
he was required to do by law, ended lend-lease, upon which Britain had depended for its
necessities as well as its arms. John Maynard Keynes, as his last service to Great Britain, had
to negotiate a $3.75 billion loan from the United States and a smaller one from Canada. In
international terms, Britain was bankrupt.

Labour’s record in its first 18 months of office was distinguished. In terms of sheer legislative
bulk, the government accomplished more than any other government in the 20th century save
perhaps Asquith’s pre-World War I administration or the administration of Margaret
Thatcher (1979–90). Yet by 1947 it had been overtaken by the economic crisis, which had
not abated. The loan from the United States that was supposed to last four years was nearly
gone. Imports were cut to the bone. Bread, never rationed during the war, had to be
controlled. Britain had to withdraw support from Greece and Turkey, reversing a policy more
than a century old, and call upon the United States to take its place. Thus, at Britain’s
initiative, the Truman Doctrine came into existence.

The long Conservative tenure came to an end on October 16, 1964, with the appointment of a
Labour administration headed by Harold Wilson, who had been Labour leader only a little
more than a year and a half—since the death of the widely admired Hugh Gaitskell. Gaitskell
and prominent Conservative R.A. Butler had been the principal figures in the politics of
moderation known as “Butskellism” (derived by combining their last names), a slightly left-
of-centre consensus predicated on the recognition of the power of trade unionism, the
importance of addressing the needs of the working class, and the necessity of collaboration
between social classes. Although Wilson was thought to be a Labour radical and had attracted
a substantial party following on this account, he was in fact a moderate. His government
inherited the problems that had accumulated during the long period of Conservative
prosperity: poor labour productivity, a shaky pound, and trade union unrest. His prescription
for improvement included not only a widely heralded economic development plan, to be
pursued with the introduction of the most modern technology, but also stern and unpopular
controls on imports, the devaluation of the pound, wage restraint, and an attempt, in the event
these measures proved unsuccessful, to reduce the power of the trade unions. Eventually the
Wilson government became unpopular and was kept in power primarily by weakness and
division in the Conservative Party. Finally, in 1968, Wilson was confronted with an outbreak
of civil rights agitation in Northern Ireland that quickly degenerated into armed violence.

12) Major events in the history of the country (XX- XXI centuries).

Britain changed hugely during the 20th century. Life for ordinary people was transformed
and became much more comfortable.
Life was hard for the working class at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1900 surveys
showed that between 15% and 20% of the population were living at subsistence (bare
survival) level. Worse between 8% and 10% of the population were living below subsistence
level. These figures seem shocking to us but remember things had always been that way.
Indeed earlier in history, things were worse. There had always been a large part of the
population living at subsistence level or below it.
In 1906 a Liberal government was elected and they introduced a number of reforms. From
1906 local councils were allowed to provide free school meals. In 1907 school medical
inspections began. In 1908 an act limited miners to working an 8 hour day. Then in 1909, the
Trade Boards Act set up trade boards that fixed minimum wages in certain very low paid
trades. Also in 1909, an Act set up labour exchanges to help the unemployed find work.
In 1908 an Old Age Pensions Act gave small pensions to people over 70. The pensions were
hardly generous but they were a start. From 1925 pensions were paid to men over 65 and
women over 60. Widows were also given pensions. In 1911 the National Insurance Act was
passed. All employers and employees made contributions to a fund. If a worker was ill he
was entitled to free treatment by a doctor. (Normally you had to pay and it was expensive). If
he could not work because of illness the worker was given a small amount of money to live
on. However, his family was not entitled to free medical treatment.
From 1911 workers in certain trades such as building and shipbuilding who frequently had
periods of unemployment all contributed to a fund. If unemployed they could claim a small
amount of money for a maximum of 15 weeks in any year. Again it was hardly generous but
in 1920 the scheme was extended to most (not all) workers and they were given money for
more than 15 weeks. By 1912 most people had Saturday afternoon off work. However, shop
workers were usually forced to work all day on Saturday. An act of 1912 compensated them
by stating they must have half a day off during the week.
Meanwhile in 1902 Balfour’s Education Act created state secondary education. In the early
20th century the upper class went to public schools. The middle class went to fee-paying
grammar schools and the working class went to elementary schools. From 1907 grammar
schools were given grants if they gave 25% of their places to poor pupils. Working-class
children could take an exam and if they passed could go to grammar school. However, some
children won a place but did not go because their parents could not afford to buy the school
uniform and equipment.
In 1909 the House of Lords rejected Lloyd George’s budget. In response, the Liberals passed
the Parliament Act, which stated the House of Lords, could not interfere with financial bills.
The Lords could no longer veto any bills but only delay them for two years. In 1949 that was
reduced to one year.
By 1884 the majority of men in Britain were allowed to vote but women were not allowed to.
So in 1897 local groups of women who demanded the vote joined to form the National Union
of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The organization was moderate and its members
were called suffragists.
However in 1903 a more radical organisation was formed called the Women’s Social and
Political Union (WSPU). Emmeline Pankhurst led it and its members were called
suffragettes. Some suffragettes committed crimes like arson and vandalism. They also
planted bombs. However, the WSPU did not want votes for all women -only those who met a
property qualification. The suffragettes halted their campaign when the war began in 1914.
By no means all women were suffragettes. Many women were anti-suffragettes. They
opposed women being allowed to vote. In Britain, the Women’s National Anti-Suffrage
League was formed in 1908. Its president was Mary Humphry Ward, a famous novelist. On
the other hand, many men supported the suffragettes and wanted women to be allowed to
vote.
In 1918 in Britain all men over 21 were allowed to vote. Women over 30 were allowed to
vote if they met a property qualification. In 1928 they were allowed to vote at the age of 21
(the same as men).
Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914. A British expeditionary force was sent
to France, led by Sir John French. It fought the Germans at Mons on 23 August. The
Germans continued to advance but the French and British halted them at the Battle of the
Marne in September. The Germans tried to outflank the allies but were blocked. Both sides
dug trenches to protect themselves and soon the trenches ran in a continuous line. The war
became a stalemate.
In 1916 the British launched an attack on the Somme. Both sides suffered horrific losses.
However during this battle, the British unleashed a secret weapon – the tank. The first tanks
were too unreliable and too few in number to affect the outcome of the battle but they were a
sign of things to come.
In 1917 Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. They sank any ships from any
country attempting to reach Britain. As a result food in Britain ran very short but the crisis
ended when the convoy system was introduced. Merchant ships traveled in groups protected
by warships. Nevertheless, in 1918 rationing of meat, butter and cheese began. Furthermore,
as a result of the German policy, the USA entered the war.
In the Spring of 1918 Germany launched a series of offensives in northern France. The allies
fought on with their ‘backs against the wall’ and in August the British launched a counter-
attack using tanks. The Germans were gradually pushed back and on 11 November they
signed an armistice (ceasefire).
By the early 20th century the trade unions had become powerful and they were increasingly
militant. However, they met with opposition. In 1901 came the Taff Vale case when a court
decided that trade unions could be sued for damages if they held a strike. It was repealed by
the Trade Disputes Act 1906. In 1909 came the Osborne Judgement, which said that trade
unions could not use members’ subscriptions to fund political parties (i.e. the Labour Party).
The case was brought by a man named W. V. Osborne, who was secretary of the
Walthamstow branch on the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. It was repealed by
the Trade Union Act 1913, which allowed individual trade union members to opt-out of
paying political fees.
From 1923 to 1929 Britain had a conservative government with Stanley Baldwin (1867-1947)
as prime minister. During his time the general strike was held. During the 1920s old
industries like coal mining were declining. So in 1921 employers cut wages. In 1926 they
proposed to cut wages and increase working hours. The miner’s leader A.J. Cooke said ‘Not
a penny off the pay, not a minute on the day’. the miners went on strike and appealed to the
other unions to help them. The result was a general strike from midnight on 3 May 1926.
However the government was prepared. Realizing trade unions might unite and call a general
strike they formed the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies in 1925. Middle-class
volunteers helped to run services like buses and kept supplies moving. Troops and special
constables also helped. The general strike ended on 12 May although the miners remained on
strike for another 6 months. In the end, the miners went back to work defeated. In 1927 the
Trade Disputes Act made general strikes illegal.
In 1922 the BBC began broadcasting radio programs. Radio first became common in the
1930s. By 1933 about half the households in Britain had a ‘wireless’ and by 1939 most of
them did. Television began in 1936. It was suspended during World War II but it began again
in 1946. In the 1920s some people went to see silent films but from about 1930 all films were
‘talkies’. During the 1930s cinema-going became much more popular and many people went
once or even twice a week.
In 1929 the world was plunged into a severe economic recession. By 1932 22.8% of insured
workers were unemployed. However, unemployment began to fall in 1933. By January 1936
it stood at 13.9%. By 1938 it stood at around 10%.
However in the late 1930s the North of England remained depressed and unemployment in
the region remained very high. Traditional industries such as textiles and coal mining were
severely affected by the Depression. Yet in the Midlands and the South of England new
industries brought some prosperity and unemployment was lower. New industries included
making cars and aircraft and electronics.
During the 1920s and 1930s a series of ‘hunger marches’ were held from depression areas to
London. The first was from Glasgow in 1922 but the most famous was the Jarrow march of
1936 when 200 shipyard workers marched from Jarrow to London. The hunger marches
gained a great deal of publicity for the plight of the unemployed but they did not succeed in
their aim of actually reducing unemployment.
However because living standards had risen so much an unemployed man in 1936 was about
as well off as an unskilled worker 30 years before. Nevertheless, life for the unemployed was
grim. They lived in relative poverty.
Nevertheless despite the mass unemployment of the 1930s for most people with a job living
standards rose substantially. That was partly due to a fall in prices. The price of essentials like
food and rent fell 15% during the decade. So for most people life became steadily more
comfortable during the 1930s. Furthermore, from 1939, all workers were entitled to a
minimum of 1 week’s annual paid holiday. Before then the only paid holidays many people
had were bank holidays.
When war began on 3 September 1939 it was feared that the Germans would bomb British
cities causing great loss of life. So children from the cities were evacuated to the countryside.
Altogether 827,000 schoolchildren with 103,000 teachers and helpers left the big cities.
Furthermore, 524,000 children below school age and their mothers left. However, most of the
‘evacuees’ soon returned home. The bombing raid on British cities failed to materialize – at
first. It was severe in 1940-41.
On 10 May 1940 Winston Churchill became prime minister of Britain.
Rationing in Britain began in September 1939 when petrol was rationed. As the war
continued rationing became stricter and stricter. In January 1940 butter, sugar, bacon, and
ham were rationed. Tea was rationed from July 1940. Then in May 1941 cheese was rationed
and from June 1941 eggs were rationed. From July 1941 clothes were rationed and you had to
save up coupons to buy them. From July 1942 sweets were rationed.
From 1942 dried (powdered) egg arrived from the USA. Meanwhile, the people were
encouraged to ‘dig for victory’ and the amount of land under cultivation increased from 12
million acres in 1939 to 18 million acres in 1945.
On 7 September 1940 the Germans began bombing London and by 1 January 1941 over
13,000 Londoners were killed. Other cities heavily bombed during the ‘blitz’ included
Birmingham, Coventry, Bristol, Portsmouth, and Plymouth.
German bombing lessened after mid-1941 when Hitler invaded Russia. From then on most
German armed forces were concentrated in the east. However, in June 1944, the Germans
unleashed a ‘secret weapon’. It was a kind of rocket called a VI flying bomb. (The British
public called them ‘doodlebugs’). From September 1944 V2 rockets were launched.
altogether 1,115 V2s hit England and about half of them hit London. The last V2 was fired on
27 March 1945. At first, the government claimed the explosions were caused by exploding
gas mains (which didn’t fool anybody!). They did not admit the truth until November 1944.
Hitler called his new weapons vengeance weapons yet German bombing failed. It failed to
dent British morale and it failed to seriously affect industrial output.
About 1 million houses were destroyed or severely damaged during World War II. About
40,000 civilians were killed. After the war, Britain was left with a severe shortage of housing.
The Housing Act of 1946 gave grants and subsidies for building houses. By 1951 900,000
new houses had been built.
Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. Immediately afterward a general election was held (the
first since November 1935). The Labour Party won by a landslide and Clement Attlee (1883-
1967) became prime minister until 1951. Labour set about introducing a welfare state. By the
National Insurance Act of 1946 everyone was entitled to unemployment benefits, sickness
benefits, old-age pensions, and widows pensions. The National Health Service was
introduced in 1948. (Many of the ideas for the welfare state were laid out by a Liberal named
William Beveridge 1879-1963).
During World War II Britain was run by a coalition government. In 1944 it passed the Butler
Education Act. (It was named after a Conservative, Richard Butler). In the future, all 11-year-
old children would sit an exam (it became known as the 11+). Afterward, some went to
grammar school to study academic subjects while others went to secondary modern schools
to study technical subjects. Both types of schools were supposed to be equal. (In the official
phrase they had ‘parity of esteem’). However in the eyes of the public if you ‘passed’ the 11+
you went to a grammar school. If you ‘failed’ you went to a secondary modern. In 1947 the
school leaving age was raised to 15.
However the period 1945-1951 was one of ‘national austerity’ when many goods were in
short supply and long queues were common. Rationing continued and it actually grew stricter
than during the war. Conditions were hardest in 1947 when there was a severe winter. Bread
was rationed in July 1946 and in November 1947 potatoes were rationed.
The Labour party also nationalized certain industries (made them state-owned). Coal was
nationalized in 1947. So were the railways. In 1948 gas and electricity were nationalized.
Meanwhile, shortages gradually lessened. Clothes rationing ended in 1949 and petrol
rationing ended in 1950. However, the rationing of butter and meat lasted until 1954.
However in the mid-1950s Britain became an affluent society. For the first time, ordinary
people had substantial amounts of money to spend on luxuries. Consumer goods became
common. By 1960 44% of homes owned a washing machine. In 1959 about 2/3 of homes
owned a vacuum cleaner.
In the 1960s Britain became a truly affluent society. Washing machines and vacuum cleaners
became near-universal. Cars and fridges became common. Foreign holidays became common
for the first time. Central heating, electric blankets, electric kettles and toasters, and a host of
other goods became common in the 1960s. By 1975 90% of homes had a vacuum cleaner,
85% had a fridge and 70% owned a washing machine. Furthermore, 52% had a telephone and
47% had central heating.
Meanwhile until the mid-1970s there was full employment in most areas of Britain. For most
of the period 1945-1973 unemployment was less than 5%. By 1973 it was creeping upwards
but it was still only 3%.
From 1951 to 1964 Britain was ruled by the Conservatives. From 1951 to 1955 Winston
Churchill was Prime Minister. Anthony Eden who was Prime Minister till 1957 replaced him.
He was followed by Harold Macmillan who was prime minister till 1963. Sir Alec-Douglas
Home was prime minister for a short period in 1963-64. However, in 1964 Labour won a
general election and Harold Wilson became prime minister. Labour won another election in
1966. Wilson remained prime minister until 1970.
Meanwhile, in the 1960s and 1970s, most secondary schools became comprehensives. Also
in the 1960s, there was a big expansion of further and higher education. In 1945 there were
only 17 universities. By the 1970s there were 46. There were also 30 polytechnics. (In 1992
they were upgraded to universities). In 1973 the school leaving age was raised to 16. In 1988
a national curriculum was introduced.
Meanwhile in the years after 1945 the trade unions grew very powerful. By 1970 their
membership had almost doubled. Nearly half the workforce belonged to a union. In the
winter of 1972, the coal miners went on strike and the government was forced to give in to
their demands. They went on strike again in the winter of 1974. This time Heath was
determined not to back down and he called an election in February 1974 on the issue ‘who
governs the country?’. However, Heath lost the election and Wilson became prime minister
again. Wilson won another election in October 1974.
Meanwhile in 1973 Britain joined the EEC (forerunner of the EU). The first elections for the
European Parliament were held in 1979.
By 1973 the long period of economic prosperity was coming to an end. By the spring of 1975
unemployment had climbed to 1 million. It was over 5% of the workforce. By 1977 it had
risen to 5.5% and in 1979 it stood at 5.3%. Meanwhile, there was also high inflation.
In 1978 in an effort to tackle inflation the government tried to persuade trade unions to limit
pay rises to no more than 5%. The trade unions refused to accept the limit and Britain was hit
by a wave of strikes. As a result, the government’s popularity diminished and in may 1979
the Conservatives won a general election. Margaret Thatcher became Britain’s first woman
prime minister.
In 1980-82 Britain suffered a severe recession. Unemployment rose sharply. By January 1982
it was 11.5%, double the May 1979 figure. Not surprisingly the government was deeply
unpopular. However, in April 1982, the Argentinians invaded the Falkland Islands. The
British sent a task force and on 14 June 1982, the Falklands were recaptured. The war greatly
boosted the government’s popularity and it contributed to the government’s victory in the
general election of 1983. (The Conservatives won a third election in 1987).
Meanwhile recession ended in the autumn of 1982 and recovery began. Furthermore,
unemployment leveled off. (However, unemployment remained very high until 1986. In the
summer of that year, the official figure was 14.1%. However, unemployment then fell
steadily. The government also succeeded in greatly reducing inflation. Despite the mass
unemployment of the 1980s, most people with a job experienced a substantial rise in their
living standards during the decade.
On the other hand the percentage of people living in poverty increased. That was partly due
to mass unemployment. Another cause was the rapidly rising number of single-parent
families many of whom lived on state benefits.
The Conservatives also sold council houses cheaply and the number of council houses fell
significantly. The government also privatized industries. British Aerospace and Cable and
Wireless were sold in 1981. Then in 1982-83 the National Freight Corporation and
Associated Business Ports were sold. British gas was sold in 1986. British Telecom was sold
in 1984. British gas was sold in 1986.
A showdown between the government and the trade unions took place with the 1984-85 coal
strike. The National Coal Board announced the closure of certain collieries. Some Yorkshire
coal miners went on strike in March 1984. However, the miner’s trade union leader, Arthur
Scargill, refused to call a national ballot to decide if all miners should go on strike. Instead, it
was left to each region to decide. That was a fatal mistake because miners in Nottinghamshire
(who were much less likely to lose their jobs) stayed at work. As long as some miners kept
working the strike could not succeed.
Furthermore the government was in a strong position. For one thing, they had stockpiled coal.
For other generating stations that usually burned coal could burn a mixture of coal and oil.
Also, striking miners could not claim welfare benefits. So all the government had to do was
wait until poverty forced the strikers back to work. The miner’s strike began to crumble in
November 1984 as miners drifted back to work. By January more than half of all strikers had
returned to work and the strike ended in March 1985. It was a severe defeat for militant trade
unionism. Furthermore, during the 1980s the government passed a series of laws restricting
the powers of the trade unions.
In 1990 the government introduced a new tax in England called the community charge
(popularly known as the poll tax). It was very unpopular and in 1993 it was replaced by the
council tax. Meanwhile, Margaret Thatcher resigned in 1990. She was replaced by John
Major.
In the middle of 1990, a long recession started and unemployment rose sharply. Economic
recovery began in 1993. From 1993 onward unemployment fell steadily and by 2000 it was at
a level not seen since 1979. Meanwhile, in April 1992, the Conservatives won another
general election, even though the country was in recession. However in 1997 Labour finally
won an election and Tony Blair became prime minister.

II. Discuss the following questions:

● Who were the ancestors of the four nations? Were they different racially? Where was
this difference reflected?
● When did the shift from the feudal system to democracy in England begin?

Among the assemblies created in Europe during the Middle Ages, the one that most
profoundly influenced the development of representative government was the English
Parliament. Less a product of design than an unintended consequence of opportunistic
innovations, Parliament grew out of councils that were called by kings for the purpose of
redressing grievances and for exercising judicial functions. In time, Parliament began to deal
with important matters of state, notably the raising of revenues needed to support the policies
and decisions of the monarch. As its judicial functions were increasingly delegated to courts,
it gradually evolved into a legislative body. By the end of the 15th century, the English
system displayed some of the basic features of modern parliamentary government: for
example, the enactment of laws now required the passage of bills by both houses of
Parliament and the formal approval of the monarch.
Other important features had yet to be established, however. England’s political life was
dominated by the monarchy for centuries after the Middle Ages. During the English Civil
Wars, led on one side by radical Puritans, the monarchy was abolished and a republic—the
Commonwealth —was established (1649), though the monarchy was restored in 1660. By
about 1800, significant powers, notably including powers related to the appointment and
tenure of the prime minister, had shifted to Parliament. This development was strongly
influenced by the emergence of political factions in Parliament during the early years of the
18th century. These factions, known as Whigs and Tories, later became full-fledged parties.
To king and Parliament alike it became increasingly apparent that laws could not be passed
nor taxes raised without the support of a Whig or Tory leader who could muster a majority of
votes in the House of Commons. To gain that support, the monarch was forced to select as
prime minister the leader of the majority party in the Commons and to accept the leader’s
suggestions for the composition of the cabinet. That the monarch should have to yield to
Parliament in this area became manifest during a constitutional crisis in 1782, when King
George III (reigned 1760–1820) was compelled, much against his will, to accept a Whig
prime minister and cabinet—a situation he regarded, according to one scholar, as “a violation
of the Constitution, a defeat for his policy, and a personal humiliation.” By 1830 the
constitutional principle that the choice of prime minister, and thus the cabinet, reposed with
the House of Commons had become firmly entrenched in the (unwritten) British Constitution.
Parliamentary government in Britain was not yet a democratic system, however. Mainly
because of property requirements, the franchise was held by only about 5 percent of the
British population over 20 years of age. The Reform Act of 1832, which is generally viewed
as a historic threshold in the development of parliamentary democracy in Britain, extended
the suffrage to about 7 percent of the adult population (see Reform Bill). It would require
further acts of Parliament in 1867, 1884, and 1918 to achieve universal male suffrage and one
more law, enacted in 1928, to secure the right to vote for all women.

● What was the role of castles in English history and what are some of the most famous
of them?

Many fortified sites started off as Bronze or Iron Age forts, built as defensive positions
against warring tribes and / or invaders. These were often built on high ground with
commanding views over the surrounding countryside, and consisted of a series of ramparts
and ditches. One of the most famous Iron Age fortifications is Maiden Castle near Dorchester
in Dorset.

After the Roman Invasion, some hill forts were occupied and used by the Romans whilst
others were destroyed. Although Hadrian’s Wall cannot be considered a castle as such, it
served the same purpose – keeping out the enemy! Hadrian’s Wall was built by the Romans
in AD122-232 and stretched 73 miles, coast to coast. There were military forts at 5 mile
intervals along its length.

Some hillforts such as Cadbury Castle were abandoned during the Roman occupation but
reoccupied afterwards as a refuge against Anglo-Saxon invaders. Later the Anglo-Saxons
would also reoccupy hillforts as defensive sites against the Viking invaders.
The arrival of the Normans in 1066 led to a new age of castle construction. Initially the sites
chosen were in the towns and centres of population. Later castles often reused the ancient hill
fort sites, as their situations in the landscape were still as relevant for the Normans as for the
Iron Age peoples. The Normans also saw the merit of controlling the Roman road network
which were still the main routes through the countryside, and so some castles were
constructed at strategic points such as river crossings and crossroads.

The first Norman castles were motte-and-bailey castles, a wooden or stone keep set on an
artificial mound called a motte, surrounded by an enclosed courtyard or bailey. This in turn
was surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade.

These fortifications were relatively easy and fast to construct. The remains of these castles
can be found throughout the countryside, mostly consisting of just the motte, bailey and
ditches. Some stone built motte-and-bailey castles have survived intact; examples include the
Tower of London and Windsor Castle which incidentally was built with two baileys.

The motte-and-bailey castle design began to fall out of favour in the 13th century and more
and more castles began to be built in stone. Following 1270 and the Conquest of Wales, there
was a flourish of castle building under Edward I in Wales and the Welsh borders. From the
14th century onwards, castles began to combine their defensive role with that of a fine
residence or palace.

In Scotland there was little castle building until the late 12th century. By the 14th century the
pele tower or tower house was a popular design, with over 800 being built in Scotland. This
was a tall, square stone structure, fortified and crenelated, and often surrounded by a walled
courtyard.

In the Tudor period when the threat of invasion was high, Henry VIII had a string of castles
built stretching along the coast from Cornwall to Kent. Portland Castle in Dorset, Pendennis
Castle and St. Mawes Castle in Cornwall, Calshot Castle in Hampshire, Deal Castle and
Walmer Castle in Kent are some of the finest examples of these fortifications.

In 1642 the English Civil War broke out and many castles were brought back into use. It soon
became clear that the medieval castles would be vulnerable to the new siege weapon, the
canon. Existing defences were renovated and walls “countermured”, or backed by earth, in
order to protect them from cannon fire. After the Civil War, many castles were ‘slighted’ or
destroyed and castle building declined as peace returned.

One of the best examples of how a castle can develop over the ages is Dover Castle in Kent.
Originally an Iron Age hill fort, it still houses a Roman lighthouse and an Anglo-Saxon
church which was probably part of a Saxon fortified settlement. After his victory at the Battle
of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror strengthened the defences with a Norman
earthwork and timber-stockaded castle. In use as a garrison from the time of the Norman
invasion until 1958, tunnels were dug under the castle in the late 18th century. During World
War II these same tunnels were used as the headquarters from which the Dunkirk evacuation
was masterminded.
 ● Who are the most famous monarchs of the Tudor dynasty and what are they famous
for?

The Tudors monarchs reigned from 1485 until 1603. There were five crowned Tudor
monarchs; Lady Jane Grey reigned as Queen for only nine days. The Tudor kings and queens
were very powerful and they are noted for the numbers of people executed during the period.

Henry VII came to the throne after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth
Field in 1485. He was a serious man and faced many challenges to his place on the
throne, the most notable being from Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. He married
Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV uniting the houses of Lancaster and York
and ending the Wars of the Roses. Henry successfully established the Tudor dynasty
and when he died in 1509, his son’s succession was not challenged and England was a
rich and prosperous country.

Henry VIII is the best known of the Tudor Monarchs, he was the second son of
Henry VII and became King because his brother, Arthur had died. He married his
brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon when he became King, but divorced her when
she did not produce a male heir to the throne. In order to gain his divorce, Henry had
to establish the Church of England and end Catholicism. Henry went on to marry
another five wives – Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Katherine Howard
and Katherine Parr. Anne Boleyn and Katherine Howard were executed for treason.
He died in 1547.

Edward VI came to the throne at the age of 9 years. He was a sickly child and the
country was run by his protectors: firstly, the Duke of Somerset, his mother’s brother,
then by the Duke of Northumberland. Edward died at the age of 15 in 1553.

Lady Jane Grey was chosen to be Queen by the Duke of Northumberland in an

attempt to keep England a Protestant country. Next in the line of succession was
Henry VIII’s eldest daughter, Mary. Mary was a Catholic and had sworn to return
England to Catholicism. The public did not approve of Jane’s succession and
supported Mary’s claim to the throne. Queen Jane reigned for just 9 days before Mary
successfully took the throne. Jane and her husband, Guildford Dudley, son of the
Duke of Northumberland, were beheaded.
 Mary I was the daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon and was a
committed Catholic. When she came to the throne she vowed to return England to
Rome and Catholicism. She is known as Bloody Mary because of the numbers of
people who were executed for being Protestants. She made herself even more
unpopular by marrying Philip of Spain and losing Calais, England’s last possession in
France. Mary died in 1558, probably of cancer of the womb.

Elizabeth I became Queen after her sister Mary I died without an heir. She was the
daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She upheld Protestantism in England and
her will was the law. She did not marry and was known as the Virgin Queen. During
Elizabeth’s reign the age of exploration began with explorers such as Francis Drake
claiming new lands for England and introducing new materials and foods. The
American State, Virginia, is named after her. When Elizabeth died in 1603 the Tudor
line ended.

● What were the reasons for the Civil War of 1642 in England?

The principal causes of the English Civil Wars may be summarised as:

● Charles I's unshakeable belief in the divine right of kings to rule

● Parliament's desire to curb the powers of the king
● Charles I's need for money to fund his court and wars
● Religious differences between the monarch, Parliament, Scottish Covenanters, and
Irish Catholics
● The personalities of key leaders on both sides, which did not allow for compromise
● A rise in the number and economic power of the new gentry who now sought political
change
● A belief that the king was a wicked warmonger and had to be removed

III. Reports topic

2. An Industrial Revolution in England.

The Industrial Revolution was the transition from small cottage industries in which goods were
primarily made by hand to new mass-produced goods in factories using steam and water power.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1760 and many of the technological
innovations were of British origin. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial
Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was
also the first to use modern production methods. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning
point in history and almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. There are
several important reasons why it began in Great Britain.

Inventions and Innovations

One of the most important reasons the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain was that many
of the most important inventions and innovations that powered the revolution were developed
there.

Initial developments occurred in the cotton industry with the development of the spinning jenny,
water frame, and spinning mule. The spinning jenny was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in
Stanhill, England. The device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker
able to work 8 or more spools at once. Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered water
frame, which produced yarn harder and stronger than that of the initial spinning jenny. Samuel
Crompton combined the spinning jenny and water frame to create the spinning mule, a machine
that revolutionized the industry worldwide. The mule was the most common spinning machine
from 1790 until about 1900 and was still used for fine yarns until the early 1980s.

James Watt developed perhaps the most important invention of the era with his steam engine. He
improved on Thomas Newcomen’s 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in
1776. This engine was more efficient and more powerful and was soon developed further to power
machines in factories as well as steamships at sea and locomotives on rails.

Soon, other industries benefited from industrialization. Other innovations included new steel
making processes by Henry Bessemer, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems,
and other advanced machinery in steam-powered factories

An Agricultural Revolution
England had been an agricultural nation for centuries. Crop rotation techniques had improved over
that period allowing soil to remain more fertile and growing outputs increased. Farmers also
experimented with livestock breeding by allowing only their largest animals to breed. This resulted
in larger, healthier cattle and lamb.

In the 1700’s, wealthy landowners bought up smaller farms and enclosed their larger lands with
fences. This enclosure movement led to more productive farming and greater crop yields but also
displaced many small farmers. Often, these men and women moved to cities to work in the new
factories.

Natural Resources
Another major reason why the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain was that it had an
abundant supply of what economists call the three factors of production. These factors of
production are land, labor, and capital. These describe the inputs used in the production of goods
or services in order to make an economic profit.

Land in this economic sense means not just usable open land for industry to build on. It also means
the natural resources that were needed for industrialization. Coal was needed in vast quantities for
the Industrial Revolution to fuel steam engines and furnaces. Iron ore was necessary for machines,
buildings, and bridges. England had an abundance of both as well has rivers for inland
transportation.

Labor represents a large workforce for the industries. With a booming population from higher food
production and the enclosure movement pushing people to cities, England’s industries had more
than enough workers. Finally, capitol is the money needed to fund industry. Great Britain's well-
developed banking system allowed for loans to invest in industries to help them succeed.

A Stable Government and Economy

Finally, the Industrial Revolution flourished in Great Britain for political reasons. While
England was often at war, all of these conflicts took place outside of the country. As a result, life
in the country was relatively peaceful. The last major political upheaval was the Glorious
Revolution in 1688 and a period of peace and stability followed when other nations were
undergoing revolutions or political changes.

Additionally, the political system of England encouraged trade and entrepreneurship. A

straightforward legal system allowed the formation of joint-stock companies, enforced property
rights, and respected patents for inventions.

Finally, the Great Reform Act was passed by Parliament in 1832. This granted seats in
Parliament to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution and removed seats
from smaller areas that had been dominated by a wealthy patron. The Act also increased the
electorate from about 400,000 to 650,000, making about one in five adult males eligible to vote.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.
Britain’s population grew 280% between the years 1550–1820, while the rest of Western Europe
grew 50–80%. Additionally, Great Britain became the world’s leading commercial nation,
controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with
political influence on the Indian subcontinent.

IV. Literature to use:

1. Барановский Л.С, Козикис Д.Д. Страноведение. Великобритания: Учеб.

пособие. – Мн.: Выш. шк., 1990. – 343 с.

2. Гапонів А.Б., Возна М.О. Лінгвокраїнознавство. Англомовні країни.

Підручник для студентів та викладачів вищих навчальних закладів. – Вінниця: НОВА
КНИГА, 2005. – 464 с.

3. Жилко Н. М. Great Britain [Текст] : навч. посіб. до курсу "Країнознавство" /

Жилко Н. М.. – Ніжин, 2001. – 176 с.

4. Погляд на Британію [Текст] : навч. посіб. до курсу "Країнознавство". – К. :

Знання, 1999. – 128 с.

5. The English-speaking world / Упоряд.: М.Россоха. – Тернопіль, 1996. – 161 с.

6. The History of Britannia! http://blog.royalmint.com/the-history-of-britannia/