Introduction

The history of our civilization represent the main base of our evolution today. History
bring as the study of the past.
I agree with the statement “ In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information
about how people and societies behave”1 , because nowadays we have a lot of customs from the
past, which accompanies our current thinking.
With the aid of history, we contribute to moral understanding. It offers us a blend of
moral contemplation. By studying the information of events, situation or personalities that allows
the person the ability to understand and be understood with the help of morality or to test the
personal moral that is hidden inside of our souls.
History provide the person to develop his identity. Historical data add witness of how
families, groups, institutions, and whole countries have been formed, also how they have
evolved, while upholding cohesion.
I choose the theme of my graduate work with the name: “History of the UK. Main event”,
because it`s interesting to be a part of history that was in a past. To understand some events that
now are a part of our life, that and contemplate the main base of our civilization.
In my graduate work I will show main events, interesting facts that has formed United
Kingdom as we know today. British history includes events that have shaped and remodeled the
map of the world, influential figures whose estate remains with us today and contrasting peoples
from all intersection of the world. To prove the importance of UK history, I`d like to say about
London that represent a mysterious place in the world penetrated into stories and hosting
dramatic action that have corrected the history of not only London, but also of the United
Kingdom as a whole.
As shown above, the studying of history represents the principal actions of our life.
History is the basis of good and prosper civilization. Civilizations evolve from the past mistakes,
that now are flown away, by fighting against them over the years. The history of UK is fool of
interesting personalities and also events, that encourages me to study as much as possible,
because it`s interesting to study things that was made in past, that now are like a mystery.

1
https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-archives/why-study-
history-(1998)
Capitoul 1. Primal age
1.1 The foundation stones
The island
Nonetheless difficult the contemporary industrial state can be, two principal condition
affect people’s life, that are: climate, land. They influence political, social and economic life.
Great Britain is not omission. It has a milder climate than much of the European continent
because it is situated in the Gulf Stream, which transfer warm water and winds from the Gulf of
Mexico. The countryside part is also diverse. The west and north are rolling and mountainous.
Much of the east and south is quite flat or low. This factor represents that the east and south part
are more likeable for agricultural activities. So it is not astonishing that the southeast of Britain
was always populated. For this logic it has constantly had the most political influence.
The history of Britain has been firmly united with the sea. Until modern age it was too
easy to travel across the water, the same easy as to travel across the land. The history of United
Kingdom was surrounded by the sea.
Britain's prehistory
Britain has not always been an island. It became an island just after the finishing of ice
age. The temperature rose and the ice blended, stream the lower-lying part, that now is situated
under the North Sea.
We have to know that the Ice age was not just chilly long period. It was warmer when the
ice cap was receding, it was colder when the ice head reached south as the River Thames. The
first evidence of human existence was about 250, 000 BC, it was the warmer period. The stone
tools show that in past there were two divergent types of citizens. The previous class, that they
made their tools by stone flakes, the same tools that were found in north European part. The
another class manufacture their tools from middle core of the stone, possibly the earliest practice
of human tool manufactured, that was transmitted to Europe and Africa.
Anyway, the ice lading over a Britain was turn into small populated land before milder
climate, perhaps around 50, 000 BC. During this time, a new kind of human being have arrived,
who was the ancestor of the modern British. This people looks like similar modern British
peoples, but the life term was about thirty years and they were apparently smaller.
About 10, 000 BC, the Britain land was populated by small classes of people that were
hunters, gatherers and fishers. Less of them had a settled home, they were about to follow the
troops of deer, that provided them clothing and food. Around 50, 000 BC, Britain had heavily
forested and became an island. For the wandering hunter culture, it was a disaster, for the cold-
loving deer and other animals- died.
 Around 300 BC New Stone Age (Neolithic) people pass over the slim sea from Europe
by small round boat made with bending a wood and covered by animal skin. This boat can carry
one or two people. This people know how to make pottery, they grew corn crops and kept
animals. This people perhaps came for this island from North America coast or Iberian
Peninsula. They were dark, small, long-head people and may be antecedent of dark-haired
inhabitants of Wales and Cornwall today. They established in the western part of Britain and
Ireland- from Cornwall at the the southwest end of Britain.
These were the initial wave of invaders, before the primary arrival of the Romans (55
BC). The invaders distinct a new step in British development. They brought new methods and
idea, it is now believed that the change of Britain's prehistoric model was the consequence of
local economic and social forces.
A considerable “national works” of this age, needed a big organization of effort that tell
to everyone in what way prehistoric Britain was advanced. The prior of these works were great
"barbades", or burial mounds, made of earth or stone. Maximum of this works were find on the
chalk uplands of south side of Britain. Nowadays these uplands have a few trees and a poor soil.
But in the past this lands were airy timberland which can be easily cleaned for agriculture, and as
a result this is the most accessible part of the countryside. In the end, for a very long time, these
field grow into overloaded, by 1400 BC. the climate became arid, and as a result, this land could
no longer supported many segments of the population. Today it is difficult to imagine these field,
especially the highlands of Wiltshire and Dorset.
After 3000 BC. The chalk land society began to build large circles of earthly shores and
shrubs. Inside, they constructed wooden buildings and stone circles. These “henges”, were the
“heart” of religious, political and economic influence.
The most astonishing, then and now, was Stonehenge. Stonehenge was built in separate
steps over a thousand years. Stonehenge's exact purposes remain a mystery, but during the
second stage of construction, around 2400 BC, huge bluestones have been brought to the site of
South Wales. This could have been achieved, because the government in the region around the
Stonehenge was recognized in a very large area, probably up to British Island. The shift of these
stones was a remarkably action, the story has been passed from generation to generation. Many
years later, the unwritten memories were registered in Geoffrey of Monrnourh's History of
Britain, written in 1136.
Afterwards the 2400 BC, new classes of people arrived in southeast Britain land from
Europe. They were bigger than Neolithic Britons, heavily built and round headed. No one knows
what was the reason of their arrive to the British land. Their impact was later felt. They became
leaders of British nation. Their appearance is notable by the first individual graves, provided
with pottery breakers, from where they get their name: “Beaker” people. This people maybe
spoke an Indo- European language. They have brought one culture to those full Britain. They
also brought the competence to make bronze utensil and those began to change the stone utensil.
But he is a man of the old ways. Stonehenge continue to be the most essential Centre until 1300
BC. The Beaker” people build on a brand-new “ring” of thirty stone columns. British society
continued to be centered.
The Celts
About 700 BC, one more group began to arrive to British land. The Celts, who perhaps
came from central Europe or from Russia. Many of them were big, with red hair and with blue
eyes. Concord to the Romans, the Celtic men wore shirts and shorts (knee pants). Maybe the
Scottish dress and tartan was borrowed from this “stripped cloak”. The Celts were also "very
attentive to cleanliness ". Throughout the Celtic term, women could have had more independence
than they had for hundreds of years. When the Romans occupy Britain, two of the largest ethnic
group were led by women who battle from their chariots. They were technical progressive. The
Celts made the best weapons than those who used bronze and they know how to industry iron.
It is imaginable that they lead many older inhabitants from west to Wales, Scotland and
Ireland. The Celts began to dominate all the lowlands of the Britain and accompany new arrivals
from the European continent. They extend in one wave after another for the next seven hundred
years. The Celts are influential in British history, for the reason that they are the antecedent of
many people in Highland Scotland. Wales, Ireland and Cornwall today. The Iberian human
beings in Wales and Cornwall, took on the advanced Celtic culture. Celtic languages, which have
been used continuously in some region of that time, are still spoken. The contemporary British
are frequently described as Anglo-Saxons. It`s better to name them Anglo-Celt.
The Celtic tribes promote the same way of agriculture like the people of the Bronze Age
previous them. Their iron technology provides them to make possible to produce dense soils.
They keep to build and use the hillforts. Hill forts represent a kind of earthworks a fortified
utilize for refuge or a sheltered settlement lying to exploit a height increase for a defensive
advantage. The hill fortress persists at the center of community groups. The interior of these hills
was accompanied by houses and became the simple economic capital and the smaller "city" of
the different tribal areas in which Britain was now split. The Celts were good farmers, they grow
enough food for all citizens.
The Celts nation were ruled by warrior group of whom the priests or druids seem to be
important members. These Druids could not write or read, but they commit to memory all
religious educate, tribal laws, history, medicine, and the essential knowledge in Celtic society.
The Druids from dissimilar ethnic groups across the Britain have perhaps met once a year. They
did not have temples, but they met in sacred forests. We have a little information about their
religion, except that sometimes it included human sacrifice.
The Romans
The Romans came to Britain because of Celts. The reason is: they were working with
Celts of Gaul opposed to them. The British Celts people gave him food and permited them to
hide in the Britain. There was another motive. The Celts used cattle to pump their plows, which
means richer and heavier land could be cultivated. Under the Celts, Britain has become a leading
food producer due to its mild climate. Now it has exported corn and animals as well as hunting
bondsman and dogs to the Europe. Because of Britain, the Romans they learned to read and
write.
The Romans created a Romano-British culture in the southern half of Britain, from the
Humber River to the Severn River. This segment of Britain was inner side of Empire. Beyond
the mountain areas, under the Roman, but not advanced. These territory were viewed from the
cities of York, Chester and Caerleon, on the western peninsula of Britain, which in future
became known as Wales. Each of these cities was held by a Roman troop of about 7,000 men.
The overall Roman armed force in the Britain was about 40 000 people.
The Romans could not defeat "Caledonia," as they called Scotland, in spite of the fact
that they used up over a century attempting to do so. Eventually they construct a strong wall
throughout the length of northern margin, named after Emperor Hadrian who plan it. At that
time, Hadrian's wall was simply meant to prevent the kidnappers from the north, also striped the
limits between the two subsequent countries, Scotland and England. In the end, the limits was
settle a few kilometers farther north. Attempts to change it in later centuries have failed, mainly
since, on both limit of the border. A normal balance point has been settle.
The role of Roman against British ended as the empire start to fall in. The first indication
were the asault of the Celts of Caledonia in AD 367. The Roman army have found it increasingly
difficult to stop the attackers from crossing the Hadrian`s wall. The same thing arise on the
European continent, while the German, Saxon and Frankish groups start to attack the coast of
Gaul. In AD 409 Rome transport the last soldiers from Britain, and the Roman-British, the
Romanized Celts, were let alone fight contra the Scots, Irish and Saxons raiders from Germany.
The consecutive year, obvious Rome lose to raiders. When the Britain, in the middle of the fifth
century, turned to Rome for help contra the Saxon raiders, no feedback came.
Roman life
Britain's most obvious feature was its cities, which formed the basis of the Roman
administration and civilization. Many have grown from Celtic settlements, military camps or
market centers. In general, there were three different city types in the UK, two of which are cities
established by the Roman Charter. These were colonies, populated towns led by Romanian
colonists and municipalities, large cities in which the population that received Roman
citizenship. The third type, civitas, included the ancient Celtic tribal capitals, through which the
Romans administered the Celtic population in rural areas. At the beginning 
these cities had no walls. Then, probably from the end of the second century to the end of the
third century AD, almost every city has been given walls. In the beginning there were only
earthworks, but by 300 AD. all cities had thick stone walls.
The Romans left about twenty large cities of about 5,000 inhabitants and about a hundred
smaller ones. A lot of these cities were a army camps. The latin word for camp is “castra”, which
was the base for a lot of cities names, like: Chester, Winchester, etc. These cities were built of
stone and wood and had plans for streets, squares and shops. A few buildings have central
heating. They were connected by roads that were well built, they survived when further roads
broke. These roads maintained to be in use long term after the departure of the Roma and
became the main roads of modern Britain. About six of the Roman roads met in London, a
central city with 20,000 people. London was twice bigger then Paris and probably the most
important commerce center in northern Europe, because of the southeast part of Britain, that
produce so much corn for ship.
Outside the cities, the greatest change during the Roman activity was the growth of
massive farms, that were called "villas." These belonged to the wealty Britons, who, as the
townspeople, tagt were more Roman than they were Celt in their ways. Each villa had many
employees. Villas were usually close to cities, so that crops could easily be sold. There was an
increasing diversity between the rich and those who did the real work on the land. Most people
still lived in the same type of oval huts and villages that the Celts had lived before, around four
hundred year earlier, when Romanians arrived.
In some ways, life in the Roman Britain seems to be more civilized, it was hard for all,
except the richest. The bodies inhumed in a Roman cemetery in York show that life expectation
was low. Part of the entire population died between the age of twenty-forty, while 15% died
before joing the age of twenty.
It is difficult confidence that many people lived in the UK when the Romans left. It was
possibly about 5 million, partly because of the peace and the expanded economic life that the
Romans brought to the country. The brand-new wave of invaders have changed all this.
I.2 The Saxon invasion
The invaders
The wealth of Britain in the fourth century, the result of its mild climate and
centuries-old world, was a shade for the greedy. At first the Germanic tribes attacked
Britain only, but after 430 AD. began to master. The newcomers were warriors and
illiterate. We owe our knowledge of this period, in particular, to an English monk named
Bede, who lived three hundred years later. His story about the events in his Church The
history of the English people was generally proved by the correctness of archaeological
evidence.
Bede tells us that the invaders came from three powerful German tribes, Saxons,
Angles, and Jutes. Jutes were primarily established in Kent and along the south coast, and
soon are not considered to be different from Angles and Scarves. Angles settled in the
east and north of the Midlands, while the Saxons settled between the jutes and Angles in
a strip of land from the Thames Estuary to the west. The Anglo-Saxon migration gave
Britain a new name, England, the "English Coast". Bede tells us that the invaders came
from three powerful Germanic, Saxon, angular and jute tribes. Jute was mainly
established in Kent and along the south coast, and soon they were not considered distinct
from the Angles and Saxons. Angles settled in the east and north of the Midlands, while
the Saxons settled between the jutes and Angles in a field of land in the Thames Estuary
West. Anglo-Saxon migrations have given most of the new name of Britain, England
"land of Angles".
The British wrestlers battled with German kidnappers and settlers, as well as
them. However, over the next hundred years, they were slowly pushed westward to 570,
being forced west of Gloucester. Finally, the bridge was driven to the mountains in the far
west, which the Saxons called "Weallas" or "Wales", which means "the country of the
foreigners". Some Celts were pushed Cornwall, who later accepted Saxon rule. In the
north, other Celts were hunted in the plains of the country, which became known as
Scotland. Some Celts have been left behind and many have become slaves of Saxons.
Nothing at all, Celtic culture remains in England, except for the names of some rivers,
Thames, Mersey, Severn and Avon, and two major cities, London and Leeds.
Anglo-Saxons have set a number royal, some of which still exist in county or
regional names to this day: Essex (East Sa xons), Sussex (South Saxony), Wessex (West
Saxons), Middlesex (probably a kingdom from Midd le Saxons) . By the middle of the
seventh century, the three great kingdoms, those in Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex,
were the strongest.
 The left penny: silver penny is representing Offa, King of Mercia (AV 757-896),
Offa is stronger than other Anglo-Saxon emperors of his time or previously him. His
coins were of a higher quality than any coin used since the leaving of the Romanians four
hundred years before.
Thew right penny: The gold coin of King Offa, a explicit copy of the Arabic dinar
from 774 AD. Most of them are written in Arabic, but, on the one hand, they also have
"OFFA REX". That tells that the Anglo-Saxons in the Britain knew more advanced
economic system in the distant Arab empire, and far from Britain and Northern Europe,
Arabian gold coins were more trustworthy than any other. This shows how big the
distances are international trade in that time.
No later than a century later, one of these kings, King Ofa Mercia (757-96),
claims the "kingdom of English". He had a good reason to do so. It was strong enough to
hire thousands of people to build a giant dyke, or a wall of land, the length of the Welsh
border to keep out the fearful Celts. But albeit he was the most powerful king of his time,
he did not dominate all of England.
The power of Mercia did not survive after Offa's death. At that time, the king's
power depended on the person's loyalty to his descendants. After his death, the next king
had to work hard to reflect these personal feelings of loyalty. Most people still he
believed, as the Celts did, that the man's first duty was with his own family. However,
everything changes. Saxons began to replace loyalty to the family loyalty to lord and the
king.
Government and society
Saxons have created institutions that have made the English state strong for the
next 500 years. One of these institutions was the King's Council, called Witan. Probably
Witan came out of informal groups of warriors and old elders kings like Offa have
returned for advice or support in difficult matters. In the tenth century, Witan was a
formal body that expressed laws and charters. It was not at all democratic, and the king
could decide to ignore Witan's advice. But he knew that it could be alarming to do so. For
Witan's authority was estabilished on its right to designate kings and to welcome the use
of the king's laws. Out of his support, the King's force was in danger. Witan has set up a
system that has stayed for a year, an important part of the King's method of government.
Alike today, the King or Queen has a Private Council, a group of counselors on state
affairs.
 The Saxons divided the land into new administrative areas based on tires. or
counties. These residences, created by the end of the tenth century, remained almost the
same for almost a thousand years. "Shire" is the word Saxon, "the district" Norman, but
both of them are still used. (In 1974 the districts were reorganized, but the new system is
very similar to the old.) In each residence, the local administrator of the king was named.
Over time, his name was moved to the "Sheriff".
Anglo-Saxon technology has changed the form of English agriculture. The Celts
held small square fields that fit well with the light plow they used, drawn by either an
animal or two people. This plow can easily rotate the corners. The Anglo-Saxons
introduced a much heavier plow, which plowed better on long straight lines across the
field. This was particularly useful for cultivation of heavier soils. But this required six or
eight bulls, and it was difficult to turn. This heavier plow led to changes in the ownership
and organization of the land.

Renovation of the Anglo-Saxon village. In each house there were probably one
room with a wooden floor with a pit down. The pit can be used for storage, but, most
likely, keep the house on wet ground. In every village there was their own lord. The
village's lord duty was to protect the farm and its products or produce.
To make the best use of rural land. It was divided into two or three large grounds.
Then they were divided into long and thin bands. Each family had more strips in each of
these areas. Tilling these long thin bands was easier because it avoided the turn problem.
Few unique families can afford to keep the oxen team and must be shared in base of co-
operative.
One of these areas will be used for planting spring crops and autumn crops. The third area
will be left on the rest for all year round and with other areas after harvesting will be used as a
common ground for animal feed. This Anglo-Saxon model, which has become more and more
common, has been the foundation of English agriculture for a thousand years, before the
eighteenth century.
It takes some time to recognize that a fair division of land of teams of oxen and sensitive
land management in a divided village between families, meant that the villagers had to work
more closely than they had done ever.
Saxons have previously fired irregular areas. They cut many forest areas from the valleys
to farm the richest lowland ground and they started to drain the wet land. As a consequence,
aroundt all villages that appear on the maps of the 18th century already existed of the 11th
century. In every neighborhood there was a "mansion" or a big house. This was a simple housen
where local villagers came to pay taxes, where justice was administered, and where the men met
together to join the Anglo-Saxon fyrd. The ”fyrd (Old English pronunciation: [ˈfyrd]) was a type
of early Anglo-Saxon army that was mobilised from freemen to defend their shire, or from
selected representatives to join a royal expedition. Service in the fyrd was usually of short
duration and participants were expected to provide their own arms and provisions. The
composition of the fyrd evolved over the years, particularly as a reaction to raids and invasions
by the Vikings. The system of defence and conscription was reorganised during the reign of
Alfred the Great, who set up 33 fortified towns (or burhs) in his kingdom of Wessex. The
amount of taxation required to maintain each town was laid down in a document known as the
Burghal Hidage. Each lord had his individual holding of land assessed in hides. Based on his
land holding, he had to contribute men and arms to maintain and defend the burhs. Non-
compliance with this requirement could lead to severe penalties.
Ultimately the fyrd consisted of a nucleus of experienced soldiers that would be
supplemented by ordinary villagers and farmers from the shires who would accompany their
lords”2.

2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyrd
 The man of the mansionr had to create all of this and make sure that the village has been
perfectly divided. It was the beginning of the manual system that came to its full potential
development of Normans.
At first, gentlemen or alternates were local officials. But by the beginning of the eleventh
century there were warlords and were often called by a new Danish name, earl. Both words,
alderman and Earl remain with us today: aldermen are elected officers in the local administration
and the priests are high-ranking noblemen. This was the beginning of a class system, made up of
kings, gentlemen, soldiers and workers. Another important class has developed in the Saxon
period, the learning people. These came from Christian Church.
Christianity: the partnership of Church and state 
We can not know when or how the Christianity first comes to the UK, but it was surely
long before Christianity was recognized by the Roman Emperor Constantine at the beginning of
the fourth century AD. In the last hundred years of Roman authority, Christianity has become
rigidly entrenched in Britain, both in areas controlled by the Romans and over there.
Nonetheless, the Anglo-Saxons belonged to an older German religion and led the Celts to the
West and the North. In Celtic space, Christianity continued to increase, putting an end to
Paganism. The map of Wales has numerous place names that begin or end with llan, meaning the
place of a small Celtic monastery around which a suburb or town advance.
In 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk, Augustine, to restore Christianity in
England. He went to Canterbury, the center of the King of Kent. He was did this, because of
king`s wife, that arrived from Europe and was Christian.
Augustin turn into the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 601. He was very prosperous. A
few of ruling families in England have accepted Christianity. But Augustine and his group of
monks made little advance with typical people. At least, Augustine was excited in the
establishment of Christian authority, which meant bringing regulation to the new faith.
The Celtic Church brought Christianity among the ordinary people of Britain. The Celtic
bishops came out of their monasteries in Wales, Ireland and Scotland, going from village to
village, learning about Christianity. Despite the differences between the Anglo-Saxons and the
Celts, they are the bishops seem to have been easily accepted in the Anglo-Saxon regions.
The bishops of the Roman Church lived in the service of the emperors, of which they
made centers of power in the Church in England. The two Christian, Celtic and Roman churches
could not be very different. One was interested in the hearts of ordinary people, the other was
interested in authority and organization. The competition between the Celtic and Roman
churches is in crisis because they do not agree on the date of Easter. In 663 to the Synod of
Whitby, the King of Northumbria, decided to backing the Roman Church. The Celtic Church
withdrew because Rome continued its authority to all Christians, even in the Celtic parts of the
island.
England had become a very fast Christian. Until 660, only Sussex and Wight Island did
not welcome the new faith. Twelve years later, English teachers returned to the home countries
of the Anglo-Saxons, bringing mainly Christianity from Germany.
The Saxon kings helped the Сhurch to grow, in its turn the Сhurch also heightened the
power of kings. The bishops supported the kings, which made the report of the royal authority
difficult. Kings had "the approval of God". The value of Сhurch blessing was increasingly due to
the uncertainty of the royal succession.
An elderly son did not automatically become a king because kings were elect from
through the representatives of the royal family and any unit who had enough soldiers could
attempt the throne. Moreover, at a time when a king might try to quell a neighboring region, he
would apparently have a son, that would like to cross this expanded kingdom when he dies. So,
when the King Offa organized for his son to be crowned successor, he made sure that it had
been done in a Christian ceremony conducted by a bishop. It was good political disinformation,
because it was considered that kings were chosen not only by population, although also by God.
Over the next 100 years, laws have been developed on many issues. Until the eleventh
century, royal rule became ample and deeper in England, than in any other European country.
This procedure gave potential for those who could write and read. The power of the
proprietors, which the king had given the land, was heightened because the names were written
down. Laborer, who couldn`t write or read, could waste their long-established rights for their
own land, because their rights were not certified.
The Anglo-Saxon kings favored the Roman church to the Celtic church for the one
principal reason: economic reason. Villages and cities increase around monasteries and expanded
local commerce. A lot of monks and bishops in England came from French countries and other
countries.
They were welcome by English leaders who wished to benefit from a closer relationship
between the Church and Europe (by economic connection). Most of these bishops and monks
arrive from monasteries or churches on the commerce course of Europe. So, it was a close
association with many parts of Europe. In advantage, they all were used Latin, the written speech
of Rome, which emboldened English exchange with the continent. Expanded literacy has helped
the commerce itself. Anglo-Saxon England has become influential in Europe for its exports of
metal products, hunting dogs, cheese pottery and wool. They imported fish, pottery, wine,
jewelry and pepper.
The Vikings
 The Vikings or Normans were Scandinavian merchants, explorers and warriors who, over
the period 700-1050, dominated the northern half of Europe. After some historical sources, the
Vikings would have even touched the North American coast. The Vikings were known as
creepers, Eastern Slavs, Byzantines, and Arabs. Their courage and cruelty in battles were well-
known, but it must be noted that the Vikings also had peaceful occupations, like trade and
settlement construction.
Initially, the Vikings settled as farmers in coastal regions. Later, using their superiority in
shipbuilding and the art of navigation, they began to practice piracy along the coasts, climbing
along rivers, being called "Vikings" between 793 and 1066. Due to their daring, the Vikings
were frightened opponents , which, through their actions of prey, spread fear and panic among
the native populations.
Although there is a widespread image of Vikings carrying horns, there is no historical
proof of this Although there is a widespread image of Vikings carrying horns, there is no
historical proof of this fact.
Conquest of the British Isles
Since the mid-nineteenth century, Ireland, Scotland and England have become major
objectives for the Vikings. The Vikings took control of the islands in northern Scotland, the
Hebrides and a large part of Mainland Scotland. They founded Ireland's first commercial cities:
Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow and Limerick, and used their base on the Irish coast to
launch attacks in Ireland and the Irish Sea and England. When King Charles Plessu began to
defend the West of France vigorously in 862, fortifying cities, monasteries, rivers and coastal
areas, the Viking forces began to focus more on Britain than Francia.
In the wave of Viking attacks in Britain after 851, only one kingdom - Wessex - was able
to withstand successfully. The Viking armies conquered East Britain and Northumberland and
dismembered Mercia, while in 871, King Alfred the Great of Wessex became King only to
decisively defeat a Danish army in England. By renouncing Wessex, the Danes settled in the
north, in an area known as "Danelaw." Many of them became farmers and traders and settled in
York as a leading mercantile city. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the Britain armies
led by the descendants of Alfred de Wessex began recapturing the Scandinavian areas of Britain,
the last Scandinavian king Erik Bloodaxe being expelled and killed in 952, uniting the seven
Britain kingdoms into one kingdom.
In 1070 they occupied southern Italy and Sicily. Later, they settled in Iceland, the starting
place in the overseas adventure.
Towards the end of the eighth year, the new looters were tempted by the wealth of
Britain. These are the Vikings, a word that probably means "pirates" or "the people of the sea"
and comes from Norway and Denmark. Just like the Anglo-Saxons, they started attacking at the
beginning. They burned churches and monasteries along the east, north and west coasts of
Britain and Ireland. London was assault in 842.
The Viking invasions and the areas they controlled

In 865, the Vikings occupy Britain once it was clear that the wrangle of Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms could not carry them out. This time they arrive to subjugate and settle. The Vikings
quickly accepted Christianity and did not disturb the local population. Until 875, only King
Alfred, of the west of Wessex held out contrary to the Vikings, who had already seized most of
England. After some serious failure, Alfred won a crucial battle in 878, and after 8 years he take
London. He was capable to conclude a treaty with the Vikings.
The Rule of Viking had been recognized the east and north of England. It was called the
Danelaw, the land where to Danes law controlled everything. In the reset of region Alfred had
been recognized as king. During his struggle against the Danes, he built settlements through the
walls to prevent them. These were called Burghs. These have become prosperous neighborhoods,
and the word, usually written borough, is one of the most common terminations of place names,
as well as the name of today's municipal or municipal governmental unit.

Capitolul 2. The influence of kings of England

2.1. State and church
John's dynasty decided the end of the long conflict between the Church and the state in
England. It began in 1066 when the pope claimed William promise to take him as his feudal lord.
William refused to accept this statement. He constituted the Norman bishops and gave them
earth, provided they pay tribute to him. Properly, it was not clear even if the bishops should
surrender the Church or the King. Those popes and kings who wanted to avert the conflict left
the problem alone. But some popes and kings wished to increase their authority. In those
situations, problems could not be averted.
The fight was for money as well as for power. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the
Church requested the kings of Europe to hold their power above spiritual and earthly affairs and
prove that even kings were responsible before God. Kings, that were on the other hand elect as
bishops people who would be devoted to them.
One of serious dispute was among William Rufus and Anselm. Anselm, with other
bishops, were dread the king, as a result he fled from England. Afterwards William's death,
Anselm rejected to respect William's successor, Henry I. In meantime, Henry constituted new
bishops, but without the blessedness of the Archbishop, as a result was that was no spiritual
authority. This left the king in a demanding situation. It took seven years for to resolve the
problems. Certainly, the King admit that only the Church could constitued bishops. After all, the
Church admit that the bishops would reimbursement to the king for all of the lands that hail to
their bishopric.
In practice, the king's aspiration for the assignment of bishops continued to be important.
But later Anselm's death, Henry handled to hold up the assignment of a new archbishop for five
years, while he profited from the riches of Canterbury. The tension between the State and the
Church continued.
The crisis appear when a friend of Henry II, Thomas Beckett, was named Archbishop of
Canterbury in 1162. Henry belief that Thomas would help him to restore the church under his
control. At first, Beckett disclaimed and then surrendered. Later, he reversal his mind and fled to
France, and Henry appeared to have won. But in 1170, Becker returned to England, with the
purpose to resist the king. Henry was very indignanty and the four knights who heard him when
he had an intention to kill Becker in Canterbury. They killed him in the most holy place of the
cathedral- on the steps of the altar.
The whole of Christian Europe was shocked, and Thomas Becket became the martyr of
the Church. After hundreds of years, people not only from England, but also from Europe, went
to Canterbury to pray in Beckett's tomb. Henry was forced to beg for forgiveness to Pope's
forgiveness. He allowed himself to be beaten up by monks. The Pope used this event to take
possession of certain privileges of the Church. But Henry II could lose much more than he done.
Fortunately for Henry, the nobles were also involved in the dispute, and Henry had noblemen on
his side. Usually the Church preferred to backing the king against the nobles, but expected that
he would be rewarded for his support. The reaction of King John's, forty years later, was to break
both the Church and the nobility at the same time.
2.2. The birth of Parliament
King John held the Magna Carta without hesitation and became clean, not honoring the
agreement. The nobles shocked and soon pushed John out of the southeast. The civil war was
escaped, because John suddenly died 1216.
Henry III, John's son, was only nine years old. In the first sixteen years, being a king, he
was under control of puissant nobles and bounded to the Great Charter.
Henry finally managed to rule for himself at the age of twenty-five. It was absolutely
inconceivable that he wished to be absolutely autonomous of those who had guarded his life for
so long. He spent a lot of his time with alien friends and participated in costly wars supporting
the Pope in Sicily, as well as in France.
Heavy expenditures of Henry and his foreign councilors upset the noblemen, again they
became a class than the leadership of Simon de Monre Forr, the priest of Leicester. In 1258, they
took over the government and chose a noble council. De Montfort called the parliament, a
French word meaning "a discussion meeting." This "parliament" took control of the treasury and
forced Henry to escape his foreign advisors. All of nobles were promoted by cities that wanted to
get rid of Henry's heavy taxes.
But some of the nobles did not support the Revolutionary New Council and remained
faithful to Henry. With the help of them, Henry was able in succeeding in defeating and killing
Simon de Montfort in 1265. Again, he received a complete royal force, though he was careful to
take the balance, Montford created between the king and nobles. When Henry died in 1272, his
son, Edward I, undoubtedly took the throne.
Edward I finely united the first real parliament. The Council of Simon de Montfort was
named Parliament, but it was formed only with nables. It had been managed to draft laws or
written laws and was able to make political decisions. However, the leaders were less able to
give the Emperor money, except that they agreed to pay for the land they held down the feudal
agreements. At the time of Henri I (1100-35) about 85% of the king's income was came from the
estate. By 1272, income on the ground was less than 40% of royal income. The king could only
raise the rest, by taxing. Since the rules of feudalism do not include taxation, taxes can only be
high with the consent of those who are rich enough to be taxed.
A few kings had previously made tax agreements, but Edward I was the first that
constitute a "representative institution" that could bring the money he needed. This establishment
became the House of Commons. In contradistinction to the House of Lords, it was formed by a
mixture of "nobility" and city merchants. These were two large categories of people that formed
and controlled the wealth of England.
In 1275 Edward I ordered each state and each city to dispatch two counselor to his
parliament. These "commoners" could have stayed, if they could, not to give money to Edward.
But few dared the risk of wrath of Edward. They became undesirable representatives of their
regional community. The Magna Carta, was the beginning of the idea that "without taxation
without representation", later claimed by American colonists of the eighteenth century.
In other parts of Europe, such "parliaments" kept all noblemen apart from ordinary
people. England was exceptional, since the House of Commons consist of a mixture of noblemen
allocable to the feudal class, merchants and free persons who did not. The collaboration of
groups through the House of Commons develop into primordial part at Britain political and
social advancement. For 150 years after Edward's death, the community agreement became
necessary for the compilation of all statutes, and all special taxes were supplemented by regular
taxes.
2.3. Dealing with the Celts
 Edward I was less interested in playing out parts of France than bringing the rest of
Britain under control.
William I left the lords to reach the shore by conquest in Wales. These nonnans slowly
expanded their control into the valleys of the Welsh rivers, and at the beginning of the 12th
century a large part of Wales was detained by them. They built the castles and marital the Welsh
in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. A new class grew, a mix of Norman French and
Welsh leaders but not English. They all became vassals of the English King.
The only Welsh who escaped English rule lived near the Snowdon, the rugged
mountainous region of North Wales. They were led by Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, Prince of
Gwynedd, who tried to become autonomous of the English. Edward was serious to defeat him
and bring Wales totaly under his control. In 1282, Llewelyn was catched and killed. Edward then
started a castle building program that was extraordinarily expensive and took many years to
complete.
In 1284 Edward cooperative west Wales with England, bearing the English county
organization to the freshly conquered areas. But he did not hamper with the lands the Normans
had conquered previous on the English-Welsh boundary, because this would have get to
difficulty with his nobles.
The English thought that Wales had become an component of England for all
constructive goals. If the Welsh needed a prince, they might have one. At a social ceremony at
Caernarfon Edward I made his son- Prince of Wales. From that time the elderly son of the ruling
king or queen has mostly been formed Prince of Wales.
Ireland was conquered by the Norman lords in 1169. They had little complication in
overpower the Irish kings and clan. Henry 11, was afraid of his lords, they might grow into too
self-sufficient, so he went to Ireland by himself. He compelled the Irish chiefs and Norman lords
to take his lordship. He did so with the force of the pope, who whished to bear the Irish Celtic
Church under his authority.
Henry II was made Dublin, the elderly town of Viking`s, the center of his own brand-new
colony. Plenty of western Ireland stayed in the hands of Irish chiefs, while Norman lords ruled a
big part of the east. Edward I dough money and many men as he could for his wars contra the
Scots and Welsh. As a consequence Ireland was depleted of its richness. By1318 it was able to
add the English king with just one- third of the quantity it had been apt to give in 1272. The
Norman nobles and Irish chiefs silently averted English force as much as potential. As a
consequence, the English Crown just directed the Dublin and a short territory round it,
established as "the Pale".
 The Irish chiefs continued to exist as they still had done, removing from region to region,
and consume food out of doors, a tradition they only gave up in the 16nnh period. The Anglo-
Irish lords, on the other hand, construct powerful stone castles, the same as they had done in
Wales. But they also get almost fully sovereign from the English Crown, and a few get "more
Irish then the Irish"
In Scotland area all were very diverse. even though, the Scottish kings had frequently
agreed upon the English king like their "overlord", they were a lot powerful than the many king
of Welsh had been . By the 11th century there was just one king of Scots, and he guideline over
all the south and east of Scot area. Just a few lands of the western coast were full independent,
these all get below the king's authority among the 12th and 13th centuries. In Ireland and Wales
Norman noble persons were power sufficient to duel with regional chiefs buy themselves. Just
only the English king with a big military force could wish to overcome the Scots. Most English
kings did not try, but Edward I was dissimilar.
The Scottish kings were tight allied with England. Since Saxon ages, wedding had
usually taken place among the Scottish and English imperial families. At the same time, with a
goal to build strong authority, the Scottish kings allowed land to Norman noble persons from
England in recovery for their sincerity. Scotland go after the England in formed a feudal state.
On the whole Celtic population that agreed this, apparently because the Normans wedded with
local Celtic noble families. The feudal order, nevertheless, did not advance in the Highlands,
where the tribal "clan" organization carry on. Some Scottish kings kept field in England, just as
English kings kept fields in France, in absolutely way they did tribute, gifted devotion to the
English king for that field.
In 1290 a slump took place over the continuation to the Scottish chair of royalty . There
were thirteen possible inheritor. Between these, the most acceptable to manage were John de
Balliol and Robert Bruce, both Norman Scottish noble persons. In order to avert civil war, the
Scottish nobles welcomed Edward I, to resolve the problem.
Edward had yet put on display attraction in accompany Scotland to his kingdom. In 1286
he had put in an order for his son to become husband and wife in legal ceremony- Margaret, the
inheritor to the Scottish throne, but, unfortunately, she had died in a ship crash. Then he had
other occasion. He told to both men, that they should do tribute to him, as a result, to agree his
overlo rdship, earlier he would help resolve the problem. Then hi attack the Scotland and put one
of this men (John de Balliol), on the throne of Scottish land.
De Balliol's, was not really happy, while four years as king. At first, Edward made him
add money and armed forces for the English army and for the Scottish nobles revolutionary.
Then Edward attacked Scotland repeatedly and occupy all the Scottish castles. All along the
attack of Edward stole the holly Stone of Destiny from Scone Abbey. Edward accepted that
outide the Stone, all Scottish inauguration would be without value and that his own dominion of
the Stone would determinate the Scots to get him as king. Finely, his heirs became kings of
Scots, as a result the Scottish kings handled completely well without it.
Edward's cure of the Scots formed a social protection movement. At first it was get by
William Wallace, a Norman-Scottish nobleperson. Although, after one defeat against an English
military force, Wallace's "human being`s army" was itself devasted by Edward in 1297. The
Scots had constitute rings of spearmen that thick though contrary the English cavalry raids, but
Edward's Welsh longbowmen destroy the Scottish constructions, and the squadron then charged
down on them.
It look`s as if Edward had won after all. He accomplished Wallace and executed him,
settle his head on a pole on London Bridge. Edward tried to generate Scotland a side of England,
as he had done with Wales. Some Scottish nobles approved him, but the society ignored to be
controlled by the English king. Scottish nationalism was started on the day, when Wallace died.
A new commander took up the fight. This was Robert Bruce, who had rivaled with John de
Balliol for the chair of royalty. He was able to forme an squad and rout the English army in
Scotland.
Edward I assembled another grand army and went contrary to Robert Bruce, but,
unfortunately, he died on the way in 1307. On Edward's tomb were written "Edward, the
Hammer of the Scots". He had planned to hit them into the ground and crush them, but in fact he
had hit them into a nation. Afterwards his death, his son, Edward 11 , returned to England .
Bruce had time to breakdown his Scottish adversary`s, and so, make himself approved as king of
the Scots. Then, he began to gain back the castles, that were held by the English. In 1314, when
Edward 11 attacked Scotland in an intention to aid the last English-held chateaus. Bruce ruined
his military force at Bannockburn. In 1320, six years later, the Scots priesthood meeting at
Arbroarh and wrote to pope in Rome, for to tell him- they would never ever take the English
government: "for as long as 100 of us remain in life, we will never ever approval to subject us to
the influence of English."
Capitolul 3. Civilisation and government
3.1. The government advancement
William the Conqueror had ruled Normandy and England by moving from place to
another place, for one reason: to make sure that his rule was approved. He and the crowns after
him, sanctioned money they wanted by trying cases and fining humans in the royal courts. The
king's "housekeeping" was the authority. There was no legitimate central of the kingdom as there
is contemporary. Kings were inaugurate in Westminster, but their coffers last in the old Wessex
capital, with the name Winchester. When William and the kings after him lifted about the
country settle in fortification and towns, they were guided by a huge number of supporter
.Anywhere, they went the regional humans had to accord them food and elsewere to stay. It
might have a enormous horrible consequence. The food is over and prices have gone up.
 This way of government can be useful only for a little kingdom. By the time, the English
kings were governing partial of France as well they could no lasting moving overall by there all.
Instead, they sent imperials and noble persons from the imperial household to operate as law
enforcement officer. But even this structure accepted humans who could manage imposing taxes,
law, and realize the king's guidance. It was apparently not functional for all these human to
pursue the king in all places. At first this "government" was positioned in Winchester,
nevertheless, by the time of Edward I, in 1290, it had trawnsported to Westminster. Nevertheless,
the government was in Westminster- the real central of England was "in the king's lap".
The king kept all his evidences in Westminster, plus the Domesday Book. The king's
government kept accurate watch on imperial families. It made clear, the king demand money,
every time a youthful noble took over the fields of his father, or when a noble's female child
wedded. In every available way the king forever "had his fist in his subject's bag". The
government also examine the township and the harbors to be sure that contribution were paid,
and kept a evidence of the penalty made by the king's courthouse.
Most primordial of all, the representatives in Westminster had to watch the economy of
the country attentively. In this case, appear a question- was the king taking the money he wanted
in the most efficient method? specific questions guide to essential modification in taxation among
1066 and 1300. In 1130, over moiety of Henry I's money get from his own field, one-third from
his feudatory in rights and amends, and only one-seventh out of taxes.
It is no curiosity, that Edward called to his parliament members of the human whom he
could tax most efficiently. It is not shocking, that the government began to advance very fast.
When William I attacked Britain, he desired only a few functionary to administer his paper work.
Most business, containing feudal tribute, was done by the not wriiten words, but with spoken.
But the urgency for paper work expand fast. In 1050 ages, just the king had a stamp with which
to "mark" official papers. By the time of Edward I, nearly two hundred years later, even the
poverty-stricken human was obligated to have with he a seal, for to sign official papers, even if
he could not read.
The quantity of wax that was used for seals on official papers accord an concept of the
fast advance of the royal authority. In 1220, was the beginning of Henry Ill's reign, 1.5 kg of wax
were used every week. About forty years later, in 1260, this had grow to 14 kg per week, as a
result, government authority has been developing ever since.

3.2. The justice and low

Of course, the king was accountable for and justice law. In generally kings had to leave
the administration of this affair important to someone who lived near the crime scene. In the
Saxon era each district had its own laws and customs, and justice was often a family affair. After
the Norman conquests of the nobles were allowed to send justice among the villages and people
on their lands. Usually, they mixed Norman's norms with the old Saxon laws. They had the
freedom to act more or less at their discretion. However, more serious crimes were considered in
the royal courts.
Henry I popularized the belief that all felony, even those in the middle of family, were no
lengthy only a family thing, but a smashing of the "emperor's harmony". It was accordingly the
king's responsibility to attempt human beings and chasten them. At first the nobility operate for
the emperor on their own fields, but Henry wished the identical kind of justice to be used in all
places. So he selected a number of person who justices, who moved from place to place manage
justice. They handle both, with felony and dispute over possessions. In this way, the king gently
acquire the authority from the gentility.
At first the king's justice had no distinguished wisdom or experience. They were just
credible to use ordinary meaning. A lot of them were gentility and bishops who pursued the
orders of the king directly. It is not wonderful that the quality of justice depended on the election
of the lord. Henry II, the most dominated English king, was famous in Europe for his high
requirement of law courts. "A convincing proof of the strength of our king," the man wrote, "is
that everyone who has a just cause wants to try it in front of him, one who has a weak person
comes only if he is dragged."
Toward the end of the 12th century, the judges were represented by men with sincere
wisdom and skills of the law. These judges, moving from place to place, execute the same law
everywhere they travel. This might seem evident nowadays, but since Saxon ages, regional laws
and customs had mixed from one place to another. The law managed by these moving judges
became named as "general law".
England was in contradistinction to the rest of Europe, because it used general law.
Centuries after, England's general law order was used in the United and in other British colonial
detentions and approved when these became community in their own straight. In other sides of
Europe, juridical proceeding was established on the Civil Law of the Roman Empire and the
Canon Law of the Church. But even though, English lawyers attributed to these as examples of
legal procedure and education, so, they develop an completely dissimilar structure of law, that
was placed on custom, analogy of earlier cases and preceding agreement. So, the classic regional
laws were supersede by general law all over the country. This combination of practice and
custom represent the base of law in England even nowadays. Contemporary judges still base
their selection on the way in that the same cases have been resolved.
 The new judges was also curious in how the law was implement and what kinds of
penalty were used. From Anglo-Saxon ages there had been two methods of determining hard
situations, when it was not evident, if a man was not guilty or wrong. The blamed man could be
approved in assault opposite to experienced fighter. A distinctive " torment " was to place a
fervent iron on the human`s tongue. If the burn stamp was for three day`s there later he was
considerate to be guilty. It was motivated that God would let the leave stamp on a guilty human
's tongue. Such a rule functioned just if peoples believed in that. Until the end of the 12th century
there were important difficulty and in 1215 the pope blocked the Church to have everything to
do with trial by court.
In England trial by court was returned with trial by tribunal. The tribunal concept given
back to the Danes of Danelaw, but had used in debate over field. Henry II had along brought in
the benefit of judges for some cases in the second part of the 12th century. It was not the judges
we all know in present days. In 1179 he admitted an blamed human in specific cases to require
"trial by judges ". The human could pick twelve neighbors, who would demonstrate that he was
not delinquent. All the while later Middle Ages, the work of these judges moderately changed
from offering records to judging the records of others. Judges had no experience in the law. They
were simple people using simple intelligence. It was quickly evident that they wanted indication.
As a result, law schools develop among 13th century, generate advocates who could offer
recommendation to judges about the form of law.

3.3. Religious faiths

The Church at the level of the local villages was very divergent from the politically
strong management, which the king had to face. During the time of William I an ordinary rural
priest could not read, and he was usually one of the villagers society. His church was in proper
place to the local lord and was often made next to Lord's house. Most of the priests were
wedded, and the was hereditary from their father.
At village, the Church wanted to change the lord's power with its own, but it was just
partially profitable. In a lot of places the lord promote the local priest and had more power over
him, than the more far Church forces had.
The Church tried to avoid the priests from wed, by the end of the 13th century wedd
priests were unusual. But it was still ordinary to discover a priest who had a girl in his home,
who lighted his burning, but put out his chastity."
There were, many who kept the promised to not become husband and wife in legal
ceremony. This was valid for those female human and men human, who wished to become a
friars or praying mantis to entered the local convent or nunnery. One of principal reason for
come in a church house was the expanding complication through this time of living on the field.
As the society grew, a lot of people understand that they could not meal their entire family
anymore. If they could settle their son or daughter in the regional church house there would be
less jaws to feed. Undoubtedly, it can existed a economic problems of growing a family, which
convinced monks to abide the Church dominate. Life was more better as a friar within the
protected walls of convent, than as a destitute rancher from the outside. A friar could study to
write and read, and be confident of refuge. The convents were heart of richness and studying.
1066year was marked with fifty church houses in England, dwelling for potentially 1,000
friars and nuns. By the start of the 14h century there were apparently circa 900 religious
dwelling, with 17,500 representatives, the expansion of the convents was significant.
The 13th century lead a new development, the "fraternity" of monks. These monks were
errant preachers. They were curious not in Church power, they were interested in spirits of
conventional male human and female human. They lived with the poverty-stricken and tried to
deliver the convenience of Christianity to them. They lived in discrepancy with the richness and
ability of the convents and cathedrals, the regional hearts of the Church.

3.4. Language, literature and culture

The development of literacy in England was tightly related with the 12century of
Renaissance, a cultural development which had at first begun in Italy. Its authority elevated to
north lengthwise the commerce routes, achieve England at the end of the age. This upheaval in
perception and knowledge brought a brand-new ambition to test religious belief contrary cause.
Schools of education were settled in a lot of towns and cities. Some were "language rules" the
autonomous schools of the Church, as long as rest were affixed to a minster. All these schools
learn Latin, because of books, that were composed in Latin language. Even though it may seem
bizarre for culture to lean on a lifeless language. The Latin language was valuable inasmuch as it
was the cultured language of around all Europe and thus was valuable in the spreading of
concepts and researching. In spite of the insecurity, the Church took a start in the fresh very
smart development.
In England, two higher education schools were established, in Oxford and the second in
Cambridge, at the end of the 12th century. By the 1220s the university of Oxford and Cambridge
were the mental leaders of the nation.
Just few humans of population could go to the universities. Most English population can`t
spoke French- that was the dialect of law, and Latin-the dialect of formation and of the Church.
It was a long period before English dialect started to be the language of the dominant class.
Some French words started to be a element of the English dialect and frequently comprised more
polite sense than the aged Anglo-Saxon words.

3.5. Regular people in country and town

In 1066 ages, there were presumably betwixt 1.5 and 2 million human beings living in
England. The Domesday Book shown us that nine tenths of them were living in the village.
Approximately 80% of the field that was used for agriculture at the starting of the 20th century
was previously being plowed in 1086. It was not before the 19th century that the cultured field
became large than the scale registered in the Domesday Book.
The life in the village was very harsh. Most of the people`s still lived in countrysides in
southern and eastern sides of England. In the north and west there were few humans and they
usually lived separate from each other, on isolated acreage. A lot of the, were lived in the
elementary building`s. The walls were built of wooden balks and sticks, replete with dirt. The
roofs were built of straw, with corn stalks laid heavily, so, the rain abscond freely. Most of the
time, people ate vegetables and cereals, but pig meat was ate in certain times. They worked from
dawn to twilight every day of the year, just before they could not work anymore. Although man
does not have his own land, he does not usually marry. However, men and women often slept
together before marriage, and as soon as the woman waited for the child, the couple had no
choice but to marry.