Temas Curriculum

Página 1 de 12 Curriculum and Course Design
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Principles
4. Design
5. Globalization, knowledge and curriculum
6. Formal vs Informal
1. Objectives
In order to understand not only the course but the unit it is important that the students read through the
mandatory content, listed in the key ideas. Students may want to also look at the recommended material to
further reflect upon the key ideas outline within the unit, although it is not mandatory to complete the unit
test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections, there is an overview of the main
principles which will be discussed throughout the course. It is vital that the student understand them and their
relationship to the different aspects later discussed in the course.
· Students will differentiate curriculum, syllabus and lesson plan.

· Students will understand how the Common European Framework of Language Policies applies to the
curriculum.
· Students will compare how the official state curriculum and autonomous community curriculum affect
their curriculum.
· Students will analyze the steps in the curriculum design process.
· Students will know how globalization affects the curriculum.
· Students will evaluate how informal and formal education effect the curriculum.
2. Introduction
The curriculum provides teachers a greater understanding of how a course is structured, from the general
plan to the specific lesson plans outlined for day to day use within the classroom. The laws and policies
established by the national law are the groundwork for how a teacher structures their course, they are
considered the pillars to be built upon. The autonomous communities then provide more detail as to how the
foundations are to be adapted within the classroom and curriculum. Whereas it is the teacher’s personal
touch that remains the defining factor in how each course is carried out, what tasks are expected to be
completed and what content will be reinforced to produce the final product which students are able to
demonstrate through their skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking.
Nowadays, the ever changing economy and political situations also play a large factor in how to help
students acquire language skills for their future. The role of technology and globalization are not to be
ignored, rather integrated to help students and teachers alike prepare for the «real world». Knowledge which
can be acquired through technology and a more globalized world needs to be considered in how students
today learn and can learn. It is not uncommon for students to learn through formal and informal education,
meaning all considerations must be taken into account when creating a course curriculum.
Throughout this course students will explore these topics and others to equip them with the tools and critical
thinking skills to create, implement and assess in the classroom, within schools, language academies and
other language courses.
3. Principles
The concepts within this course are relevant materials which are vital for a teacher planning, execution and
evaluation process. These materials will outline not only the course, but the specific day to day classes which
relate to the students learning of a language. The three specific materials that will be detailed include, the
curriculum, course syllabus and lesson plans. To ensure the understanding and definition of the three, it is
important to analyze their definitions.
McLaren and Madrid (2004), identify the curriculum as an education program which includes:
! The objective of the program, its educational purpose.

! The means used to achieve these ends, that is: the content, teaching procedures
and learning experiences which are necessary to achieve this purpose.
! The means used to assess whether or not the educational ends have been
achieved.
These concepts provide an overview the course throughout the year. The objective of the program provided
must include all the skills such as, reading, writing, listening and speaking. This is thoroughly defined by the
Spanish Law in the Boletín Oficial del Estado (2015). The content, teaching procedures and learning
experiences, on the other hand, are decided upon by the teacher(s), departments within schools and/or the
annual school project. Finally, the means of assessment are also outlined by the teacher(s), departments
within schools and/or the annual school project.
Although the curriculum is relevant for all subjects it is important to keep in mind there are focuses which
are relevant only for the Foreign Language (FL) Curriculum. The scope provided below outlines factors
to consider which planning, executing and evaluating a curriculum in FL. These factors are outlined by Stern
(1983) as seen in McLaren & Madrid (2004):
- Social and Cultural Factors: Attitudes of Learners towards L2, Language differences and social groups.
Example: Acceptance of different cultures and learning to co-exist in a globalized world.
- Linguistic Factors: Linguistic Uniformity and diversity in the community, relationship between L1 and
L2. Example: Ability to understand different perspectives, opens to the door to new knowledge and allows
for possible communication with more individuals.
- Historical setting and the national political situation: choice of particular L2, political relations with
the L2 countries. Example: Spain’s relationship with EU countries or political issues such as Brexit.
- Geographical aspects: geographical distance between the communities. Example: Students who intend to
or have studied abroad within the EU or outside.
- Economic and Technological Development: need of the L2 for economic development. Example:
Students going into the business world or writing code generally use English as the common language.
- Educational framework in the region/Autonomous Community: starting Age, time allocated for L2
weekly, introduction of other foreign languages. Example: In Spain, students start learning English at the
young age of 6, each region outlines how many hours a week they will learn it, as well as the integration
of other languages such as Galego, Catalan, Euskara and Valenciano. Also, communities such as Madrid
or Andalucía require another foreign language because of the absence of local languages, French or
German are also taught in schools.
The course syllabus is a closed document which provides descriptions of the course contents as well as the
order in which they will be taught (McLaren & Madrid, 2004). The syllabus may be handed out or uploaded
to the school platform for students and parents alike to have access to the course information. Here it is
important to outline objectives/aims set, expectations of the students, how marks are calculated, course
materials necessary for class or how to access course materials, and any class/school policies such as,
handing in late assignments or academic dishonesty.
The following syllabus is included as an example of what to include. Bearing in mind it is ultimately up to
the teacher/department/school what the syllabus must be required to include. The course syllabus should not
exceed one page back and front. This example is from a third of eso course, where students receive four
classes a week of English, two are full classes and two classes are split classes. Split classes refers to students
being split and taught in smaller groups by two teachers simultaneously. Although the courses are split
students received the same materials and content and are expected to produce the same products.
The lesson plan is a personal document which teachers may create weekly or daily to follow their objectives
for each class. Teachers who share subjects or split their classes may have to sit down and outline these
lessons together to ensure all students are learning the same content. While teachers may have their own
personal spin on how they teach the class it is important that all students receive the same materials and
content. The lesson plan is not a shared document with directors or even other co-workers, outside of the
subject. This is created with the details of opening activities, tasks, discussions and different materials to help
the students reach the aims of the course. The lesson plan is the daily ins and outs of the class distribution.
 

 
 


Common European Framework for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment

Through the creation of the European Union there have been unifying laws and policies which are to be
considered for all participating countries. The language policy in place, which all countries must also
consider within their national and local policies, is called, The Common European Framework for Languages
(CEFL): Learning, teaching and assessment (Council of Europe, 2001).
For the purposes this course, the handbook provides language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
examinations, recommended textbooks but it is important to highlight it is a framework, it is not the policy
established within each country. The planning of language learning begins at the early learning stages from
primary school to higher education. The Council of Europe (2001, p.3) outlines that the purposes of the
framework are:
«2. To promote, encourage and support the efforts of teachers and learners at all levels to apply in their own
situation the principles of the construction of language-learning systems (as these are progressively
developed within the Council of Europe "Modern languages" programme):
2.1. by basing language teaching and learning on the needs, motivations, characteristics and
resources of learners;
2.2. by defining worthwhile and realistic objectives as explicitly as possible; 2.3. by developing
appropriate methods and materials;
2.4. by developing suitable forms and instruments for the evaluating of learning programs».
The Common European Framework for Languages emphasizes the importance of lifelong learning, from
pre-school to adult education. The emphasis of language learning also is to expand the experience of
languages from classrooms to cultural contexts to everyday interactions. This approach is called the
plurilingual approach which the Council of Europe (2001, p.4), explains as:
«[...]an individual person’s experience of language in its cultural contexts expands, from the language of the
home to that of society at large and then to the languages of other peoples (whether learnt at school or
college, or by direct experience), he or she does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated
mental compartments, but rather builds up a communicative competence to which all knowledge and
experience of language contributes and in which languages interrelate and interact».
That is to say that language, culture and society all blend together in an individual’s life to help
communicative competences and experiences which allow people to interact with one another.
The CEFL provides an overview of how language acquisition and learning should occur within the needs of
the classroom. Language policy by the Council of Europe (2001) highlights the curriculum should be
comprehensive, transparent and coherent, where educators and citizens alike can easily:
!Identify the needs of the students.

!Determine the course objectives.
!Define the Content.
!Select or Create Material.
!Establish Teaching/Learning Programs.
!Employ Teaching/Learning Methods.
!Evaluate, Test and Assess.
This curriculum should be open, allowing educators to extend content and refine what students are learning
in classrooms. The curriculum should be flexible for various learning circumstances, adapting to the needs of
the learners. The foreign language curriculum should be multi-purpose, full of variety, emphasizing all skills
and non-dogmatic, utilizing multiple theories or practices in language learning. The curriculum should be
dynamic, continuously evolving as a result of the experience of the educator and students, content and
methods should not be stagnate, but ever evolving with time and circumstances. Finally, it should be user-
friendly, easily understood not only by those who have created the content but also anyone else who may
need to read/recover the information included.

According to the Council of Europe (2001, p. 9), language learning and use is considered as:
«Language use, embracing language learning, comprises the actions performed by persons who as
individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences, both general and in particular
communicative language competences. They draw on the competences at their disposal in various contexts
under various conditions and under various constraints to engage in language activities involving
language processes to produce and/or receive texts in relation to themes in specific domains, activating
those strategies which seem most appropriate for carrying out the tasks to be accomplished. The monitoring
of these actions by the participants leads to the reinforcement or modification of their competences».
The words the CERL highlight, are also defined by the Council of Europe (2001) for a cohesive and clear
understanding as to their definition and development in language learning:
! Competences: the sum of knowledge, skills and characteristics that allow a person to perform actions.
• Linguistic competences include lexical, phonological, syntactical knowledge and skills and other
dimensions of language as system.
• Sociolinguistic competences refer to the sociocultural conditions of language use. Through its
sensitivity to social conventions (rules of politeness, norms governing relations between generations,
sexes, classes and social groups, linguistic codification of certain fundamental rituals in the
functioning of a community). It also concerns the mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the
identification of text types and forms, irony, and parody.
! General competences: not specific to language, but which are called upon for actions of all kinds,
including language activities.
! Communicative language competences are those which empower a person to act using specifically
linguistic means.
! Context: events and situational factors (physical and others), both internal and external to a person, in
which acts of communication are embedded.
• Public domain.
• Personal domain (family and individual social practices).
• Occupational domain.
• Educational domain.
! Language activities involve the exercise of one’s communicative language competence in a specific
domain in processing (receptively and/or productively) one or more texts in order to carry out a task.
• Reception: silent reading, understanding content, consulting textbooks, works
of reference and documents.
• Production: oral presentations, written studies and reports.
! Language processes refer to the chain of events, neurological and physiological, involved in the
production and reception of speech and writing.
• Text is any sequence or discourse (spoken and/or written) related to a specific domain and which in
the course of carrying out a task becomes the occasion of a language activity, whether as a support or
as a goal, as product or process.
• Domain refers to the broad sectors of social life in which social agents operate. A higher order
categorization has been adopted here limiting these two major categories relevant to language
learning/teaching and use: the educational, occupational, public and personal domains.
• A strategy is any organized, purposeful and regulated line of action chosen by an individual to carry
out a task which he or she sets for himself or herself or with which he or she is confronted.
• A task is defined as any purposeful action considered by an individual as necessary in order to achieve
a given result in the context of a problem to be solved, an obligation to fulfil or an objective to be
achieved.
 
 

The frame also provides language achievement levels in which learners demonstrate their ability in the
various skills of a language. These levels can be attained through external testing. External testing may
include the Cambridge Assessment English, Trinity Graded Examinations in Spoken English, International
English Language Testing System and other internationally recognized programs. Although all have different
names for the examinations, all are gaged with levels explained within the Common European Framework
for Language Reference. The following chart outlines the corresponding levels and their mastery.
LOMCE
The Spanish law stipulates the policies that guide compulsory education, primary and mandatory
secondary schooling. These laws are defined by the stage of education in which the learner is in, for
example primary education (6 to 12 years old), mandatory secondary education (12 to 16 years old) and two-
year university preparation (16 to 18 years old). The law provides (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y
Deporte, 3):
! Curriculum: the regulated elements which determine the teaching and learning process for each of the
subjects and educational stages.
! General Objectives: refers to the achievements that the student should reach at the end of the stage,
these are the experiences of teaching-learning which are planned.
! Competencies: the capacity to integrate the contents of each subject and education stage to achieve the
effective resolution of complex problems:
• Linguistic communication.
• Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology.
• Digital competence.
• Learning to learn.
• Social and civic competences.
• Entrepreneurial spirit and sense of initiative.
• Cultural awareness and expressions.
! Contents: this includes a set of knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes that contribute to the
achievement of the objectives of each teaching and educational stage and the acquisition of skills.
• The contents are organized into subjects, and the educational stages.
! Learning standards: specifications of the evaluation criteria that allow defining the learning outcomes,
and that specify what the student should know, understand and know how to do in each subject.
• It must be observable, measurable and evaluable.
! Evaluation criteria: the specific reference to evaluate student learning. They describe what they want
to value and that students must achieve, both in knowledge and in skills, of what is intended to be achieved
in each subject.
! Teaching methodology: the set of strategies, procedures and actions organized and planned by
teachers, in a conscious and thoughtful way, in order to enable student learning and the achievement of the
objectives set.
While creating a course curriculum it is important to understand clearly what the law has identified for the
subject and stage. It is also important to adhere to the laws set by the autonomous communities, which
dictate more explicit and concise information. This information is established on the communities’
government webpage.
School Project
Each school is required to write a Proyecto Educativo de Centro (Annual School Project) where the school
outlines the structural organization, rules and regulations, afterschool activities, the school curriculum, how
special needs are attended to, methodologies used in the classes and community coexistence project. The
document must outline the curriculum for each grade and subject. This information is available to all
teaching staff to access, review and analyze. Within the project the school also has methodologies which are
used within the classrooms, such as using new technologies (i.e. iPads, Chromebooks), or learning strategies
(i.e. Problem Based Learning, Project Based Learning), or structural strategies (i.e. cooperative groups).
This document is important when writing the curriculum for a course. Each school is its own world, to
understand how to adapt a course it is important to know how the school function within the classroom walls
and outside of them. Knowing if the school does language exchanges, cultural trips or any other activity
related to language learning is important to help plan out how the course curriculum will be established.

 
 

4. Design
When designing a course curriculum, it is important to keep in mind that the design is not just the planning,
but also includes the execution within the class as well as an evaluation of how the course has ended. The
curriculum although established at the beginning of a course should not be long forgotten months later, it is
important that the curriculum is referred back to and re-evaluated to ensure that the learning process is
successful. An important tip would be at certain points during the year, for example at the end of a term or
during the holidays to take a moment and reflect on the content, processes and products that are successful in
the class and those that need to be reconsidered. These notes will later provide feedback for the instructor at
the end of the course to make modifications to the following year’s curriculum. The creation of a curriculum
is an on-going process and no two years are alike. As McLaren and Madrid (2004) point out there is a five-
step process by Johnson (1989):
4.1 Curriculum Design.

The overall all design of the curriculum must contemplate the national language policies, adjustments made
by the local autonomous communities as well as the school policies implemented within the annual school
project. This must include the overall aims to satisfy national and local social needs and interests (McLaren
& Madrid, 2004).
4.2 Determining Aims.

The general objectives and specific objectives to be achieved are set up by the professors/school/departments
in their curricular projects (McLaren & Madrid, 2004). The objectives, general and specific are organized
generally according to the course evaluations. These are also divided into the skill sets of reading, writing,
listening and speaking. The aims should be a progressive step ladder, which means students who have
learned skills in years before should build upon those skills.
4.3 Program Preparation

The program preparation not only includes the aims and policies from the previous steps, but this is the
integration of the content, the materials which will be used within the course as well as the methodology
decided upon. The development of the program is done through create lesson plans, whether weekly or daily.
This is when the educator decides upon what the specific objectives are for the students and how they will
achieve these goals.
The content the educator may work with is decided upon within the school/department/teacher. This content
may be preset from a textbook, prior years or newly created from the current educator. Ultimately, this
decision is made within the context of the school annual project.
The materials and content set out to be used may be self-created, adapted from other resources, such as co-
workers' previous materials, online or book materials found, or it can be from a textbook purchased by the
school and students alike.
Finally, the methodology implemented should also correlate to the school’s annual project. This also should
contemplate the teacher’s personal teaching style and the content being taught. It is important to remember
that methodology should be dynamic and is not stagnate, it should evolve and change according to the
content and tasks.
The lesson plans are then created in relation to the content, materials and methodology. This document is a
closed document that is a guide for the educator to follow and to keep track of the progression of the course.
4.4 Classroom Implementation.

The classroom application is the acts the educator has decided upon to occur within the classroom. These
acts can be divided between teaching and learning acts (McLaren & Madrid, 2004).
! Teaching acts: the instances the educator decides to utilize as moments of recalling information,
learning new materials and reviewing information which complies with the content laws specified. These
acts are contingent on the teacher’s personal style of how to disseminate the information.
! Learning acts: the instances the student’s take learning into their hands, manipulating the materials
recalled, learned or to be reviewed. Students personal capabilities, motivations and interests a reflected in
how the content is learned.

Students’ roles differ depending on the approach used within the classroom. Teachers may choose to use a
teacher centered approach, where the information is communicated from the teacher to the students. This is
unidirectional. Whereas a student centered is where the students are participative and have as much of the
focus as the teachers, students are held responsible for their learning and others.
4.5 Evaluating Processes/Products/Content.

During and after the curricular progress the educator should reflect upon the evolution of the curriculum, not
only the final results obtained but also the content and processes utilized in class. This reflection should be to
enhance the curriculum for future use and also to take note of what went well and what could be improved. A
useful resource for the educator is to take notes on their lesson plans on the adaptions made during the
curricular process to help them guide their evaluation. It is not a requirement although makes for a more
meaningful evaluation and provides clear and concise information.
5. Globalization, knowledge and curriculum
Globalization: As technology advances, the space that divides countries, languages and people become
smaller and smaller. As seen before, the integration of the Common European Framework for Languages
reflects one of the benefits of a more globalized world, which promotes language learning in a broad
educational context as well as hopes to develop lifelong language learners within the plurilingual context.
Although there are consequences of the increasing globalization, migration of individuals and travel for the
foreign language teachers. Teachers are required to teach what the law outlines but also prepare students for
their future, predicting skills and abilities which have not yet been integrated or even introduced into society.
Educators must consider what they find appropriate, useful and efficient to equip their learners with the right
tools for the future.
«This type of freedom and flexibility presupposes a high level of teacher cognition, confidence and
autonomy, reflected experience and good decision-making skills (Breberba & Hlouskova, 2012)».
Language and cultural diversity sit in the center of the European Council, which has created a need for
plurilingualism to exist not only in the real world but in the classrooms. The shift between
compartmentalizing languages to advocating for their interrelatedness and interconnectedness is at the very
heart of language teaching in a globalized world. The Council of Europe (2011), «stresses the dynamic
process of language acquisition and use, in contrast with coexistence and balance mastery of languages». The
need for this need for a dynamic language acquisition requires educators and law makers alike to recognize
that the mother tongue should also be apart of the language learning process. This means that in a curriculum
for foreign language learning there must be a place for the L1 to also coexist (Piccardo, 2013). Piccardo
(2013) explains how separating languages should be reconsidered:
«The idea of a curriculum for each language taken in isolation should be replaced by consideration of the
role of languages in general language education, where knowledge, skills, and the ability to learn are
transversal and transferable across languages. Synergies would be created between languages with the
purpose of reaching a common higher goal».
This use of a mother tongue allows learners to also understand concepts and competences which will help
them later acquire the second language. When educators are contemplating the curriculum it is important to
note it is ok to use both languages in the classroom, this will emphasize language diversity, exchange,
contact and the coexistence of different languages and cultures, which occurs outside of the classroom walls
(Piccardo, 2013).
Knowledge: Depth and breadth.
It is important for the educator to consider not only the language learning through the skills such as reading,
listening, speaking and writing but also the content. The content the students learn should provide depth and
breadth. Depth refers to how detailed into the content the students learn, whereas breadth refers to the
different types of content learned. Teaching languages should provide a diversity of general knowledge as
well as a moderate amount of depth into specific content. It is important to understand a student’s prior
knowledge to build off of those foundations. Hirsch Jr. (2001), outlines four principles when considering the
depth and breadth of the content taught within the class:

! The ability to learn something is not a formal skill. The ability to learn something new depends on the
knowledge that one already possesses about those subjects.
! General ability to learn is highly correlated with general knowledge.
! The best way to learn a subject is to learn its general principles and to give student
an ample number of diverse examples that illustrate those principles.
! Broad general knowledge is the best lead to then deepen knowledge.
6. Formal vs Informal
Learning can occur in different facets; it can be in formal or informal setting. The importance is not that of
the setting rather focusing on the fact the learner has decided to take learning into their own hands to take
advantage of all the possibilities there are. It is important to «focus on teaching the whole person rather than
merely teaching the language, thus helping learners to become autonomous, to integrate formal and informal
learning, and to effectively reflect on their learning» (Piccardo, 2013). This section will distinguish the
differences between formal and informal learning as well as establish the different facets of informal
education.
Formal learning
Most are familiar with formal education, as either one has taught in it, is currently teaching in it or has
experienced it. To have a clear idea of what is meant by formal education it is important to have a uniform
definition. «Formal education corresponds to a systematic, organized education model, structured and
administered according to a given set of laws and norms, presenting a rather rigid curriculum as regards
objectives, content and methodology» (Zaki Dib, 1987). Formal education refers to the institution from pre-
school to doctorate degrees. This system is defined by having the following features (Schugurensky, 2000):
! It is institutionalized, established in the public domain to promote education.

! It includes «basic education», usually this is mandatory education from ages 6 to 15 years told,
(this varies depending on the country) with dictated content, curriculum and evaluation mechanisms
regulated by the state.
! It is propaedeutic in nature; each level prepares the learners for the next one. Learners must
complete the «levels» to continue on to the next.
! At the end of particular grades or levels students are given a diploma or certification to allow
access to universities or into the working world.
Informal learning
Informal learning occurs outside of the

curriculum, but also occurs outside of formal
and non-formal education, including
institutions, programs, and academies. Although
this type of learning does not have a generally
agreed upon definition within the academic
world, for the purposes of this course, it is to be
understood as, «The learning occurs
independently (and sometimes against) the
intended goals of the explicit curriculum»
(Schugurensky, 2000).

 

 
 
 

Informal education
Informal education is a process which allows learners to engage with different curriculums as their own pace
or through different methodologies. Students are not grouped by pre-established laws that govern programs,
rather are able to be arranged based on needs and/or interests of the students. This enables educators/
facilitators/mentors to gage the student’s learning by their own pace. Without the insistence of achieving
specific aims or outcomes established by governing bodies, it allows the student to have personalized
attention in their learning. The use of non-formal education can be through correspondence learning, distance
learning or open systems (Zaki Dib, 1987).
Test: Unit 1
UNIT 2: KEY COMPONENTS

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Key components
4. Common European Framework for Reference for Languages Policy
5. Hidden curriculum
6. Cultural curriculum
7. L2 curriculum
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections, there is an overview of the key
components which must be considered when enacting a curriculum as well as how international, national and
local laws which affect a second language curriculum. Finally, there are three types of curriculums which
play a role in student’s learning that are not always apparent to teachers, the hidden, cultural and second
language curriculum. Within the second language curriculum there are three types of curriculums for
educators to consider when implementing a curriculum in their classroom (Content and Language Integrated
Learning, Communicative Language Teaching and Genre-based pedagogy).
· Students will differentiate the essential components of a curriculum.

· Students will understand the objectives of the Common European Framework of Language Policies to the
curriculum.
· Students will evaluate the resources of the official state curriculum and autonomous community
curriculum.
· Students will know the role of the hidden curriculum.
· Students will analyze the effect of the cultural curriculum.
· Students will compare three types of second language curriculums for the classroom.
2. Introduction
Nowadays teaching English as a second language means equipping future generations with the tools, they
will need to face the future. How must an educator decide what to teach the future? What contents are
considered the most important? What types of curriculums are considered most effective in education today?
So many questions and even more information at our disposal on the world wide web. It is important to
consider how to construct a curriculum from the beginning to the final product, but beginning is always the
hardest part.
This unit begins to provide teachers with the tools needed to make the decisions on how to form their own
curriculum. It is important to have this and more in consideration. Curriculums are a lot of work, and
generally are done in teams to help with the workload but also to create a more dynamic and creative final
product.
3. Key components
Educators must consider four elements prior to sitting down and writing a curriculum. These elements will
guide their curriculum writing. It must contemplate the subject matter (what is to be learned), the learner (the
profile of the learner), the teacher(s) and the context (the school, local, regional and national context in
which the learners will be taught) (Graves & Garton, 2017).
Subject matter
The subject matter is content the students will learn in the classroom. For some students when learning a
second language the subject matter may be the foreign language itself, whereas other students may learn
content (e.g. science, art and crafts or music) through the L2.

It is important the educator has a clear idea of the content which is expected to be taught. For this, it is
important to review national laws, regional laws as well as to discuss with the school’s pedagogical
coordinator the direction of the subject.
The learner
It is fundamental for the educator to have a clear understanding of the learners’ age, background and prior
learning experiences in the school. The background of the learner (as a whole) helps to provide an
understanding for the level of contact the learner may have come to have with the L2. Another consideration
is that «English is widely available and may be used by school-age learners outside the classroom via the
media, music, the internet, and online gaming communities» (Graves & Garton, 2017). The school student
profile will help provide a picture of the language learning evolution. For example, learners with five hours a
week of English since grade 1 will have different needs than those who have learned English since grade 1
with two hours a week. Also, it is contingent on whether the learner only has English as a subject or if other
subjects are taught through English (e.g. Content and Language Integrated Learning).
The teacher(s)
Teachers teaching the curriculum must consider as well that, nowadays, the integration of split classes or
language assistants will affect how a teacher plans out the curriculum. The role of the teacher will differ
depending on personal taste for certain approaches versus other as well as past experiences. Teachers
working in split classes, meaning a whole class is split in two, with two separate teachers must consider both
teachers background, interests, beliefs as well as their abilities of what they can and/or know how to do.
Finally, the use of a language assistant will also vary how a teacher may create a curriculum. Each school
and teacher has different hours and objectives for the language assistant.
The context
The contexts in which learning, and teaching occur including the classroom, the school, and the wider
community must be taken into account when designing a curriculum. When considering curriculum design
an educator must be familiar with the educational, cultural and language goals of the school as well at a
national and local level. The overall design and progression of the curriculum, contains how curriculum
content is organized and progresses over time in order to lead to the kind of learning aimed for in the
approach, it also includes the types of materials and activities that contribute to learning (Graves & Garton,
2017). The final version of a curriculum must contemplate (Hasman):
! The end goal: what the educator would like the learners to achieve at the end of the school year.
! Specific objectives: what the educator would like the learners to achieve throughout each evaluation
and within each skill set (reading, listening, speaking, and writing).
! Materials and content: the selection and organization of the content which will
be addressed in class as well as the materials which will aid the educator and students.
! Assessment: how the students will be assessed throughout the school year within the different skill sets.
Though the question remains how does one determine what a curriculum should consist of. «Regardless of
the type of EFL program, the steps in assessing the needs, of formulating the goals and objectives and of
evaluating the progress and changes will be effective in providing a useful EFL curriculum» (Hasman).
Hasman outlines a frame work to work with and determine the direction of a curriculum, the five steps for
creating a curriculum:
- Step 1: Diagnosing the Needs. The information gathered here should answer the key questions such as the
background of the learners and the community are, who the learners are and who the teachers are, why the
program is needed, what skills should be taught, what methods should be used, what the setting of the
programs is and what its resources are. Also there needs to be a clear understanding of the materials and
technological resources as well as the current curriculum in place.
- Step 2: Writing the goals and objectives. This step involves translating the information from the needs
assessment into realistic goals and short-term objectives for the program. The goals can be divided into
four categories: knowledge, reflective thinking, attitudes and skills (Taba 1962).
- Step 3: Selecting and Organizing the Content. This deals with the content of the program and how it is
presented. The criteria for choosing the content is usually based upon the function of the program, the
significance of the content, the interests of the learners, the type of balance in depth and breadth, and the
needs of the community (Taba 1962).
- Step 4: Selecting the Activities. This step focuses on the learning experiences or methodologies used.
These experiences should provide for integration, unify the curriculum, consider the teachers'
backgrounds, and provide a variety of learning modes (Taba 1962).
- Step 5: Evaluating the Program. First, the evaluation must be consistent with the goals of the curriculum.
Secondly, the evaluation ought to be as comprehensive in scope as the objectives are. Thirdly, the
evaluation results should be diagnostic enough to distinguish the various levels of mastery. Lastly, any
evaluation should be valid.
4. Common European Framework for Reference for Languages Policy
The Common European Framework for Reference for Language Policy (CEFR) provides an overview of
three importance principles which should be considered when writing a curriculum.
The overall objective of promoting plurilingualism and linguistic diversity (Council of Europe, 2001).
«This means that the teaching and learning of any one language should also be examined in conjunction with
the provision for other languages in the education system and the paths which learners might choose to
follow in the long term in their efforts to develop a variety of language skills» (Council of Europe, 2001).
This diversification is only possible, if the cost efficiency of the [school] is considered (Council of Europe,
2001).
«If, for example, the education system allows pupils to begin learning two foreign languages at a pre-
determined stage in their studies, and provides for optional learning of a third language, the objectives or
kinds of progression in each of the chosen languages need not necessarily be the same (e.g. the starting point
need not always be preparation for functional interaction satisfying the same communicative needs nor
would one necessarily continue to emphasize learning strategies)» (Council of Europe, 2001).
Considerations and measures relating to curricula should not just be limited to a curriculum for each
language taken in isolation, nor even an integrated curriculum for several languages (Council of Europe,
2001).
«They should also be approached in terms of their role in a general language education, in which linguistic
knowledge and skills, along with the ability to learn, play not only a specific role in a given language but
also a transversal or transferable role across language» (Council of Europe, 2001).
These considerations imply that (Council of Europe, 2001):
- Throughout the language learning period –there may be continuity with regard to objectives or they may be
modified, and their order of priority adjusted.
• L2 objectives may be modified during the process of enacting a curriculum to better suit the
learner’s needs.
- In a language curriculum accommodating several languages, the objectives and syllabuses of the different
languages may either be similar or different.
• Schools which have subjects in an L2 and L3 may have different needs for each of the languages,
those needs may be similar or different but it is contingent on the school and teachers to discern this.
- Different approaches are possible, and each can have its own transparency and coherence with regard to
options chosen, and each can be explained with reference to the Framework.
• Different approaches and methodologies may be used in language teaching, as long as they are
clear and coincide with the objective set out by the CEFR.
- Reflection on the curriculum may therefore involve the consideration of possible scenarios for the
development of plurilingual and pluricultural competences and the role of the school in this process.
• Educators should reflect upon the curriculum to integrate a plurilingual and pluricultural skills in
the environment of the classrooms and school.
Although the CEFR contemplates an educational curriculum it is also important to highlight the language
learning experiences through:

 
 

«Family experience and learning, history and contacts between generations, travel, expatriation, emigration,
and more generally belonging to a multilingual and multicultural environment or moving from one
environment to another, but also through reading and through the media» (Council of Europe, 2001).
The CEFR states that although the school curriculum is a part of a much broader curricula (such as creating
life-long learners) it also must function by giving learners (Council of Europe, 2001):
! An initial differentiated plurilingual and pluricultural repertoire.
! A better awareness of, knowledge of and confidence in their competences and the capacities
and resources available to them, inside and outside the school, so that they may extend and refine
these competences and use them effectively in particular domains.
5. Hidden curriculum
The hidden curriculum in any school context can be considered the norms, rules, values and beliefs that are
in that center. Within the L2 curriculum it is also important to highlight that this includes the values and the
cultural norms of the L2 which leads L2 learners to understand or learn a specific cultures values. While this
is something an educator cannot necessarily control it is important to keep in mind when teaching. All
cultural content reflects a cultures values, beliefs and norms which may be different from those of the L1.
For those interested in further information about the hidden curriculum, please check out the In depth
section.
6. Cultural Curriculum
When teaching a language, educators must also consider the culture in which the L2 comes from. Although
teaching English as a foreign language it is not as easily to establish the language’s culture. This being due to
the fact English is spoken across different countries as an L1 (e.g. England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland,
Canada, the United States, Australia, as well as India) but it is also the language in which many countries use
English as the language for business, research or economics (e.g. European Union communicates cross
cultures through English). The teaching of culture as information about a country or countries where the L2
is spoken is a common yet misguided interpretation (Bryam & Wagner, 2018). Many researchers regard that
the actual importance in teaching culture with English should be to «promote the development of a reflexive,
open, and globally aware language learner» (Weninger & Kiss, 2013 as cited in Rashidi & Meihami, 2016).
Language education needs to play a role in how students develop their intercultural communicative
competence (e.g. combining language skills with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that help them become
«intercultural citizens») (Bryam & Wagner, 2018). This will enable students to become critical thinkers, to
have a greater understanding of the globalized world in which they are growing up in as well as to be able to
communicate across cultures.
When considering the cultural curriculum of English there are three spheres (Rashidi & Meihami, 2016).
These three spheres are also representative of the language speakers in a global context. For L2 learners it is
important there is consideration of all of the spheres and their influence in the globalizing world.

 
  

7. L2 Curriculum
The L2 language curriculum can be adapted into various different methodologies, but for the purposes of this
course, there will be three specific outlines of methodologies. These methodologies can be seen in Graves
and Garton (2017) for further interest:
! Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL).

! Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
! Genre-based Pedagogy.
For the purposes of these explanations, the methodologies will be broken down into; (1) how the subject
matter is learned (the perspective of the language and how the
language is acquired, (2) the roles and needs of the learners, (3) Teacher’s role, (4) the role of the context, (5)
how to organize the curriculum and the types of materials or activities needed for it, and finally, (6) how
assessment takes place of the learners evolution (Graves & Garton, 2017).
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
The name CLIL defines the foundations of the approach, CLIL is teaching content and language. The
purpose of CLIL is teach the 4 C’s as highlighted by Coyle (2005), Content, Communication, Cognition and
Culture. These are the four guiding principles in which a CLIL program can be built upon. As Doyle (2005)
explains;
«Content- At the heart of the learning process lie successful content or thematic learning and the acquisition
of knowledge, skills and understand. Content is the subject of the project theme.
Communication- Language is a conduit for communication and for learning. The formula learning to use
language and using language to learn is applicable here. Communication goes beyond the grammar system. It
involves learners in language using in a way which is different from language learning lessons (of course
CLIL does involve learners in learning language too but in a different way).
Cognition- For CLIL to be effective, it must challenge learners to think and review and engage in higher
order thinking skills. CLIL is not about the transfer of knowledge from an expert to a novice. CLIL is about
allowing individuals to construct their own understanding and be challenged – whatever their age or ability.
A useful taxonomy to use as a guide for thinking skills is that of Bloom. He has created two categories of
thinking skills: lower order and higher order. Take Bloom’s taxonomy for a well-defined range of thinking
skills. It serves as an excellent check list.
Culture- For our pluricultural and plurilingual world to be celebrated and its potential realized, this demands
tolerance and understand. Studying through a foreign language is fundamental to fostering international
understanding. ‘Otherness’ is a vital concept and holds the key for discovering self. Culture can have wide
interpretation – e.g. through pluricultural citizenship.»
CLIL Europe
The European Union’s objective for a pluricultural and plurilingual community, CLIL has become
increasingly popular within Europe. The integration of CLIL in Europe began in the 1990s. Although the
lack of guidelines and explicit information as to how it should be implemented in the classroom has
prevented CLIL from becoming well established in most national EU curriculums. If anything, this grass-
roots movement (grass-roots movements is one which people of a particular area: district, region or
community, implement change at a local level) mostly is seen in the Netherlands and Spain (Graves &
Garton, 2017).
Coyle (2010: viii) states: Spain is rapidly becoming one of the European leaders in CLIL practice and
research. The richness of its cultural and linguistic diversity has led to a wide variety of CLIL policies and
practices which provide us with many examples of CLIL in different stages of development that are
applicable to contexts both within and beyond Spain.
CLIL in Spain
Spain is becoming one of the European leaders in CLIL practice and research, according to Coyle (seen in
Graves & Garton, 2017). One of the leading influences of Spain’s success in CLIL is the fact there are
autonomous regions which have their own official language, which means these regions have long been
implementing bilingualism at a cultural and language level (e.g. Basque region, Catalan, Galicia, Valencia).
Although there are regions which are monolingual, the effect of these other regions have helped communities
understand how to implement such a curriculum in other schools. Thus the communities which have two
official languages have modeled how CLIL can work for other monolingual communities. Though these
monolingual communities generally enact other foreign languages into their schools such as English, French
or German.
Language assistants, native speakers hired to work alongside subject teachers have been integrated into the
classrooms to help promote the bilingual culture and language. For example with in the Autonomous
Community of Madrid there are over 460 bilingual schools (Dafouz & Hibler, 2013) and well over 1,7000
English language assistances in primary and secondary classrooms (Mundo, 2015).
Most of the research done in Spain about CLIL paints a predominantly positive picture, although: «Pavón
Vázquez & Rubio (2010) (2010) recognize three problematic areas in CLIL implementation: structural
(organization and sequencing of the curriculum), linguistic (the language level of teachers and students) and
attitudinal (particularly on the part of teachers)» (Graves & Garton, 2017).
CLIL in the classroom

! How the subject matter is learned? There are three dimensions of language and subject matter in
CLIL. Coyle, Hood and Marsh (2010).
• The language OF learning (the language needed to access and understand the
subject);
• The language FOR learning (the language needed to operate in the class);
• The language THROUGH learning (the language that develops in formulating new understandings of
the content.)
The L2 is used to read, write, listen to, and talk about the content being taught. For students it important that
the content is constructed through the L2, to promote not only language learning but the learning of the
subject matter. Teachers may use the L1 to scaffold the information to ensure that all learners are able to
access the content.
«From its inception, CLIL has relied on theories of communicative competence and task-based learning as a
way to describe the role of language and how it is acquired in the classroom» (Graves & Garton, 2017).
! What are the roles and needs of the learners? CLIL demands that learners not only learn a subject
(e.g. science, art, physical education or history) but also requires the learner to learn it in English. This
requirement means that learners are not bored learning English grammar and vocabulary in the traditional
sense. This is a more motivating way to learn a language and content, because it requires learners to interact
with the language and content with teachers and peers alike. The learners are placed in the center, learning
must happen through contact and experimentation with the language and content.
! What is the teacher’s role? Teachers are expected to teach two subjects at the
same time, the content and language. As a result of this, each region in Spain dictates the language
requirements which the teachers must have in primary and secondary. Certification in English is required to
ensure the teacher can understand and teach the content mandated by the Spanish law.
! What is the context of learning? The context, the school or region plays an instrumental role in
deciding upon the implementation of CLIL. Generally, schools must decide what subjects are taught in
English (or in another L2, e.g. History in Basque), in what grades, by what teachers, for how many years and
how it will be developed within the school. For example, a school may decide to teach all primary science
classes in English, from grades 1-6. Another school may decide to implement art and physical education in
English. It is contingent on the personnel as well as the needs of the school and the national laws in the
context which it may be taught. Finally, in Spain there are two subject areas which are not allowed to be
taught in English, Spanish language and literature as well as mathematics.
! How is the curriculum organized? The curriculum in CLIL must fall local, regional and national laws,
meaning that teachers must teach the same content that is taught in L1 classes but in English. There are
textbooks provided by publishers for teachers to follow such as Macmillan and Edelvives’ ByME book. The
books are adapted to national and regional laws, for primary and secondary. The textbooks range from
natural and social sciences, arts and crafts, biology and geology, history, and geography as well as physics
and chemistry. The curriculum for students must be created in a manner in which the content can be learned
as well as visible.
! How does assessment take place? As mention before, due to the nature of CLIL which is teaching
content and a language, students are assessed on both aspects. That is to say, students are evaluated on the
explicit content taught in the class as well as their means to communicate in the language.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT goes beyond teaching grammatical rules and vocabulary, it intends to teach language through a
communicative competence. This competence is based on making language relevant by using the target
language in a meaningful way, generally structured around grammatical rules. Although the theory is
that learners can acquire the desired skills rapidly and agreeably (Thamarana, 2014).
! How the subject matter is learned? The communicative language teaching approach is a holist view
of language, which is used to make meaning in specific and real life context. According to Brown (2007)
and Jacks and Farrel (2001) cited in Graves and Garton (2017) CLT should be:
• Language should be authentic and with an emphasis on meaning.

• There should be a balance of fluency and accuracy.
• Both productive and receptive skills should be developed.
• Language forms are not excluded but should be presented in context.
• The target language should be used in the classroom by both teachers and learners whenever possible.
• Materials should be authentic.
• Learning should be active and collaborative.
! What are the roles and needs of the learners? Learners are expected to learn through collaboration
and cooperation. That is to say learners should be active participants of their own learning and others
learning to co-construct knowledge. The interactions between learners should be meaningful and should
require negotiation. Learning is emphasized through the completion of tasks in groups, pairs or individually

(Graves & Garton, 2017).

! What is the teacher’s role? The teacher is the facilitator to help the students engage in the learning
process. The teacher should introduce structures or
vocabulary to help weaker students, though when students have a higher competence teachers are there to
facilitate the learning taking place.
! What is the context of learning? The aim of CLT is to teach appropriate language use in specific
situations, where English is taught for no particular purpose other than as a school subject.
! How is the curriculum organized? Grammar tends to be the main organizing principle of the CLT
curriculum. Though the principles to promote active learning include tasks such as ordering, sorting and
sequencing, matching, categorizing, prioritizing, and ranking and problem-solving, among many others
(Edge and Garton, 2009 cited in Graves and Garton, 2017).
! How does assessment take place? Assessment is the least important aspect of CLT although the most
conducive to CLT are the external foreign language assessment exams such as Cambridge, ILTS or Trinity
exams.
Below, in the imagen, there is an example of a CLT lesson plan, for the full lesson plan please see: https://
www.academia.edu/4743392/Communicative_Language_Teaching_theories_lesson_plan_and_application
Genre-based pedagogy
Genre-pedagogy is concerned with how language functions as a resource for making meaning.
! How the subject matter is learned? Language is seen to have three meta- functions for creating three
types of meaning (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004 as cited in Graves and Garton, 2017):
• An ideational function to describe experience and express ideas.

• An interpersonal function to create relationships with others.
• A textual function to manage the flow of what is said or written.
Meanings are created from texts which are given in relation to the context, both the cultural context and
immediate context of the situation.
Language acquisition stems from «everyday» understandings of the world which is a process of learning
language, learning through language, and learning about language (Rothery, 1989 as cited in Graves and
Garton, 2017).
! What are the roles and needs of the learners? Learners must play an active role in reading, analyzing
and making meaning of the text. The fundamental learning is based on academic literacy, that is to say
learners must interpret and construct meaning from a variety of text as they relate to the content.
! What is the teacher’s role? The teacher should scaffold the texts’ so that the learners can understand
and continually develop their language skills in more complex texts. This required the teacher to not only
understand the texts, grammar and purpose but also to understand how the curriculum will develop. In so, the
teacher must have a clear vision of the curriculum and how it will unfold. The teacher plays an authoritative
role in order to make language visible and explicit to learners (Christie, 2013 as cited in Graves and Garton,
2017).
! What is the context of learning? Context is vital for understand the role of genre- based pedagogy.
This meaning that the students must understand the cultural/social/era context of the text to have an
understanding of how the text unfolds.
! How is the curriculum organized? The purpose of the materials is to foster learning of literacy and
content as well as grammatical features of the language. Types of materials to facilitate the learning that may
be used include graphic organizers, scrambled text, and sentences with certain grammatical structures
removed. Types of texts which may be incorporated include:
RECOUNT: To retell events in order to inform.

NARRATIVE: To retell events in order to entertain.
EXPLANATION: To explain natural or social processes or how something works.
 
 
 
 

INFORMATION REPORT: To describe the way things are.

PROCEDURE: To explain how to do something.
DISCUSSION: To present arguments from different points of view.
EXPOSITION: To promote a particular point of view.
! How does assessment take place? Assessment in Genre-based pedagogy is ongoing and vital to the
progression of the curriculum for teachers and for students. For teachers it is important to have a clear idea of
how the students’ understanding of the text and language is progressing to determine if there is a need for
additional scaffolding methods or to increase the complexity of the text. Students are required to have an
understandig of not only the language including grammatical structures and vocabulary but also the author’s
purpose of the text.
Test: Unit 2

UNIT 3: CREATING MATERIALS

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Curriculum
4. Syllabus
5. Lesson plan
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
materials which will be addressed throughout the course. It is vital that the student understand them and their
relationship to the different aspects later on discussed, as students will be asked to create a group unit with
the materials learned in the course based on this unit. By the end of the unit students will be able to...
· Students will differentiate between curriculum, syllabus and lesson plan.

· Students will know how National and Regional laws affect curriculum design.
· Students will understand how the Common European Framework of Language Policies applies to the
curriculum.
· Students will analyze the steps in the curriculum design process.
· Students will compare product and process-oriented syllabuses.
2. Introduction
Prior to sitting down and creating any classroom materials, it is important the teacher understand where their
duties lie in regard to the national and regional laws established. Teachers should also discuss with directors,
department heads and/or colleagues the expectations and limits set out for a course. Knowing dates, time
limits, percentages and spaces available will help guide the teacher in curriculum, syllabus and lesson plan
developing. It is crucial that all foreign language teachers understand also the background their students
have, how long have the students been studying English, what contents have they already seen that are
establish within the law and those that are not. It would be a good point of reference to discuss this with
teachers from previous years. All of these factors need to be considered before drafting any sort of materials
for the classroom. To review, teachers should consider:
National and Regional Laws, The School Project, Time (how long the classes are going to be for and how
often)., Dates (when exams, breaks and holidays are), Spaces available (where will classes be held, are there
are spaces available to use?), Student’s L2 background, Previous contents taught.
Secondary Education Laws

The Spanish law stipulates the information that must be included in the school annual project. The project is
compilation of all the information from the different subjects offered within the school. The curriculum
offered in the school project must be written by each of the didactic departments which is then revised by the
pedagogical coordinator. Then the following year, the didactic departments (with the teachers involved in the
subject areas must modify and adjust the subject area curriculum for changes which may have been decided
upon for the following year. The following elements must be reviewed and modified annually (Ministerio
de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2015);
- Adaptation of the objectives of the stages to the context of the center and the characteristics of its
students, taking into account the provisions of the Educational Project.
- Integration of curricular elements. Profiles of key competencies.
- General methodological and didactic principles.
- General procedures for assessing student learning.
 
 
 

- Curricular and organizational measures of individualized attention.

- Promotion criteria.
- Diversity attention plan.
- Tutorial action plan.
- Reading plan.
- Information and Communication Technology Plan
- Criteria for the preparation of teaching programs.
- Actions to improve academic results.
- Procedures and indicators for evaluating the curriculum proposal.
Within the curriculum teachers must include the didactic programming of each of their subjects taught, that is
to say year 9 English will have a different curriculum from year 10. It is their department/didactic chair
which is responsible to review this document. The didactic programming must contain the following
elements (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2015);
- Sequence and temporal distribution of the contents, evaluation criteria and evaluable learning standards.
- - Relationship between the assessable learning standards of the different subjects and each of the
competences.
- Treatment of cross-design issues.
- Measures of attention to diversity. Preparation and evaluation procedure of the curricular adaptations.
- Procedures and instruments for assessing student learning.
- Qualification criteria. g) Methodological and didactic decisions.
- Procedures, evaluation instruments and indicators of achievement of the process of teaching.
- Material and didactic resources.
- Program of extracurricular and complementary activities.
- Procedures and indicators for the evaluation of didactic programming.
Primary Education Laws

Within Spain there are schools which are considered bilingual, whether the second language is a regional
language, or English, French or German. As a result of this possibility in primary education, schools that are
established as bilingual may include content classes (such as science, arts and crafts, physical education
taught in the L2). Though when content areas are taught in the L2 the content does not change as a result of
teaching it through a different language than Spanish. The idea is that students acquire the knowledge in the
content area in both Spanish and the L2.
Article 13. Learning foreign languages. Students in primary who then would like to access secondary
bilingual education must pass a language exam to be admitted. The curriculum in Primary Education is
structured around language activities which are described in the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages: understanding and production (expression and interaction) of oral and written texts
(Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2014). Language activities involve individuals using their
language competence in specific domain to either process knowledge receptively, productively or through
interaction.

 
 
 
 
! Receptively is through listening or reading.
! Productively is through speaking or writing.
! Interaction is using both skills together, reading-writing or listening-speaking.
Domains on the other hand refer to the situations in which the activity is taking place, which may include
public, personal, educational occupational contexts. «In each domain, situations may be described in terms of
the locations and times at which they occur, the persons involved, the events that take place, the actions
performed by the persons involved and the texts used in each situation» (McLaren & Madrid, Chapter 4: The
Foreign Langauge Curriculum, 2004).
3. Curriculum
The general framework for curricular design has been provided by the Council of Europe (2001). It sets out a
references of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines and materials for language learning across Europe.
It describes what learners should learn, in regards to knowledge and skills to effectively communicate in a
foreign language. The framework addresses language learning as language activities/task carried out with
language processes which include competences to carry out the activity/task at hand. Through these
activities/tasks students are to learn to reinforce and modify competences. Competences can be defined as
«the sum of knowledge and skills that allow a person to perform actions» (McLaren & Madrid, Chapter 4:
The Foreign Langauge Curriculum, 2004). There are two types of competences (McLaren & Madrid,
Chapter 4: The Foreign Langauge Curriculum, 2004);
! General competences, which intervene when performing actions of all kind.
• Knowledge, facts, concepts, principles, rules, etc. (declarative knowledge).
• Skills, procedures and strategies (procedural knowledge: knowing how to use

declarative knowledge).
• Attitudes and values (existential competence, individual characteristics, personality, etc.).
• Ability to learn (learning to learn).
! Communicative language competences empower a person to act using linguistic means.
• Linguistic competences, which include lexical, semantic, phonological, syntactic knowledge and
skills.
• Sociolinguistic competences: to do with the social conditions of language use: rules of politeness,
gender, social groups, etc.
• Pragmatic competences: these are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources. They refer
to language functions and speech acts.
The curriculum must also consider the competences established by the Spanish law. Competencies are the
capacity to integrate the contents of each subject and education stage to achieve the effective resolution of
complex problems. The following is the list of the competences as cited in Unit 1.
Linguistic communication; Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology;
Digital competence; Learning to learn; Social and civic competences; Entrepreneurial spirit and sense of
initiative; Cultural awareness and expressions.
Writing the curriculum
The first step in curriculum writing is to gather information about the students who the curriculum is being
written for. It is important to know in as much detail as possible (Munby, 1978 as cited in McLaren &
Madrid, 2004);
! Students: their age, background in L2 learning, how many will be included in the class, any students
with difficulties or learning disabilities.
! Purpose. What is the intention of teaching the L2? To be proficient writers? Communicators? Build on
their foundation? What is the purpose of the L2 in the year?
! Interactions. Does the school have cooperative learning groups? Do they have a language assistant?
Does the school work with projects, portfolios, textbooks? How will the students be interacting with the
language and each other?
! Instrumentality. What skills have they acquired? What skills are more deficient and need
reinforcement? What skills have been practiced? Which have not? What skills are most important for the
students? Which are most important for the parents for their children to learn?
! Communicative situations. How will the students work? Will there be individual work? Group work?
Pair work? What kind of work is preferred?
Following this, teachers should check out the second language content required for their year/stage. It should
be decided up on within the didactic department how the contents will be distributed amongst the different
years. This way the teachers are aware of the content they are required to fulfill. For example, in Primary
Education in Year 4 students should fulfill the following contents (Consejo de Gobierno, 2014);
! Oral comprehension
• Understanding keywords, phrases and brief oral message information.
• Understanding information from multimedia recordings and directed conversations about nearby
topics.
• Understanding messages produced with different accents of the English language.
• Oral expression Emission of simple words and messages with correct pronunciation, stress,
intonation and rhythm.
• Participation in classroom conversations.
• Spelling words.
• Basic vocabulary.
• Use of simple sentences to exchange and obtain information.
! Reading comprehension
• Correct reading and understanding of frequently used key vocabulary.
• Basic spelling signs and differences with those of the mother tongue.
• Understanding the key ideas of simple and varied texts.
• Understanding of the essential ideas in stories, comics and other narrative texts.
• Basic reading strategies: deduction of the meaning of new words and phrases by context, prior
knowledge of the subject, identification of basic information, and so on.

• Reading texts and work done by the student.
• Use of dictionaries, glossaries and information and communication technologies as a means of

consultation and learning.
! Written expression
• Correct use of punctuation and apostrophes.
• Directed writing of different types of simple texts with relative phonetic
• correction and using simple connectors.
• Care in the preparation and presentation of texts.
• Review and self-correction of the texts produced in a guided manner.
• Use of dictionaries, other paper consultation media and information and
• communication technologies (word processors).
! Syntactic-discursive contents
• Expression of logical relationships: Conjunction (and); disjunction (or);
• opposition (but); cause (because).
• Affirmation: affirmative sentences; Yes (+ tag).
• Exclamation: What + noun (e.g. What fun!); How + Adj. (e.g. How nice!);
• exclamatory sentences (e.g. I love salad!).
• Denial: negative sentences with not, never; No (adj.) Nobody, nothing.
• Question: Wh-questions; Aux verbs in questions: to do, to be, to have.
• Time expression: present (simple present; present continuous).
• Expression of the aspect: punctual (simple tenses); durative (present continuous); habitual (simple
tenses [+ Adv. E.g., always, everyday].
• Expression of the modality: factuality (declarative sentences); capacity (can); obligation (have (got)
to; imperative); suggestion (should); permission (can).
• Expression of existence (to be; there is / there are); the entity (nouns, pronouns, articles,
demonstratives); the quality (very + Adj.); the comparison (comparatives and superlatives: as Adj.
as; smaller [than]; the biggest).
• Expression of quantity: singular / plural; cardinal numbers up to three digits; ordinal numbers up to
two digits. Quantity: many, all, some, many, a lot, (a) little, more, half, a bottle / cup / glass / piece
of. Degree: very.
• Expression of space: prepositions, prepositional phrases, adverbs of location, position, motion,
direction and origin.
• Temporary expressions: points (e.g. quarter past five); divisions (e.g., half an hour, summer), and
indications of time (e.g., now, tomorrow (morning); anteriority (before); posteriority (after);
sequence (first, then ...); frequency (e.g., sometimes, on Sundays); prepositions, prepositional
phrases and adverbs of time.
• Mode expression: Adv. of manner (e.g., slowly, well, quickly, carefully).
 
 
• Expression of possession: I have got (I have got); preposition of; genitive Saxon (¿s); possessives
15. Expression of tastes and preferences: I like / I don ́t like; I like verb+ing; I love.
When considering the contents that are mandatory by law the teacher must consider the knowledge and
competences. That is to say teachers must take into account (McLaren & Madrid, Chapter 4: The Foreign
Langauge Curriculum, 2004);
!Concepts: the knowledge attained through the subject.

- Linguistic competence. Grammar: morphology and syntax, vocabulary, lexicon, phonetics, spelling.
- Sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence: linguistic markers and social relations, politeness
conventions, register differences, dialects and accents.
- Discourse competence: organization of texts, cohesion and coherence, text design, etc.
- Sociocultural competence: sociocultural knowledge, intercultural awareness.
- Cross-curricular aspects: connection with the other curricular areas.
! Procedural knowledge: procedures, skills, learning techniques and strategies.

- Oral communication (listening-speaking).
- Written communication (reading-writing).
- Other skills.
!Existential competence: Attitudes and values, motivations, personality factors.
!Learning to learn: language awareness, study skills, heuristic skills.
4. Syllabus
The syllabus provides information about the units/modules for the curriculum. That is say it is the syllabus
provides the sequencing in which the curriculum will be structured and organized. «In this case the syllabus
will be a definition of the contents of classroom activity» (Robinson, 2009). There are various formats a
syllabus can take, it depends on how the teacher would like to structure out their units and lessons, the
following types of syllabuses will be introduced and overviewed (McLaren & Madrid, Chapter 4: The
Foreign Langauge Curriculum, 2004);
4.1. Product-Oriented: Structural-Grammatical or Notional-Functional.
Product-oriented syllabuses are focused on the

expected outcomes of the course. That is to say what
the students will achieve throughout the course are
products, although procedures and attitudes may be
acquired along the way the primary focus is on the
product. Two examples of product-oriented syllabuses
are structural- grammatical and the notional-
functional syllabus. These two types have in common
the following characteristics (McLaren & Madrid,
Chapter 4: The Foreign Langauge Curriculum, 2004);
 

 
 

 
 

In the Structural-Grammatical syllabus

importance is placed on grammatical,
phonological and lexical items. An
example of how the syllabus is
arranged looks something like this;
(McLaren & Madrid, Chapter 4: The
Foreign Language Curriculum (2014).
In the Notional-Functional syllabus the focus was on speaking and learning how to communicate through
language. Acts of speech were arranged around various speaking activities that were themed around one
topic. Initially, learners would start with general topics and then move into more specific content as the
course progressed. The syllabus focus is on correct speaking, interpretation and responses. These syllabuses
were also considered communicative.
 
4.2. Process-Oriented: Procedural or Task based.
Overtime the shift has changed in second

language acquisition and learning from the
product to the process of learning. This focus
means that the skills are more important than
the product. The emphasis is now on learning
content through the development of skills and
strategies, also the student’s motivation in
language learning. Within this type of syllabus
there are variations such as the procedural and
task-based among others. The similarities of
these types of syllabuses include (McLaren &
Madrid, Chapter 4: The Foreign Langauge
Curriculum, 2004);
! They aim to develop efficient learning

strategies.
! They are concerned with the individual
learning style.
! Students negotiate curricular activities

with teachers.
! Special attention is given to affective
factors: the student's feelings, emotions and
values.
! Students are often involved in the
learning process: in the way learning takes
place and, in its evaluation, (metacognition).
Though there are four differences to be highlighted between the two types of process-oriented syllabuses
(Baleghizadeh, 2015);
The Procedural syllabus was created by Prabhu (1987), in which students learn through tasks. The tasks are
divided into three sections, the pre-task, task and feedback. The following is an outline of how the three
stages are implemented (Brumfit, 1984 as cited in Zare, 2012);
! A short dialogue is handed to students, and two students read it out loud, each taking a part.
!Pre-task: the teacher discusses twenty-four free response comprehension questions with the class, asking
for answers, and using whatever language comes naturally in order to establish communication.
! Task: for homework, students are asked to say whether five statements, which are given to them, are
true or false with reference to the dialogue. They are asked to give reasons for their choices.
! The students' true/false answers receive 'marks', so that they are provided with feedback in terms of the
task.
 
 
 
 

These tasks are divided up into three categories, information-gap, reasoning-gap and opinion-gap activities
(Zare, 2012).
- Information-gap activity «involves a transfer of given information from one person to another or from
one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding of
information from or into language.» Prabhu gives an example of information-gap activity in which each pair
has a part of the total information and attempts to convey it verbally to the other pair» (Prabhu, 1987: 46 as
cited in Zare, 2012).
- Reasoning-gap activity «involves deriving some new information from given information through
processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns.» An
example could be deciding on the best course of action for a particular purpose and within given
constraints. (Prabhu, 1987: 46 as cited in Zare, 2012).
- Opinion-gap activity «involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in
response to a given situation.» Story completion and participation in the discussion of a social issue are
offered as examples of opinion-gap activities. (Prabhu, 1987: 47 as cited in Zare, 2012).
The Task-based syllabus is based on the principle of

learners involved in a task which requires;
comprehension, manipulation, production and/or
interaction to have meaningful communication to fulfill
a task. The task-based syllabus has a three step process
as well, the pre-task, task cycle (task, planning and
reporting) and the language focus (analysis and practice
of the form). Benefits of the Task-based syllabus
include (Candlin, 1987; Nunan, 1988 as cited in
McLaren & Madrid, 2004)
Tasks promote attention to meaning.
They encourage attention to relevant data.
They develop different procedures and modes of

participation and involve learner contributions.
They promote risk-taking.
They encourage knowledge, skills, participation.
They involve the use of language for the purpose

of solving the task and promote learner training
for problem-solving.
They promote sharing of information and allow
for different solutions.
They encourage the learner's consciousness of the
learning process and reflection (metacognition).
 

5. Lesson plan
Lesson plans are the details of each day’s process, skills and learning strategies implemented in the
classroom. There is no set formula for the right lesson plan, teachers can google templates and scroll through
until they find one which suits their needs. Though it’s important to keep in mind this is a personal document
where teachers are able to write down there intended plan of action for the day. This plan of action should
address the knowledge that will be acquired by the students through content, skills/process and attitudes.
The plan generally includes;
! Lesson title.
! Theme.
! Learning Outcomes.
! Objectives/Aims (Students will be able to...) (SWBAT).
! Plan.
! Assessment.
! Materials used.
The following lesson plan is one example of many which teachers can follow. This lesson plan is to teach a
book called The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton.
 
  
 
 

 
 

Test: Unit 3
UNIT 4: NEEDS ANALYSIS

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Principles
4. Implementation
5. Examples
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
principles as well as examples provided. This is important to consider as the following activity is directly
linked with this unit.
Students will have an opportunity to write their own Needs Analysis for their students and levels, keeping in
mind the content provided within this unit. By the end of the unit students should be able to:
!Students will differentiate two types of Needs Analysis.

!Students will understand the types of information gathered in Needs Analysis.
!Students will analyze the steps in implementing Needs Analysis.
!Students will compare different types of Needs Analysis in formal and informal
activities.
!Students will evaluate various examples of beginners to advanced Needs Analysis.
2. Introduction
This unit is on assessing learners needs within the classroom to advance in their language development. It is
important to include the student’s perspective on their language learning; this is a way to motivate students to
assess themselves and reflect on their experiences within and outside of the language classroom. Though the
beauty of Needs Analysis it is not a form of assessing of the student.
The purpose of Needs Analysis (NA) is to evaluate the learners’ progression and make any adjustment to the
curriculum as a result of the needs of the students. Although this may sound hectic to change strategies,
learning materials or teaching methods in the middle of a course, it is generally always necessary for the
benefit of the students and the teacher.
With Needs Analysis teachers are better equipped with understanding the needs, wants and what is lacking
for their learners. It is a chance to implement change and sometimes it even reignites or reengages learners in
the learning process. Students are also able to reflect on their own language learning and their feelings/
attitudes towards it. This provides students a point of reflection to see just how far they have come in the
learning process.
The benefits of integrating Needs Analysis outweigh the constraints, of it being time consuming and
implementing change mid-year. It requires teachers to be flexible, creative as well as attend to the needs of
the students. Needs Analysis is a tool which can be implemented throughout the year as an on-going process,
it can also be used after finishing projects, exams and task/activities. It is a way to check in with students
without having the pressure of assessment. It is a self-evaluation or observations made by the teacher to
redirect their students learning for it to be more beneficial for them.
3. Principles
The initial reasoning to use Needs Analysis was to provide a «definition of the contents and goals of
language educational curriculums» (Mortazavi & Barjesteh, 2016). Needs Analysis are to gather
information and interpret it to understand how the student is progressing within the second language
acquisition and learning. It is integral in the Needs Analysis to have students’ perspective on their learning
 
 

 
 
 

to properly assess how their learning is developing. There are two types of Needs Analysis (Hidayah &
Ciptaningrum, 2019):
- Learning aims which provide a gap to understand how the student can achieve learning outcomes.
- Learning experiences which provide gaps about how students are developing in the language.
Needs are contingent on what a student wants to learn, lacks in learning and needs to learn to fill their
learning gaps. Needs can also provide information on skills which students have yet to acquire whether it is a
result of lack of understanding or of a time constraint. When a student lacks knowledge, skills or attitudes in
second language learning this information provides the starting point of where the teacher must begin to treat
and help the student develop. Although it is important to note that Needs Analysis is not always a starting
point but can be utilized throughout a course and even as assessment it provides a wealth of information for
teachers and students alike.
Once students and teachers have completed a Needs Analysis (below there is an explanation of different
types and examples, as well as ways to integrate them into the classroom) it is important to interpret the
results. The results provide information for course planning to make decisions about appropriate objectives,
content, teaching and assessment methods, learning materials and resources (Byram, 2001 as cited in Wei,
2016).
Types of Needs Analysis
Brown (2016) provides a comprehensive list for nine types of language Needs Analysis (NA):
Target-situation analysis seeks information on the language requirements learners face in learning a
specific type of language.
Deficiency analysis accounts for learners’ current wants and needs and their target situation deficiencies or
lacks.
Present-situation analysis focuses on the students’ proficiencies at the outset of instruction.
Learning-oriented analysis takes the view that needs (in terms of syllabus, content, teaching methods,
materials, etc.) should be negotiated between students and other stakeholders.
Strategy analysis focuses on learners’ preferences in terms of learning strategies, error correction, group
sizes, amount of homework, etc.
Means analysis focuses on the learning situation, with as few preconceptions as possible in terms of
practicality, logistics, cultural appropriateness, etc.
Language audits take a large-scale view of NA in terms of strategic language policies for companies,
professional sectors, governmental departments, countries, etc.
Set menu analysis sets out to create a menu of main courses from which the sponsors or learners can select.
Computer-based analysis is done by computer to match perceived needs to a database of materials «...from
which the course content can be negotiated between students and teacher...» (West, 1997, p. 74 as cited in
Brown, 2009).
The various NA should be planned for different types of information gathering. There are six types of
information Berwick (1989, pp. 49–51 as cited in Brown, 2009):
Organized body of knowledge: this relates to the content taught within the classroom.
Specific competencies: this focuses on a specific aspect of second language learning such as reading,
writing, listening, speaking and/or grammar.
Social activities and problems: this focuses on the cultural aspect involved in language learning.
Cognitive or learning processes: this relates to skills acquired, learning processes, experiences or
dynamics within the language learning class. Feelings and attitudes: this relates to the learners’ perception
of the language learning.
Needs and interests of the learner: this is how the learner sees themselves as a language learner and how
they gauge their own learner experience and development.
Steps in the NA Process

When implementing NA as educators there are steps which should be considered beforehand. The following
table outlines the steps with questions to answer prior to
moving on to the next step. This has been adapted from Brown, 2009.
 
 
 
 
 
4. Implementation
Formal Needs Analysis
There are various ways to implement Needs Analysis (NA) in the classroom, the formats can vary due to the
needs of the teacher and the purpose of the NA. These variations can range from survey questionnaires to
open-ended interviews to informal performance observation. The format chosen should suit the purpose of
the NA and the students. For NA to be effective the Center for Applied Linguistics recommends that tools
and materials must be appropriate for the particular student or group of students. «For example, materials
written in English might be translated into the learners’ native language, read aloud by the teacher or an aide
(in English or the native language), or represented pictorially» (Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.).
The following table is included to give a variety of NA which can be utilized and implemented in the
classroom. It is important to note beginning learners will need more help, which can include translation,
simplification of language or even done through oral production and imagery. There is nothing wrong with a
learner having to turn to these resources to apply an NA; «Whatever the focus and format, the basic purpose
is to determine what learners want and need to learn. When learners know that educators understand and
want to address their needs and interests, they are motivated to continue in a program and to learn» (Center
for Applied Linguistics, n.d.). The types of NA are described below (Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.).

Informal Needs Analysis
There are many ways to have students participate in a NA, it is up to the teacher to decide on the level of
formality. Below there is a list of 15 different and informal ways to include NA in the classroom (TEFL,
2019):
!Fill in a form or questionnaire: this is the most traditional and perhaps most boring way of doing Needs
Analysis. It can be made more interesting by students interviewing each other and filling in the form for their
partner (how much help you will need to give them with question forms, etc. depends on the class) or
designing the forms or questionnaires for other people to fill in.
!Interviews: especially in smaller classes, this is the other common way of doing Needs Analysis. You can
make it more interesting by getting students to interview each other in pairs and then mark the interviewers
by how much relevant information they got (e.g. giving points for questions they asked that no one else in
the class did), or by doing it as a roleplay job interview for a job that uses English, e.g. their own, and getting
students to decide who is best for the job.
!Combine with another lesson: this could mean by language point (see Adverbs of Frequency, etc. below
for examples), or by skill (e.g. reading a text about ways of practicing English or speaking about your
previous English studies). If you combine it with ideas on becoming a self-sufficient language learner, you
can even do further Needs Analysis in later lessons. In this way, for example, if their language wasn’t high
enough level you can use it to find out how much it is been improved from the first time you did Needs
Analysis or if you want to see if their needs and ideas about language learning have changed.
!Adverbs of frequency: students use «often,» «once a week,» etc. to talk about how often they use English
in certain ways and do certain things to improve their English, e.g. «I occasionally take part in conference
calls in English.» This can be a reading and writing task or speaking and listening with them asking each
other in pairs. Due to the easy language (mainly Present Simple), this is good with even low level classes.
!Predictions/ possibility and probability: students talk about their future needs for English, e.g. as a
sentence completion task with «I will definitely... in English,» «Next year I might... in English,» etc. They
can then guess how their partner completed their sentences.
!Modals: students fill in the right modal verb for them in sentences such as «I___________ read
newspapers in English,» e.g. «can,» «should,» «need to» or «have to». They can then compare in pairs, and
see if the verbs their partner has put in are also true for them.
!Functions review: students match sentences to their functions, e.g. requesting, complaining, apologizing,
and then talk about how much they need to be able to do those things in English.
!Ranking: students rank things they need to do in English by how necessary they are and/ or how difficult
they are. They can then get together in larger and larger groups and try to agree new ranking together in a
«pyramid ranking debate.»
!Guess the job: students match descriptions of how and when people need to use English to the names of
their jobs. They can then write similar description for themselves (or their partners after interviewing them),
then the whole class can try to match the descriptions to the people in the class.
!True/false: students mark sentences about English use and studies true or false for them, e.g. «I need to
write more than speak.» Variations include giving the sentences orally rather than on the page, or students
making sentences that they think the other person will say «true» for.
!Make it true: students change sentences to make them true for themselves and/ or for everyone in their
group or the whole class, e.g. changing «Most emails I write are to native English speakers» to «non-native.»
If you design the task carefully, this can also be used as practice of specific language points.
!Presentations: students give a presentation about their own needs for English, past and present use of
English and English studies. To make sure everyone is listening, other students must ask questions at the end
and/ or must refer to what other people said when they do their own presentations, e.g. «Unlike Sergio, I
almost never answer the telephone in English.» This is good if they need to study presentation skills.
!Things in common: students try to find (ten) things that are the same for both of them in their use and
needs for English, e.g. «We both read English emails everyday».
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

!Needs Analysis meeting: run the Needs Analysis as a formal meeting with agenda and action minutes.
!Syllabus negotiation: students negotiate to decide how much time will be spent on certain topics and
skills in the course. This is especially useful before or after doing the language of negotiations.
5. Examples
This section will provide a variety of examples, from the Center of Applied Linguistics. It is important to
bear in mind, there is a variation of NA from beginning learners to advanced. Teachers should personalize
their material to suit their objectives for the NA.
Finally, NA can be conducted throughout the year, there is no «right» time for using NA in the classroom.
Consider it like a check-up or an oil change for a car, it is a moment to assess and evaluate the needs of the
specific learners within the classroom. Every year will be different and contingent on the learners and their
background.
Beginners questionnaire guide
Even in literacy- and beginning-level classes, it is important to conduct some needs assessment in the first
days of class. Needs assessment should then continue informally throughout the entire class cycle. Typically,
when literacy-level adult English language learners are asked which English skill is most important for them
— reading, writing, speaking, or listening—they say «everything.» A teacher might agree with the students,
but then explain that they cannot learn everything at once, so the teacher needs an idea of what is most
important to particular learners. This will enable the teacher to set priorities for what is to be taught. The
following steps may be useful in assessing needs and determining priorities:
! Elicit from the student’s situations and places where they might need English, such as getting a job or
going to the doctor. Discuss whether they need to read, speak, listen, or write (or often, all four) in these
situations.
! Label four cards, each card representing one of the skills—reading, writing, speaking, listening—and
put a simple graphic on each card, e.g., an ear for listening, a mouth for speaking, a book for reading, and a
pen for writing. Post one skill card in each corner of the room.
! Ask the students (and demonstrate, if necessary) to stand by the card representing the English skill they
most need to improve. If students are confused, repeat and demonstrate the directions and allow them to help
each other in their native languages. While students are standing in their chosen corners, have them write
their names on the appropriate skill card. Leave the card on the wall for the rest of the class cycle.
The above «four corners» activity helps prepare learners for the more complicated task of choosing which
topics to study:
! Create a simple form asking students to indicate which topics are
the most important for them to learn. Draw or find illustrations of
possible topics to be studied in class, such as health, housing,
shopping, and transportation.
! For group instruction, make transparencies of the pictures on the
form. The form can contain basic words such as work, health,
community.
! Discuss the pictures and words on the form.
! Give each learner a handout of the form and ask them to circle the
topics most important to them. Ask them to choose 3-5 topics,
depending on the length and intensity of the instruction. Some learners
may help each other in their native languages, or volunteers may assist
in English or the native language. Individuals may circle words or
pictures.
! While the students are working, circulate to help with the process
and confirm with each adult learner that he or she has chosen
important topics
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 

 
 
The next day, on the original transparency or on the board, present a tally of the topics that were marked, and
decide with the class which topics are important to most people. Some may find the entire task challenging
because they are unfamiliar with the concept of Needs assessment and because of difficulties in
understanding and expressing themselves in English. But everyone, ultimately, understands the inherent
fairness of this group process. The process itself serves to forge a strong class bond while showing adult
English learners that their voices have been heard. These activities also allow the teacher to assess the skills,
ideas, and feelings of each individual in the class (adapted from Shank & Terrill, 1997 as cited in Center for
Applied Linguistics, n.d.).
Beginner journal
Purpose. To help students become aware

of their daily use of English.
Process. Give this form to the students.

Display the handout on an overhead
transparency. As a large group activity,
walk through the handout, offering
suggestions and asking for examples
from the students. Have students work
on their handout individually, in pairs, or
in small groups.
Source. Marshall, 2002 as cited in Center

for Applied Linguistics, n.d.
Beginners language log
Purpose. To track the amount of English

used during the prior week and to
consider that which was difficult and that
which was easy.
Process. Give this form to the students.

Explain that the more we think about our
English language use, the more we are
able to improve our ability to use
English. This language log will help
them track the amount of English they
use weekly. Ask them to try to increase
their English language use each week.
Source. Marshall, 2002 as cited in

Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.
Intermediate Can-do assessment
Purpose. To track how students feel about their language abilities according to specific topics.
Process. Ask the students to write down topics they feel comfortable talking about in English. Then ask the
students to list topics that are more difficult for them. Hand out the worksheet. Read aloud the top row of the
level of comfort and then the topics that correspond. Make sure each student does this individually.
Source. Intermediate Can-do Analysis. Image from (Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.). Adapted from
Hotz & Van Duzer, 2000 as cited in Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.

Intermediate level timelines
Purpose. Students may use timelines to reflect on elements of their past and present lives and to express
needs and goals for the present and future.
Process. High points on the timeline mark important points and goals met. The low points mark difficult
times or unmet goals. To support students in creating timelines use the following process:
! Brainstorm words and phrases and write them on the board (e.g., came here in 1992; married in 1993;
started school in 2003; my son is an honor student).
! Show a model of your own timeline.
! Provide magazines, scissors, markers or

crayons, and glue sticks for students to use to
design and illustrate their timelines.
! When students have finished their timelines,

have them ask and answer questions about each
other’s timelines (e.g., When did you come to the
United States? What do you want to do in the
future?).
Source. Marshall, 2002 as cited in Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.

 

Intermediate/Advanced Questionnaire
Purpose. To track how students feel about their language abilities according to the different skills.
Process. Hand out the worksheet. Read aloud the questions. Remind students short phrase and sentences are
ok, the importance of this questionnaire is that they are honest. Make sure each student does this
individually.
Source. Intermediate/Advanced Questionnaire. Image from (Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.). Adapted
from Marshall, 2002 as cited in Center for Applied Linguistics, n.d.).
 
 

Test: Unit 4
UNIT 5: LEARNING PROCESSES

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Theory
4. Learner Centered vs Teacher Centered
5. Differentiated learning
6. Cooperative groups
7. Bell ringers and exit tickets
8. Feedback vs assessment
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections, this section talks about learning
processes. This unit is meant to be practical and useful for classroom application, any other resources or
materials that are not included are still welcomed.
! Students will differentiate student centered learning versus teacher centered teaching.
! Students will understand how differentiated learning can benefit all students with all different abilities.
! Students will analyze how to apply cooperative learning in small groups and whole classes.
! Students will evaluate the use of bell ringers and exit tickets in class.
! Students will compare how feedback and assessment vary.
2. Introduction
To provide a clear understanding of the classroom process this unit will go through various aspects. It is
important to keep in mind there is no correct formula, all of the suggestions included in this unit should be
regarded as recommendations. Teachers should always think outside of the box to continually update their
resources for the globalizing world.
The following breakdown of the learning processes are meant to be tools to integrate into a lesson plan, this
does not provide the content. It is important to highlight that every school is equipped with its own
capabilities and should always be at the forefront of the teacher’s consideration when drafting a lesson plan.
There are schools with smaller classroom sizes and others with larger ones, also there is the impact of
technology and how to integrate it into the classroom.
While reading through the unit, take notes, sip on a cup of coffee and think back to your experiences in the
classroom. It is important that every teacher also puts their personal touch on how they teach, every teacher
has their own style, manner and attitude which makes their class unique. Most importantly consider what
Gail Godwin said: «Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theater.»
3. Theory
When considering how to structure a lesson it is important

to understand the different stages of learning a student
goes through, from start to finish. Learning is not just
acquiring information and regurgitating it on an exam. It is
important for a teacher to consider all of the phases a
student goes through from start to finish in learning. These
stages of learning must be considered for a lesson plan,
which is explained in the activity section of this unit.
 
 
 
4. Learner Centered vs Teacher Centered
There are two paradigms which are two different types of teaching in the classroom. First, there is learner
centered where students construct knowledge through gathering information and working with others to
analyze, compare and contrast, evaluate and create. Then there is teacher centered which is when the
knowledge is transferred from the teacher to the students. The figure below breaks down the differences in
the two paradigms (Comparison of Teacher-Centered and Learner- Center Paradigms, 2000).
5. Differentiated learning
Differentiated learning is the elements of the curriculum the teacher has modified as a result of the different
learner’s needs. Differentiation is (N sui, 2015):

ă

A method of organizing learning activities Is the match of what is offered versus what is needed? Considers
the stages of learning that a learner has reached Considers learner’s skills and abilities.
The integration of differentiated learning in the classroom provides students with multiple and flexible
options for engagement and learning. This is a manner of personalizing student learning to ensure all
students are able to achieve the end goal. The framework places an emphasis on «enhancing student learning
through connections to their interests, experiences, knowledge and skills» (Tobin & Tippett, 2014).
Differentiated learning means that teachers can adapt, content, process, product or the learning environment
(N sui, 2015; Tobin & Tippett, 2014; Chodorow, Gamon, & Tetreault, 2010). Although there is no limit to
how many adaptations may be made for an individual.
! Content refers to the information the students will learn and the materials which reflect it.
! Process which is the activities students make sense of keys ideas using essential skills.
! Product, how students demonstrate and extend their knowledge which is also a reflection of the
result of the learning that has occurred.
! Learning environment refers to the classroom conditions in which a learner must function, such as a
seating arrangement or groupings.
Differentiation must occur as a reflection of the needs within the classroom. For differentiation to properly
address the learner’s readiness, interest and learning profile differentiation should have the following
characteristics (Tomlinson, et al., 2003):
! Effective differentiation of curriculum and instruction is proactive, rather than reactive. Teachers
should preplan for differentiation in a consistent, reflective and coherent manner to address the needs of the
leaners, it is not something that can occur effectively on the spot nor is it a one-size-fits-all.
! Effective differentiation employs flexible use of small teaching-learning groups in the classroom.
Students working in small learning groups (from three to four) allows the teacher to have the flexibility to
attend to all learner’s needs and interest. Groups should vary depending on abilities.
- Students of low-ability learn better in groups which are diverse in character and abilities.
- Students of medium-ability learn better in groups which are similar in abilities.
- Students of high-ability learn in either condition, whether it’s a group similar

or diverse.
! Effective differentiation varies the materials used by individuals and small groups of students in the
classroom. Flexible grouping should also reflect variation in the materials, which are specific to the needs of
the group.
! Effective differentiation uses variations of pacing as a means of addressing the learner needs. Most of
the time instruction timing is based on students of mid or high abilities, meaning those who struggle more
tend to become frustrated and blocked. It is important that the sequencing of activities does not limit the
students rather is flexible to allow all learners to achieve the objectives.
! Effective differentiation is knowledge centered. Teachers should provide useful materials and activities
which enables students to understand the key concepts, ideas and skills which are being taught.
! Effective differentiation is learner centered. In learner centered classes teachers scaffold information,
use a variety of strategies to ensure that all students are able to access the information that is being taught.
 
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Examples of teaching resources, strategies and modes of representations that can be implemented when using
differentiated learning from Heacox, 2002, Tomlinson, 2003 as cited in Chodorow, Gamon, & Tetreault,
2010.
6. Cooperative groups
Cooperative Learning (CL) is a way to organize the students so that learning is exchanged while working
together. This learning enables individual and group accountability as well motivation so that mutual
learning occurs within the context of the classroom. Principles such as communication, interaction,
accountability and cooperation guide this learning process. The application of CL in the English classroom
provides an.
Thus, the theoretical framework along with the related studies present substantial evidence that sheds light
on the plethora of constructive academic, social, cultural, and pedagogical outcomes of applying systematic
CL in the English classroom. The findings of this study demonstrate that English teachers view the structured
application of CL as an «effective teaching strategy that may contribute to students’ learning engagement,
social awareness, cultural responsiveness, and learning needs in general» (Ismail & Al Allaq, 2019).
For CL to be successful within a lesson, Johnson and Johnson (2000) outlined in Yusuf, Jusoh, & Yusuf
(2019), five fundamental elements of CL as described below:
!Positive Interdependence: to achieve the targeted goal, student team members depend and rely on one
another. Every student team member has to contribute ideas and views, and further share responsibility of
performing good work in completing the team tasks assigned to them.
!Individual and Group Accountability: every student team member must be responsible for contributing
their own share of the work and master all materials to be learnt for the group’s success. The performance of
each individual must be assessed and the result is given back to the group
!Face to Face Promotive Interaction: another feature of CL is that it emphasizes on small group
interaction. Even though some tasks are completed individually, group members at the same time play an
important role by providing one another with feedback, challenging reasoning and conclusions, supporting
and encouraging one another to achieve the group’s goals.
!Interpersonal and Small Group Skills: these are the basic skills in teamwork. Group members must
learn interpersonal skill such as active learning, staying on task, asking questions, encouraging, helping
others in order to facilitate teamwork, create trust and enhance communication.
!Group Processing: group processing is reflecting on a group session to describe what member actions
were helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about what actions to continue or change. It also helps to
promote self-esteem and positive attitudes towards the learning process.
When considering how to structure a group to conduct activities in CL. These are some of the considerations
a teacher must keep when creating the groups:
!Groups should be heterogeneous, in order to provide a variety of mixed-abilities, knowledge and skills.
!Groups should be from three to four individuals.
!For the groups to be effective, students of medium-
ability should be paired with students of lower-ability
and/or students higher-ability (see figure below).
!Students should face their partners, in the figure
below A and B are partners.
!It is important to keep in mind students of the lower-
ability should not be seated with those of higher-
ability, this is due to the nature that it may cause that
learning does not occur between the two. The student of
the higher-ability makes take it upon themselves to do
the work instead of working collaboratively with the
lower-ability student.
In order to implement cooperative learning author Francisco Zariquiey for the website Colectivo Cinético
(2018), outlines five strategies an educator can utilize within the classroom. In order for CL in small groups
to be meaningful and the group to be successful it is important to establish routines and rules. These are
strategies that can be used routinely in the classroom to provide a consistent way of working within a group.
Training
! Students should be given a worksheet or a task to complete together, step-by- step, students should not
be able to proceed to the next step without completing the previous step.
! All students in the group should understand how each step is completed before moving on to the
following step.
! It is important in these types of activities that students work together on each step to ensure all members
of the group understand the information.
Thinking groups
! Students are given various tasks or activities to complete, the students’ first need to consider how to
proceed with each task/activity.
! Then students should divide up the tasks once reaching a consensus on how each task/activity should be
completed.
! Once the students have finished each of the tasks/activities the teacher should randomly pick a task/
activity to be presented in the CL groups, so that the other members can learn how that student completed the
task/activity.
1-2-4
! Teachers provide students with a task; each student should complete the task individually.
! Then teachers should indicate when students can work with their partners (the ones they face) to discuss
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 
 
 
 

their results.
! In pairs, students should agree upon their answers, modifying or changing the work they have done
individually.
! Finally, both pairs of the group, should share their answers and then modify or change the work they
have done in pairs to reach their group answers.
Relief
! The teacher should propose a task that the group can do in turns, for example creating lists, or writing a
paragraph together.
! The first person should complete the task at hand, the rest of the group should agree with the work
completed before the next person can continue working on the task.
! Once the task is completed the teacher asks different members from each CL group to explain how the
group went through the process of completing the task.
Assisted individual work

! The teacher distributes work to each individual, the work is differentiated based on the student’s needs.
! Students work on their individual task.
! When a student has a question or a doubt that student can ask their partner for help.
! If their partner is unable to help them, then the student can ask the other pair in their CL group.
! Each person is responsible for their own work but can ask their group members for help while working
on the task.
Finally, below is a compiled list of cooperative learning activities adapted from Dr. Spencer Kagan, by Trista
Sanders and Lindsay Meeker, which teachers may consider, for further detail on any of the activities please
visit the In depth section. The activities listed below are briefly described and given scenarios in which
teachers may choose to engage in the learning activities, as well as how to implement the activity whether
it’s in a small group or can be done with the entire class.
It is important to highlight that cooperative learning is not just for small groups but can be conducted with
the whole class while the students are in small group instances.
Take a look at the table below for ideas of how to incorporate CL in the classroom.
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
7. Bell ringers and exit tickets
Bell ringers
Bell ringers refer to the ringing of the bell that starts the
class. Generally, bell ringers are warm up activities
students can do at the beginning of the class to get them
thinking about the content they are going to see. The
idea behind them is to get the students centered on the
content they are going to be seeing in class. These warm
up activities can consist of a short question, problem or
task to engage the students. The following tables
provide examples of bell ringers for the different age
groups for the students to engage in.
Exit tickets
Exit tickets are used at the end of class. This is a question a

teacher poses to have students quickly comment in one or two
sentences the content they have learned. There are various
ways to incorporate exit tickets.
The idea is that teachers are given an idea of how well the
information/content was learned, in case there are doubts
within the class. The teacher then takes the exit tickets reviews
the student’s responses to check and see if there is any material
that should be gone over prior to an exam.
Teachers can hand out little pieces of paper, post-it notes or

even have students respond on a forum to this question. These
are not essential nor are they mandatory, but it is a way to
receive information from the students without evaluating them.
This is an example of exit tickets than can be used with
students in grades 3 or higher, here is an example:
8. Feedback versus assessment
Feedback
Feedback is considered an important aspect of the learning process. Feedback is the information the teacher
provides students to guide them in their learning. This is not the numerical grade given to an assignment
rather the information given to the students on their evolution.
There are different types of feedback students may receive from teachers or from peers. The variations of
feedback provide students different perspectives on their learning and should be integrated throughout the
entire evaluation process. Federation University of Australia (2019), highlight different types of feedback
that may be useful to integrate into classroom practices:
! Informal feedback: can occur at any times as it is something that emerges spontaneously in the
moment or during action. Therefore, informal feedback requires the building of rapport with students to
effectively encourage, coach or guide them in daily management and decision-making for learning. This
might occur in the classroom, over the phone, in an online forum or virtual classroom.
! Formal feedback: is planned and systematically scheduled into the process. Usually associated with
assessment tasks, formal feedback includes the likes of marking criteria, competencies or achievement of
standards. It is recorded for both the student and organization as evidence.
! Formative feedback: the goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide
ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their
learning. Therefore, formative feedback is best given early in the course, and prior to summative
assessments. Formative feedback helps students to improve and prevent them from making the same
mistakes again. In some cases, feedback is required before students can progress, or feel capable of
progressing, to the next stage of the assessment.
! Summative feedback: the goal is to evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by
comparing it against some standard or benchmark. Therefore, summative feedback consists of detailed
comments that are related to specific aspects of their work, clearly explains how the mark was derived from
the criteria provided and additional constructive comments on how the work could be improved.
! Student peer feedback: there is no longer need for teachers to be the only experts within a course.
With basic instruction and ongoing support, students can learn to give quality feedback, which is highly
valued by peers. Providing students with regular opportunities to give and receive peer feedback enriches
their learning experiences and develops their professional skill set. An example of this may be: 2 stars, 1
wish.
! This is where the students are asked to write two things their peer did well (two stars), and one thing they
could improve on (one wish). This activity can be adapted for all ages.
! Primary: students can draw a star next to the things their partners have done well. Then underline
what their partner needs to improve. Teachers can provide students with a list of sentences starters such as,
this needs to be changed, this information is incorrect, there needs to be more information, etc.
! Secondary: can write out their answers in as many sentences as the teacher thinks is appropriate.
Students can also give feedback as to what is wrong and how to fix the errors.
! Adults: can provide more reflective responses to these questions outlining ways to fix the
problems that their partner has.
! Student self-feedback: this is the ultimate goal of feedback for learning. To help students reach
autonomy teachers can explicitly identify, share, and clarify learning goals and success criteria; model the
application of criteria using samples; provide guided opportunities for self-feedback; teach students how to
use feedback to determine next steps and set goals; and allow time for self- feedback/reflection. An example
of this may be: Stoplight activity.
! This is where the teacher asks students to write something next to the green light as something
they have done well.
! Write something next to the yellow light as something they can improve on but did ok on.
! Write something next to a red light, highlighting something they did not do or did incorrectly.
• This activity can be adapted for all ages.
! Primary: coloring the dot which reflects their opinions of how they’ve done their work next to it.
! Secondary: can write out their answers in as many sentences as the teacher thinks is appropriate.
! Adults: can provide more reflective responses to these questions outlining ways to fix problems
they have occurred.
! Constructive feedback: this type of feedback is specific, issue-focused and based on observations.
There are four types of constructive feedback:
- Negative feedback –corrective comments about past behavior. Focuses on behavior that wasn’t
successful and shouldn’t be repeated.
- Positive feedback –affirming comments about past behavior. Focuses on behavior that was successful
and should be continued.
- Negative feed-forward –corrective comments about future performance. Focuses on behavior that
should be avoided in the future.
- Positive feed-forward –affirming comments about future behavior. Focused on behavior that will
improve performance in the future.
Feedback provides students an opportunity to grow and to learn. It can be used in various instances. Research
conducted by Havnes, Smith, Dysthe, & Ludvigsen (2012) found that there are four opportunities in
classroom situations that students want to receive feedback:
! After receiving a test or work that has been marked.

! In student presentations of projects.
! Any group-work.
! In conferencing between the teacher and the students.

 

 

 
 

 
 

Assessment
On the other hand, assessment is what is required by law for the educational process to include. When
teaching English as a second language assessment, generally, is distributed amongst the four skills: reading,
writing, listening and speaking. These formal assessments are generally in forms of exams, conducted in
class. These exams may be similar to those students take to achieve different language certifications such as
the Cambridge Language Assessment, Trinity exams or ILETS. The scores on these assessments are recorded
for evidence purposes.
Assessment is done to improve learning by checking the learner’s progress as well as to judge how
successful the learner has been in mastering the material.
There are three types of assessment, diagnostic, formative and summative. Each has its own function in the
classroom and helps for teachers to have a general view of the student.
! Diagnostic: This is the pre-assessment that generally occurs at the beginning of the year to allow the
teacher to determine a student’s strengths and weakness in their subject area.
! Formative: This is the assessment that occurs throughout the evaluation, it can be done in different
ways, through quizzes, worksheets, activities, observation or presentations. This is generally done with the
intentions of seeing how well a student has mastered specific content.
- Primary: spelling tests, Irregular verb quizzes, specific grammar exercises.

- Secondary: grammar quizzes, a specific part of a listening activity or a reading quiz on a chapter.
! Summative: This is the assessment that occurs at the end of the evaluation, or during the middle of
the evaluation. An example of this would be a midterm or a final exam. This type of assessment includes all
of the material covered within a time frame.
- Primary: Testing all of the irregular verbs, all of the grammar content taught in the evaluation.
- Secondary: An exam on an entire book, writing an essay or all three parts of a listening exercise.
Different systems may be applied when judging a student’s performance on an assessment. It is up the school
on how each teacher must determine the system they use. Though if a teacher has the liberty to include more
ways if needed. These are some of the possible ways to communicate the progress of a student’s assessment
(TALE Project, 2015):
! Marks or Scores (Percentages or points).

! Letter grades (commonly used in the United States, A/B/C/D/F).
! Written comments on learners’ work.
! «Can do» descriptions and check lists. i.e. Can respond to questions about daily routines
! Written progress reports.

! Conferences between students and teachers individually to discuss progression in the subject matter.
 
 

 
 

 
Test: Unit 5
UNIT 6: LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Skills
4. Content
5. Attitude
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections, the principles are explained and then
there are examples provided in detail below. It is vital that the student understand them and their relationship
to the different aspects later discussed in the course. This will be vital for the group lesson plan activity so it
is important to have a clear idea of how to put this into practice. By the end of the unit the students will be
able to...
! Students will differentiate the various levels of learning outcomes.

! Students will understand the three domains of learning outcomes; skills, content and attitudes.
! Students will analyze the steps in writing learning outcomes.
! Students will compare broad and ambiguous outcomes to direct and achievable ones.
! Students will know how to evaluate the learning outcomes with questions.
! Students will evaluate examples of outcomes within each domain.
2. Introduction
Definition of outcomes
There is no clear definition nor way of writing learning outcomes, specifically within the European context.
Overall, most agree the purpose of writing outcomes is to define the purpose and context in question
(Kennedy, 2007; Cedefop, 2017; Adam, 2004). Although the national law in Spain sets outcomes for the end
of stages, these outcomes are not defined by which stage they should be accomplished in nor how they
should be accomplished. These are guidance’s in which the teachers follow to decide upon the learning
experiences the students will have in class and how the students are to achieve the overall outcomes.
Learning outcomes have been commonly defined as follows within the Northern European, Australian, New
Zealand, South African and United States practice (Adam, 2004):
- «A statement of what a learner is expected to know, understand and/or be able to demonstrate at the end of
a period of learning.»
- «Learning outcomes (are) statements of what a learner is expected to know, understand and/or be able to
demonstrate after a completion of a process of learning.»
- «Statements of what a learner can be expected to know, understand and/or do as a result of a learning
experience.»
- «Student learning outcomes are properly defined in terms of knowledge, skills, and abilities that a student
has attained at the end (or as a result) of his or her engagement in a particular set of higher education
experiences.»
- «Learning outcomes are statements that specify what a learner will know or be able to do as a result of a
learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills, or attitudes.»
- «Learning outcomes (are) specific measurable achievements.»
«Learning outcomes are statements of what a student is expected to know, understand, and/or be able to
demonstrate after completing a learning process» (Kennedy, 2007).
 
 
 

 
 

This definition is provided by Writing and Using Learning Outcomes: A Practical Guide, by Declan
Kennedy was written for the European Union context. It considers The Bologna Process and the Common
European Framework of Reference for Language Policy.
Learning outcomes can be applied at three levels (Adam, 2004):

!The local level of the individual higher education institution (for course units/modules, programs of study
and qualifications).
!The national level (for qualifications frameworks and quality assurance regimes).
!The internationally (for wider recognition and transparency purposes).
Benefits of outcomes
Learning outcomes are beneficial in providing information about who, what, how, where and when teachers
teach and assess students. In the 21st century it is becoming fundamental to outline learning outcomes for the
sake of everyone in the learning community and society. The outcomes provide the results of the learning
process to students, teachers, parents, administration and the education ministry. The outcomes provide
different uses for the different roles (Cedefop, 2017):
! The learner: learning outcomes statements clarify what a learner is expected to know and be able to do
and understand having completed a learning sequence, a module, a program or a qualification.
• They support initial choice of education, training and/or learning paths; they help to orient the
learning process itself and they clarify what to expect during assessment. For learning outcomes
statements to make any difference to learners, they must be visible not only in (written) qualification
standards and program descriptions. Their visibility in practice, throughout the teaching and learning
process as well in assessment arrangements, is of critical importance and decides whether or not they
add value to the individual learner.
! The teacher/instructor: the learning outcomes approach helps to orient teaching, to select methods and
to support the learning process.
• Learning outcomes, through their focus on levels of, and requirements to, learning are crucial for
promoting a more systematic reflection on assessment criteria and methods and how these interact
with and support the learning process.
! The assessor: the learning outcomes approach supports assessment by clarifying the criteria for success/
failure and performance. While most frequently linked to summative assessments, learning outcomes can
help with formative assessment throughout the learning process.
! The education and training institution: learning outcomes provide an important instrument for
planning, and for internal and external dialogue.
• The perspective helps to determine the purpose and orientation of a course, a program or
qualification and to clarify how it relates to and/or overlaps with other courses/programs and
qualifications. Learning outcomes can provide an important reference point for quality assurance.
The relationship between intended and actual learning outcomes (as identified through assessments)
provides important input to the continuous review and development which is expected from
education and training institutions. The learning culture in institutions can change with a learner-
focused approach.
! For society and labor market: learning outcomes provide a common language allowing different
stakeholders in education and training, as well as the labor market and society at large, to clarify skills needs
and to respond to these in a relevant way.
• If used systematically, this allows for systematic review of the quality and relevance of education
and training, focusing on the relationship between intended and actually achieved learning outcomes.
The definition of learning outcomes requires systematic reflection on the use of labor market
intelligence and how this will be balanced with the needs of the education and training system and of
teachers, to support education, training and learning. The initial definition, and the continuous
review and renewal of education and training, depend on a ‘feedback loop’ where the intentions
expressed by the education and training system are constantly challenged by experiences from the
labor market and society.

 
 

 

Within the last few decades within Europe the term learning outcome has become a part of educators training
and vocabulary (Cedefop, 2017). Due to the widespread phenomenon of including learning outcomes in
education there have been researchers that have also looked at how these concepts relates to what is intended
versus what is achieved. Cedefop (2014 as cited in Cedefop, 2017) defines how these two concepts are
interrelated:
! Learning outcomes are defined as «statements of what a learner knows, understands and is able to do on
completion of a learning process, which are defined in terms of knowledge, skills and competence»
(Cedefop, 2014, p. 74).
! Learning outcomes are defined as «sets of knowledge, skills and/or competences an individual has
acquired and/or is able to demonstrate after completion of a learning process, either formal, non-formal or
informal» (Cedefop, 2014, p. 73).
 
 
Writing outcomes
How to write outcomes is not a simple process, nor is it an exact science, rather it requires some thought.
Although to help the writing process it would be easier to divide the outcomes into three categories:
! Psychomotor domain: which

will be referred to in this course as
skills (to be acquired through the
learning process, which can be
transferable to other subjects, and/or
life experiences).
! Cognitive domain: which will be
referred to in this course as content
(information to be learned in the
specific subject matter).
! Affective domain: which will be
referred to in this course as attitudes
(attitudes, feelings or values learned
through the learning process).
One of the biggest influences when considering writing learning outcomes and the progression of students
learning process is Bloom’s taxonomy (Kennedy, 2007; Cedefop, 2017). His initial hierarchical taxonomy
includes those of the cognitive domain from the most basic ways of acquiring knowledge to the most
complex uses of knowledge (from knowledge to synthesize). Later, two other hierarchical domains were
included, the affective domain, attitudes and the psychomotor domain. The three hierarchies are show below
from Cedefop (2017).
One way to remember what each of the different categories are assessing is to think about skills as knowing
how to do something/process; content is what the students will learn. Whereas the most different from the
three is the feelings, attitudes and/or beliefs acquired from the process.
 
 
 

Due to the difficulty when writing learning outcomes, it is important to keep in mind that the simpler the
better. Too much information may just confuse the learner, teacher(s) implicated and anyone else. The
following guidelines are provided as a roadmap of factors to consider when writing (Cedefop, 2017):
! Defining and writing learning outcomes should be treated as an iterative process, starting from overall
objectives and moving stepwise towards specific statements for units and assessment. Having arrived at
specific statements, overall objectives could be reviewed and changed.
! When writing learning outcomes to orient a qualification/program or a qualification unit/course,
carefully consider the number of statements used. When defining a course or unit it is generally
recommended limiting the number of statements (perhaps four to six statements).
! When defining and writing learning outcomes for a full qualification or a program it is generally
recommended to keep the number of statements as low as possible. The purpose should be to identify the
overall scope and profile, not to list all technical details.
! Limiting the number of statements makes it easier for the learner to relate to the intentions and engage
in the learning.
! Limiting the number of statements makes it easier to plan teaching, to facilitate learning and,
eventually, to carry out assessments.
! When writing a learning outcomes statement, focus on the learner and start with an action verb,
followed by the object of the verb as well as a statement specifying the depth/breadth of learning to be
demonstrated, and complete with an indication of the context (which can be related to learning, work or other
relevant social contexts).
! In general, there should not be more than one action verb for each learning outcome.
It is important to know that the action verb, object and context need to indicate the level and complexity of
the learning. Precise vocabulary is important to include, and when using verbs like know or understand, they
don’t imply the learner is required to interact with the content. That is to say, instead of saying know or
understand, it is better to say to remember, or identify.
The following table is to provide a reference for broad and ambiguous learning outcomes, it also makes note
of what is lacking in the information provided and puts it into a direct and achievable learning outcome.
 
 
 

Kennedy (2017) provides this outline of guiding principles when writing learning outcomes:
Begin each learning outcome with an active verb, followed by the object of the verb followed by a phrase
that gives the context.
Use only one verb per learning outcome.
Avoid vague terms like know, understand, learn, be familiar with, be exposed to, be acquainted with, and
be aware of.
Avoid complicated sentences. If necessary, use more than one sentence to ensure clarity.
Ensure that the learning outcomes of the module relate to the overall outcomes of the program.
The learning outcomes must be observable and measurable.
Ensure that the learning outcomes are capable of being assessed.
When writing learning outcomes, bear in mind the timescale within which the outcomes are to be achieved.
There is always the danger that one can be over ambitious when writing learning outcomes. Ask yourself if
it is realistic to achieve the learning outcomes within the time and resources available.
As you work on writing the learning outcomes, bear in mind how these outcomes will be assessed. i.e. how
will you know if the student has achieved these learning outcomes? If the learning outcomes are very
broad, they may be difficult to assess effectively. If the learning outcomes are very narrow, the list of
learning outcomes may be too long and detailed.
Before finalizing the learning outcomes, ask your colleagues and possibly former students if the learning
outcomes make sense to them.
When writing learning outcomes, try to avoid overloading the list with learning outcomes which are drawn
from the bottom of Bloom’s Taxonomy (e.g. Knowledge and Comprehension in the cognitive domain). Try
to challenge the students to use what they have learned by including some learning outcomes drawn from
the higher categories (e.g. Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation) of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Once the learning outcomes are written it is important to read back through them, consider Kennedy (2017)
checklist for writing learning outcomes:
Have I focused on outcomes not processes? Have I focused on what the students are able to demonstrate
rather than on what I have done in my teaching?
Have I begun each outcome with an active verb?
Have I used only one active verb per learning outcome?
Have I avoided terms like, know, understand, learn, be familiar with, be exposed to, be acquainted with,
and be aware of?
Are my outcomes observable and measureable?
Am my outcomes capable of being assessed?
Have I included learning outcomes across the range of levels of Bloom’s taxonomy?
Do all the outcomes fit within the aims and content of the subject?
Is it realistic to achieve the learning outcomes within the time and resources available?
3. Skills
As a result of Bloom and his team feeling as though they lacked the expertise in
the field of coming up with physical skills involving coordination of the brain
and the muscular activity. It is also the field that is the least discussed within the
field of education. Though other researchers have suggested taxonomies that
describe the development of the skills taxonomy, the following is from Dave
(1970 as cited in Kennedy, 2007; Clark, 2015)
! Imitation: observing the behavior of another person and copying this

behavior.
• Copying a work of art.
• Key words: copy, follow, mimic, repeat, replicate, reproduce, trace.
! Manipulation: ability to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing skills.
• Being able to perform a skill individually after having a lesson or reading about it.
• Following instructions to do something.
• Key words: act, build, execute, perform.
! Precision: at this level, the student has the ability to carry out a task with few errors and become more
precise without the presence of the original source. The skill has been attained and proficiency is indicated
by smooth and accurate performance.
• Working and reworking something, so it will be just right.
• Perform a skill or task without assistance.
• Demonstrate a task to a beginner.
• Key words: calibrate, demonstrate, master, perfect.
! Articulation: ability to coordinate a series of actions by combining two or more skills. Patterns can be
modified to fit special requirements or solve a problem. Combining a series of skills to produce a vídeo that
involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
• Combining a series of skills or activities to meet a novel requirement.
• Key words: adapt, construct, combine, create, customize, modify, formulate.
!Naturalization: displays a high level of performance naturally («without thinking»). Skills are combined,
sequenced and performed consistently with ease.
• Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot.
• Operates a computer quickly and accurately.
• Displays competence while playing the piano.
• Michael Jordan playing basketball or Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball.
• Keywords: create, design, develop, invent, manage, naturally
 

4. Content
The cognitive domain is the content being taught

within the classroom. These are the topics,
vocabulary words, grammatical structures, texts
and listening/reading/written/oral productions
expected to be produced by the students. The
following are different types of examples to use
with the different knowledge taxonomies
(Kennedy, 2007).
! Examples with knowledge:

- Recall transportation terminology: Bus, lorry, car, boat, ship, cruise, metro, subway, train, bike, car and
plane.
- Describe how and why it is important to reduce, reuse, recycle.
- List the parts of an informative speech.
- Define the parts of a body paragraph; topic sentence, context, quote, analysis and concluding statement.
! Examples with comprehension:
- Differentiate between past simple and past continuous.
- Identify nouns in sentences: Person, place or thing.
- Explain why Queen Elizabeth I never married.
- Classify types of texts into fiction or non-fiction.
! Examples with application:
- Construct a timeline of significant events during Queen Elizabeth I and Mary Queen of Scots reigns.
- Give an example of the first conditional in a sentence.
- Paraphrase the main point of the paragraph.
- Use one of Shakespeare’s insults in a sentence.
! Examples with analyze:
- Compare and contrast Queen Elizabeth I to Mary Queen of Scots.
- Diagram the differences between graffiti and vandalism.
- Link the movie «The Lion King» to Shakespeare’s «Hamlet.»
- Break down the water cycle.
! Examples with evaluate:
- Debate whether graffiti is vandalism or art.
- Review the movie «Remember the Titans» for historical context of the Civil Rights movement.
- Assess a classmate’s project/essay/assignment with a rubric.
! Examples with create:Write a 5-paragraph comparative essay between the Elizabethan Era and the 21st
century.
- Create a board game with the grammatical structures learned (past simple, past continuous and used to).
- Develop a dance with actions for the prepositions (in, on, under, behind, in between, and above.)
- Design a recycling system for the classroom.
 

5. Attitude
Although the most famous of the three domains is
the taxonomy relating to knowledge. «Bloom and
his co-workers (1964), also carried out research on
the affective («attitudes», «feelings», «values»)
domain which is concerned with issues relating to
the emotional component of learning and ranges
from basic willingness to receive information to the
integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes»
(Kennedy, 2007).
The domain include five categories from the most

basic (receiving) to the most advanced
(characterization) here are how they are defined.
! Receiving: this refers to a willingness to

receive information.
• Accepts the need for a commitment to service.
• Listens to others with respect.
• Shows sensitivity to social problems.
! Responding: this refers to the individual actively participating in his or her own learning.
• Shows interest in the subject.
• Willing to give a presentation.
• Participates in class discussions.
• Enjoys helping others.
! Valuing: this ranges from simple acceptance of a value to one of commitment.
• Demonstrates belief in democratic processes.
• Appreciates the role of science in our everyday lives.
• Shows concern for the welfare of others.
• Shows sensitivity towards individual and cultural differences.
! Organization: this refers to the process that individuals go through as they bring together different
values, resolve conflicts among them and start to internalize the values.
• Recognize the need for balance between freedom and responsibility in a democracy.
• Accepts responsibility for his or her own behavior.
• Accepts professional ethical standards.
• Adapts behavior to a value system.
! Characterization: at this level the individual has a value system in terms of his/her beliefs, ideas and
attitudes that control their behavior in a consistent and predictable manner.
• Displays self-reliance in working independently.
• Displays a professional commitment to respecting others.
• Shows good personal, social and emotional adjustment.
• Maintains good healthy habits.
 
 

Test: Unit 6
Página 1 de 10 Curriculum and course design

UNIT 7: LEARNING AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Learning aims
4. Learning objectives
5. Bloom’s taxonomy
1. Objectives
further reflect upon the key ideas outlined within the unit, although it is not mandatory to complete the unit
test, at the end.
principles which are then outlined with examples in their application. It is vital that the student understands
them and their relationship to Bloom’s taxonomy and how to create their own for the activity included of the
unit.
- Students will differentiate learning aims, objectives and outcomes.

- Students will understand how the Spanish law establishes the learning aims.
- Students will compare learning objectives and outcomes.
- Students will analyze how knowledge, skills and attitudes are integrated into the
learning outcomes.
- Students will know how the lower-ordered and higher-ordered objectives are
divided.
- Students will evaluate how informal and formal education effect the curriculum.
2. Introduction
The learning aims, objectives and outcomes are different aspects of the curriculum. It is important for
educators to have a clear idea of how each of them play an integral role in the curriculum writing process. At
times curriculum developers may say these are static ideas that are written down, it is not true. These are
dynamic ideas and change over time depending on the background of the learners, their needs, the school’s
needs and national and regional laws. Some of them may have to change throughout the year depending on
the needs of the teacher and the students, no class nor year is the same.
Through the inspection of each of these concepts it is clear that there is an interconnectedness that is
undeniable, it can also make it complicated for educators to distinguish how to write them. This unit will go
through the different aspects of each and finally provide a way to apply Bloom’s taxonomy.
3. Learning aims
The learning aims provide a general idea of what the teacher and students expect or intend to do throughout
the course as well as an overview of general topics or ideas that will be considered. Learning aims are
general overall goals set out at the beginning of the year, but later may be modified. If aims are set out for
the course, it means that these aims are set by all of the teaching staff in the same year. These aims are
generic and transferable to all courses.
The structure of writing a learning aim includes an action verb and subject content reference (James).
The objectives for courses are set out by the Ministry of Education of Spain as well as by each autonomous
region. The following are examples of primary learning aims from the Community of Madrid
(Vicepresidencia, Consejería de Presidencia y Portavocía del Gobierno Comunidad de Madrid, 2019).
Learning aims are objectives set out for students to have acquired by the end of their stage. The action verb is
bolded and the subject of the content is in italics.
! Develop habits of individualism and team work, effort and responsibility in the study as well as
attitudes of self-confidence, critical sense, personal initiative, curiosity, interest and creativity in learning and
 

 
 

 
 

entrepreneurial spirit.
! Acquire, in at least one foreign language, the basic communicative competence that allows them to
express and understand simple messages and function in everyday situations.
! Initiate in the use of information and communication technologies, developing a critical spirit towards
the messages they receive and elaborate.
! Use different representations and artistic expressions and begin in the construction of visual and
audiovisual proposals.
! Value hygiene and health, know and respect the human body, and use physical education and sports as
means to promote personal and social development.
! Promote road education and respect for the rules to avoid traffic accidents.
The following are examples of secondary learning aims from the Ministry of Education (Boletín Ofical del
Estado, 2015). The action verb is bolded and the subject of the content is in italics.
! Develop and consolidate habits of discipline, study and individual work and in equipment as a necessary
condition for an effective completion of learning tasks and as a means of personal development.
! Develop basic skills in the use of information sources to, critically, acquire new knowledge. Acquire a
basic preparation in the field of technologies, especially those of information and communication.
!Understand and express correctly, orally and in writing, in the language Castilian and, if any, in the co-
official language of the Autonomous Community, texts and complex messages, and begin in the knowledge,
reading and study of literature.
!Understand and express in one or more foreign languages appropriately.
!Know and accept the functioning of one's own body and that of others; respect the differences,
strengthen bodily care and health habits and incorporate the physical education and the practice of sport to
favor personal and social development. Know and value the human dimension of sexuality in all its
diversity. Assess critically the social habits related to health, consumption, care of living beings and the
environment, contributing to their conservation and improvement.
!Appreciate artistic creation and understand the language of the different artistic manifestations, using
various means of expression and representation.
4. Learning objectives
The definition of what learning objectives are having been disputed, many have illustrated similar ideas but
never aligning exactly (Harden, 2002). The clearest definition provided by the Batchwood School (2019)
encapsulates how this course will refer to the term:
«A learning objective should describe what students should know or be able to do at the end of the [lesson
or] course that they couldn't do before.»
The educator should identify lesson objectives as the measurable stages a learner goes through to achieve the
overall course objectives. The objectives reflect a final outcome the students should be able to do. Five
differences are highlighted which have practical implications for the curriculum developer, the teacher and
the student relate to (Harden, 2002):
! The detail of specification.

! The level of specification where the emphasis is placed.
! The classification adopted and interrelationships.

! The intent or observable result.
! The ownership of the outcomes.
 
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Before writing objectives it is important to keep in mind that objectives should be (Batchwood School,
2019):
The objectives must be clear to students
The students must know what they are learning and why they are learning. They should have a vision not
only of the short term end goals of the lesson but also of the bigger picture, what the objectives are for the
course as a whole. With this being said course objectives will not change throughout the year, though lesson
objectives can be shown on the board during the lesson so students have an idea of what they should be able
to achieve. Students should understand what the lesson objectives are and should be able to communicate
them to an outsider.
The objectives and outcomes must be differentiated for the individual student
Although all learners may be working on the same objective the means of how they achieve the objective can
vary depending on the needs of the student. Differentiated learning allows all students to access the objective
with the measures put in place for their specific learning needs.
The success criteria for achieving the outcomes need to be negotiated with the students for optimum
engagement to enable them to be clear about what it will look like and feel like and sound like when they
have made that progress.
Students should have a model of their lesson objectives so they are able to understand and see what is
expected of them. Objectives should be clear an in language they will understand.
When planning out objectives a teacher should consider what the students should be able to do after they
have learned what has been taught. «Learning objective are statements of what students should be able to do
if they have acquired the knowledge and skills the course is supposed to teach them. A learning objective
takes one of the two following forms» (Harden, 2002):
! At the end of this [course, topic, chapter, lecture], the student should be able to...
! To do well on the next test, you should be able to...
Prior to planning activities or tasks it is important to consider what the end goal of the task or activity is. It is
essential that a learning objective no include phrases such as «to know» or «to understand» but use active
verbs that explicit state how the students can manipulate the content, use a skill or respond to attitudinally.
The verbs should be measurable.
Beginning your planning with the learning objectives will also help you ensure that your tasks and activities
are appropriate and will help your students achieve their objectives. A learning objective must not include the
phrases «to know» or «to understand» but instead active verbs such as «state», «explain», «outline», «list» or
«describe». Avoid using verbs that are difficult to measure objectively.
«The action verbs in a learning objective must refer to observable actions— things an instructor could in
principle watch the students doing. The words in the illustrative objectives just given meet this criterion, but
words like learn, know, understand, and appreciate do not. You can’t watch someone understanding or
appreciating something. If you want to know whether students understand a concept you have attempted to
teach, you must ask them to do something observable that demonstrates their understanding. The things you
might ask them to do would be your learning objectives for that concept» (Felder & Brent, 2004).
Learning outcomes can be divided into the three areas of teaching, knowledge, skills and attitudes
(Batchwood School, 2019; Johnson, 1995). The following words can be defined as:
! Knowledge: the content (i.e. grammatical structures, vocabulary words).

! Skills: the student’s abilities (i.e. fluency, pronunciation).
! Attitudes: the student’s way of thinking or feeling about something/something (i.e. individualistic
versus group oriented, empathic or distant).
(i.e. individualistic versus group oriented, empathic or distant).

 
 


There is a saying that helps educators to remember how to write their outcomes, which says they should be
SMART (Effective Practitioner, 2019):
! Specific:
- Well defined learning outcomes and action play.

- Clear to anyone that is involved.
- Try and express it in positive terms.
! Measurable:
- Know if the learning outcome is obtainable and how far away completion is.
- Know when it has been achieved.
- Document and track progress.
! Agreed upon and achievable:
- Agreement with all the stakeholders what the learning outcomes should be.
- Prepare thoroughly and deal with any obstacles beforehand
! Realistic:
- Learning outcomes should be achievable within the availability of resources

knowledge and time.
- Set with enough challenge but not out of reach.

! Time-based.
- Enough time to achieve the learning outcome.

- Not too much time, which can affect performance.
- Set Time targets for the steps towards the final learning outcome.
- Build in time for the unexpected and monitor progress regularly.
The following are examples of different objectives and outcomes written for basic English (lower primary),
intermediate English (higher primary-lower secondary), upper intermediate English (secondary) and
advanced English (bachillerato). It is important to keep in mind the language level of each school and class,
when writing objectives and outcomes. No two school’s or classes are alike. Sometimes the adjustments may
occur throughout the year, it is contingent on the teacher and how the curriculum develops.
While reading through is important to consider the following questions which should be kept in mind when
writing instructional objectives and learning outcomes (Batchwood School, 2019):
! Does the learning objective reflect a step in achieving an overall lesson aim?
! Do your lesson activities ensure that students will achieve their objective and your overall aim? (This
would be when planning out the activities or the tasks the students will engage in as well as the
methodology.)
! Is the learning objective measurable?

 
 
 
! Is the learning objective student-centered? (This would be when planning out the activities or the tasks
the students will engage in as well as the methodology.)
! Have you used effective, action verb that targets the desired level of performance?
 

5. Bloom’s taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom along with other educators developed a hierarchal scheme to categorize educational
objectives. Their work was published in Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Book 1, Cognitive Domain.
Today, the taxonomy is commonly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy. It is «widely used by educators today
to formulate instructional objectives, categorize learning tasks, drive instruction and define
assessments» (Almerico & Baker, 2004).
The taxonomy is a tool for planning, implementing and assessing lesson plans. It gives educators a
framework to understand lower-ordered thinking skills versus higher- ordered thinking skills. There are six
divisions within the framework, from lowest to highest, know, comprehend, apply, analyze, synthesize and
evaluate. Within each level there are verbs which correspond to the skill.
«These verbs describe the types of responses the students are to exhibit as evidence of learning. They
represent samples of observable behaviors appropriate for each level of cognition and offer precision to the
description of learning targets. They can help teachers clarify their intended learning outcomes, provide a
basis for planning and set the stage for both teaching and assessment» (Almerico & Baker, 2004).
Bloom’s taxonomy is a tool for teachers to use when writing objectives. The various tasks and activities
teachers use within in the classroom correspond to a different skill within the taxonomy. «A system of
classifying learning objectives according to their required skill levels can help instructors make sure they are
teaching and testing at an appropriate level for their students» (Felder & Brent, 2004).


The University of Arkansas (2019) explains the usefulness of the taxonomy through four points:
«Before you can understand a concept, you must remember (know) it. To apply a concept, you must first
understand it.
In the updated version of Bloom’s taxonomy, the six taxonomies include, remember, understand, apply,
analyze, evaluate and create. To understand the action verbs and how they correlate to the taxonomy with an
example of the learning objective look at the figure below.

These examples should be taken into consideration in how knowledge can be organized from lower-ordered
to higher-ordered thinking. Something to consider is that students with a basic level can attain the highest
level of thinking it is a matter of the content they are working with and how the teacher has organized their
lesson, just as students with an advanced level may have to work on the first taxonomy. The taxonomy is not
a reflection of ability in a second language nor associated by age, these are concepts that can be taught to all
ages and ranges.
The following figure will outline how the different levels can utilize all of Bloom’s taxonomies while
teaching English as a second language. The courses are divided as they were above. Each are based on
writing skills, but it is important to keep in mind it up to the teacher how to divide the work and how each of
the skill sets (reading, writing, listening and speaking) can be incorporated into the objectives.


Test: Unit 7

UNIT 8: TASKS AND ACTIVITIES
1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Task-based learning
4. Practical application
5. Authentic activities
1. Objectives
In order to understand the unit, it is important that the students read through the mandatory content, listed in
the key ideas. Students may want to also look at the recommended material to further reflect upon the key
ideas outlined within the unit, although it is not mandatory to complete the unit test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read carefully through the following sections. There are advantages provided for
each theory as well as examples of how to apply them in the classroom. It is vital that the student
understands them and their relationship to the different aspects discussed in the course.
! Students will differentiate between task based learning and activity theory.
! Students will understand how the continuum of tasks to theory varies.
! Students will compare different lesson plans from lower English to upper intermediate.
! Students will analyze the different aspects included in activity theory.
! Students will know how each part of task based learning affects student learning.
! Students will evaluate advantages for task based and activity theory in the EFL classroom.
2. Introduction
Teaching English requires students to learn more than just grammar and vocabulary. For students to
internalize the language learning must be meaningful. Through the design of different activities and tasks
students can have a motivational, creative and interactive lesson which will stimulate their interest in
learning English.
Task based learning and activity theory are communicative tasks which emphasize a focus on meaning in
real-life situations (Littlewood, 2004). These theories provide creative and collaborative manners for students
to work together alongside their teachers to use the language in ways which maybe they normally would not.
This allows for students to participate in authentic communication, where they will use language to
communicate in situations where meanings are unpredictable through role-plays, problem solving and
discussions.
These activities are on the other extreme of

the scale in which non-communicative
learning occurs. This type of learning
focuses on form, the structure of language
and meanings of words. Students are asked
to do exercises, to find the one right
answer. The following table provides and
overview of the continuum from focus on
forms to focus on meaning (Littlewood,
2004).
 

 
 
 
 

 
3. Task-based learning
Task-based learning (TBL) has become a popular teaching practice in second/foreign language teaching. This
teaching practices allows for students to participate in a range of activities where the ultimate goal is using
the L2 to communicate. The versatility of TBL allows students to creatively achieve their goals while
acquiring new knowledge and using previous knowledge learner (Wang, Burton, & Falls, 2012). Not only
does the practice provide a variety of ways to implement it in the classroom but it is also attributed as being
flexible in design and learning environment, that is to say TBL can be used within or outside of the
classroom.
«Another characteristic of task-based learning is that the assessment of task performance does not focus on
grammar items but on whether learners have the ability to perform the actual task» (Long & Crookes
1992 as cited in Álvarez & Pérez-Cavana, 2015).
«TBL approach in English classes allows students to enhance them in the learning process and also improve
their language performance. For instance, involving real life activities make language significant and
students might learn a foreign language more spontaneously. The implementation of task based approach is
an innovative framework that is going to help a group of students to perform a given task, which is going to
become effectively in the development of their critical thinking and also language use.» (Arias Rodríguez,
Roberto Flórez, & Rivera Barreto, 2014).
TBL is beneficial in many aspects particularly because it is communication driven and implores learners to
use previously knowledge in new contexts. Advantages of its implementations in classrooms include (Ganta,
2015):
! Task based learning helps learners to interact spontaneously: it allows learners to use the content
they know freely, while trying to solve a problem. The emphasis is not on grammatical perfection if not
ability to communicate with one another.
! Automaticity: leaners use language without thinking about what they are doing, enabling more accurate
and stable performances. Since the emphasis of language using is placed on problem solving learners are not
focused on form, the use of language is for communication.
! Task based learning gives language learners an opportunity to learn vocabulary: the structure of
TBL requires learners to use all linguistic means to communicate their intentions, meaning even if they can’t
recall a specific word they find other ways to communicate their ideas. Learning vocabulary can occur
incidentally, as learners take part in cooperative group work. Teachers are encouraged to provide an
interactive glossary for learners to have on hand while engaging in the task, though it is up to the language
leaner to keep record of the new words learned.
! Provides essential conditions for language learning: TBL requires leaners to use language
purposefully and in cooperation. That is to say the environment of TBL creates spontaneous and authentic
communication between learners.
! Maximizes scope for communication: TBL allows learners to use their previous knowledge as well as
acquire new knowledge through purposeful communication. It also allows a space for learners to make
mistakes and try new communication strategies without being judged.
! Experimental learning: the learners’ active involvement is key to this approach, putting the leaners at
the forefront of their own learning. This allows learners to not only experiment with language but also
acquire other skills such as problem- solving, critical thinking and creativity.
In order to effectively implement TBL it is important that teacher considers a task where the students are
knowledge-constructing and working through the task communicatively. Fundamentals that are regarded in
TBL framework include (Williams, 2017):
! The primary focus should be on «meaning» (by which is meant that learners should be mainly
concerned with processing the semantic and pragmatic meaning of utterances).
! There should be some kind of «gap» (i.e. a need to convey information, to express an opinion or to infer
meaning).
! Learners should largely have to rely on their own resources (linguistic and non- linguistic) in order to
complete the activity.
! There is a clearly defined outcome other than the use of language (i.e. the language serves as the means
for achieving the outcome, not as an end in its own right).
 
 
 
The structural framework can be divided
into three sections, the pre-task, task and
post-task (Skehan, Task-based Instruction,
2003; Skehan, A Framework for the
Implementation of Task-based Instruction,
1996; Pools-m). The framework provides
the three stages, the procedures of what
should occur within the classroom, types
of actions the teacher or students should
participate in as well as examples of what
to incorporate such as materials, examples
or guidance.
On the other hand, there is a Willis lesson plan

framework which is helpful for the teacher to structure
TBL (Lackman). The framework reflects the task of
making suggestions of things a visitor can do in
Toronto.
 

The following section will provide task-based learning sample tasks and three outlines for various ages and
grades. The purpose of this section is to understand at the different levels how TBL can be adapted and
utilized within the classroom. All of the outlines provide (Nunan, 1991 as cited Álvarez & Pérez-Cavana,
2015):
! An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the second/foreign language.
! The introduction of authentic texts (teaching materials) into the learning situation.
! The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language, but also on the learning
process itself.
! An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning.
! An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
 
 

 
 


The following two lesson plans are a sample for TBL, all of the tasks are based on speaking and have a focus
on holiday celebrations. For the purposes of this unit it is important to see the evolution of how tasks can
escalate from a lower level to a higher level. It is fundamental teachers consider their resources and materials
prior to implementing TBL, as well as knowing and catering to their student’s needs.

5. Authentic activities
When learners are given a relevant real world task which requires them to problem solve, think critically and
collaborate with their peers, they are provided an authentic learning experience. Authentic learning is
normally based on real-world problems and projects that are relevant and interesting to the learner (Traxler,
2009 as cited in Wang, Burton, & Falls, 2012), such as using role-playing exercises, problem-based
activities, case studies, and participation in virtual communities of practice (Lombardi, 2007 as cited in
Wang, Burton, & Falls, 2012). In this respect, Herrington et al. (2003) as cited in (Ozverir, Osam, &
Herrington, 2017) describe authentic activities as those that:
! Real world relevance.
! Complex.
! Provide the opportunity for students to understand problems from different perspectives, using a variety
of resources.
! Opportunity to collaborate.
! Opportunity to reflect.
! Allows for various outcomes/results.
! Integrated with assessment.
! Open ended.
! Conducive to learning and communicating.
! Motivational.
Cultural activities
When teaching a second language it is important that learners are provided the opportunity to not only learn
the language but also the cultures in which the language stems from. Cultural based activities provide insight
to students about the customs, traditions and beliefs in which the target language stems from. It has been
highlighted there are advantages of cultural activities in the effectiveness of second language learning
(Doganay & Yergaliyeva, 2013):
! Bring a fruitful atmosphere where students learn four skills through sharing information,
discussing and interacting with each other
! Involve learners in the task-based activities where the goal is to set and students do their best.
! Bring real world context into the classroom, and enhance students' use of English in a flexible and
communicative way.
There are some considerations teacher should keep in mind when organizing cultural activities. For example,
it is important that the activities are varied, students can become easily bored if year after year they are
seeing the same holiday or tradition. Also, attention to the diversity in the class is important, teachers should
be conscious of the varying abilities to make sure that the learner needs are attended to. Finally, it is
important that the atmosphere is positive when students are engaging in a cultural activity. This will foster
not only their attitudes towards the in-class activity but also towards the cultural tradition itself.
The relationship between language and culture means students are not only exploring the value of the
language but the traditions, customs and values that are ingrained in it. Culture is ingrained in the language,
this relationship is important for students to explore, some of the benefits include (Doganay & Yergaliyeva,
2013):
! Motivational. In achieving high motivation, culture classes do have a great role because learners like
cultural based activities such as singing, dancing, role playing, discussing about and doing research on
countries and peoples, etc.
! Enables students to think about the culture in the language they are learning.
! Help learners relate the abstract sounds and forms of a language to real people and places (Chastain,
1971).
! The use of cultural based activities in language education increases learners’ not only curiosity about
and interest in target countries.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
- The object is the objective of the activity.

• The language learning activity relating to the example is shaped by its object, the collective
creation of a fundraising event.
- The subject are the individuals involved in the activity and how they may be arranged (i.e. groups, pairs).
• In the example the individual students and how the teams are distributed are the subject.
- The tools and artifacts are the materials, contents, and items needed to carry out the object.
• Tools influence subject interactions and change overtime with different experiences and
knowledge acquired. Tools are influenced by culture, and how subjects understand to interact
socially. Tools and artifacts included in this activity include: technologies, language, fundraising
and project management methods, authentic materials and guidelines.
«The top of the triangle diagram above (Subjects – Tools & Artifacts – Object) depicts the ‘visible
curriculum’ (Engeström 2008), used by students carrying out actions or chains of actions, including
languaging about the object of their activity, in response to the given task.» (Blin & Jalkanen, 2014)
! The community reflects all the subjects involved in the activity and the community they belong to (i.e.
grade level, school, and city).
• In the example the community refers individuals of the class or group,
teachers, and charity representatives, who may participate in the activity.
! The division of labor in the activity is the hierarchal structure of the activity and how the activity is
divided amongst the students participating.
• In the example the students organize the fundraising event, teacher’s guide
students, charity representatives advise students and teachers are ways in
which the activity is divided in labor.
• The division of labor is also structured by the division of power.
! Teachers assess the students.
! Students carry out the activity.
! Students have different roles within the activity.
! The rules are the conventions, guidelines and rules that regulate the activity.
• The rules governing the actions carried out by the students in the activity in the examples
include, class schedule, required assignments, expected mode of interaction, and expected behavior.
 

 

 

 
 

 
 
 
 
 

 
 
«The bottom part of the figure represents what Engeström calls the "hidden curriculum" (2008, p. 86),
mediated by the "deep social structure of the activity" (p. 90)» (Blin & Jalkanen, 2014).
Blin (2010 as cited in Blin & Jalkanen, 2014) proposes a model to help teachers structure an activity theory
model when considering it for classroom application.
 


The following two lesson plans are a sample of activity theory, the two sample lessons are based on creating
a magazine. For the purposes of this unit it is important to see the evolution of how tasks can escalate from a
lower level to a higher level. It is fundamental teachers consider their resources and materials prior to
implementing TBL, as well as knowing and catering to their student’s needs.


Gamification
Game based learning is a way to integrate academic material in a competitive game to promote learning.
Games include features such as goals, rules, time limits and incentive to participate. This type of learning
increases motivation, curiosity and motivation. Gamification:
! Modifies the mood within the classroom.
! Increases learners’ feeling of happiness.
! Provides breaks from learner’s fatigue.
! Increases motivation and improve attention; increases student’s engagements in
the classroom activities.
! Stimulates a goal oriented activity.
! Makes learning fun.
«Gamification provides lots of opportunities for both learners and teachers. To learn a foreign language these
kinds of activities foster learning, increase the pace of achieving learning outcome by participating learners
in the process actively. It also enables learners to feel in a relaxed and confident atmosphere in class and this
triggers social and communicative skills of learners that are very necessary while learning a foreign
language. That is why the activities prepared by the teacher should be evaluated and determined carefully.
Teachers should keep in their minds that these kinds of gamified activities should be arranged according to
the needs, level, personality, age, interest of the learners; otherwise these activities lose their meanings to
make the learners reach successful learning and have fun at the same time. When these characteristics and
contributions of games and gamified activities are taken into consideration, the pedagogical value of them
cannot be ignored» (Yürük, 2019).
Games such as Chalk board Acronym, Letter Scramble and Charades may be integrated in the classroom to
motivate learning.
Chalk board Acronym «is an ideal pedagogical tool for teaching young learners' vocabulary in this game
teacher write respective words vertically, on the board and then have students come up at a time, to write a
word starting with each letter of the vertical word. As far as this game is designed basically for young
learners, they learn this game very quickly and so do vocabulary» (Bavi, 2018).
«Letter scramble as another game is widely used as a learning tool. In this process of teaching vocabulary
through Letter scramble, teacher took a list of words that students have recently learned and then to write a
scramble version of each word on the board and then allowing students to unscramble the words on the paper
the first one to finish deciphering all the words wins» (Bavi, 2018).
«Charades is another game that is used in the teaching vocabulary class. In this process, the teacher Write
vocabulary words on individual index card and break the class into two teams and have one individual from
each team act out the same word. The team to correctly guess the word first scores a point» (Bavi, 2018).
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


Test: Unit 8

UNIT 9: LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Theory
4. Linguistic Competence in education
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections, firstly it will discuss the influence of
knowledge and language in the classroom, then the theory of how to plan for language competences and
lastly, an example provided from the European Union of a plan for linguistic functions in a subject area.
Throughout this unit students will:
! Students will differentiate linguistics and language.
! Students will understand how language and knowledge are dependent on each other.
! Students will compare the differences between specific and general academic language use.
! Students will analyze different types of learning systems which provide language.
! Students will know how to plan for language in the classroom.
! Students will evaluate how scaffolding can aid language planning.
! Students will evaluate how linguistic competences are planned for in a subject.
2. Introduction
Linguistics is the field in which language is learned about and studied. That is to say, researchers who
study language are within the field of Linguistics. Language is the system of creating and learning words,
and sentences.
Language is not used just to communicate with others, but it also is the vehicle in which information and
knowledge is transmitted and received. The connection between the two is significant in education, as
teachers are intending for their students to learn information through language. Through language students
and teachers are able to express knowledge through different paths such as (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier,
Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Representation: expounding and disseminating knowledge established independently of language.
! Mediation: verbalization, making it possible to go from one semiotic system to another.
! Interaction: allowing exchanges (discussion, debate, disputes) between the producers of knowledge
and between the producers and users of knowledge, which may lead to advances in knowledge.
! Creativity: because language can be a means of creating knowledge, the creation and writing of
knowledge thus being the two sides of one and the same process.
The various functions in which language can enable knowledge must be considered to the fullest extent to
make the most out of student learning. Language is essential to knowledge, which means it should be
considered in aspects of teaching and
learning, by the teacher and for the students. How knowledge is transmitted inside and outside of the
classroom should be considered when planning. Due to the vast variety of genres students may gain
knowledge through teachers must also consider knowledge genres such as (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier,
Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Genres internal to communities, where new knowledge is expounded and discussed.
! Genres for transmitting knowledge outside scientific communities through education (textbooks,
course books, summaries, etc.), with the necessary forms of didactic transposition.
! Genres used for dissemination or popularization: Magazines aimed at the general public,
encyclopedias etc.
 
 

 
 
 


Academic language
Although in language there are various functions within the educational word, language functions are quite
defined. It is also important to keep in mind the purposes of linguistics in academics are to focus the
language on specific language use. This language use is called «academic language use,» which is the
language used to succeed in subject learning as well as to have success after graduating from school (Beacco,
Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015). Features of academic language include, formal language,
long and complex sentences, use of abstract terms, impersonal statements, use of figurative expressions.
Some of the functions included in academic language include: communicate complex facts, context and
arguments, support higher-order thinking, establish coherence of ideas. The following table demonstrates the
differences between using subject-specific language versus general academic language. Below is an image
illustrating the different uses of academic language with a learning system (Time magazine) (Beacco,
Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

It is important that teachers are aware of the language competences involved in subject learning. The
following are the six dimensions teacher needs to plan and consider when teaching (Beacco, Fleming,
Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).
! Comprehending/understanding in-depth (the meaning of an utterance, a text, a problem).

• Processing and acquiring subject knowledge (through listening and reading activities) and in-depth
understanding of texts that deal with subject-matter issues.
! Communicating and negotiating knowledge.
• Negotiating the meaning of new knowledge items in relation to already existing ones.
! Reflecting on the acquisition process, the learning outcomes and their personal as well as social uses.
• Reflecting on how a new insight developed and was acquired.
! Applying knowledge to and within another context.
• Considering the validity and use of knowledge, applying it to other/new contexts.
! Participating in the socio-scientific world.
• Preparing for and participating in socio-scientific debates and the relevant discourse outside
school.
! Transferring generalizable knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• Questioning critically the meaning and scope of rules or conventions, generalizing the acquired
procedural knowledge and skills (as part of one’s general education)
Learning systems
Teachers need to be aware of the language demands they are placing on their students. This consideration
should include not only the language students will need to learn the content but also to interact with one
another as well as with the learning systems included within the school. Failure to support students in
attaining the language needed hinders the students in what they may learn through the learning experience
and process. Within the curriculum context it is important consider the different linguistic functions of the
learning systems included (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Education content and programs in school subjects: making explicit the specific linguistic norms and
competences which learners must master.
! Learning modalities: exposing learners to diversified learning situations in order to develop their
cognitive and linguist capacities.
! School textbooks: encouraging authors to ensure that such materials explicitly take account of the
linguistic dimensions of the different subjects.
! Processes of diagnosis and assessment: verifying at regular intervals and, in particular, between
different stages of education, the ability of learners to master those aspects of the language of schooling
required at different stages of education. Anticipating for each subject, the kinds of competences in the
language of schooling that will be required in assessments with a view to prepare the students for them.
! Provisions of appropriate forms of support: through scaffolding, extra text, miming, modeling or any
other way to help the student.
! Increased awareness of the role that can be played by all the diversified linguistic resources available to
learnings: Facilitating their access to knowledge.
As a result of all the learning systems included in a curriculum it is important to note that there needs to be
coherence from the European Union policies to the classroom. There should be linguistic considerations
made by all parties involved in the creation of education materials, and/or learning experiences. That is to
say, not only should the government be held accountable for linguistic provisions in the classroom but
teachers and even authors of materials as well.

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 
 
 

 
 

 

 

The following provides a list of the considerations to be made for the linguistic functions within the
classroom, who it implicates and how it affects student’s learning (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, &
Vollmer, 2015):
! Teaching materials: authors and publishers should be made aware of the need to bring out the language
dimension as subject-matter for learning.
! Teacher training: initial training should include provision for awareness-raising concerning language, in
a specific way for each discipline or in the form of interdisciplinary training schemes bringing out the
collective responsibility of the teaching team for ensuring everyone’s educational success.
! The production: by educational bodies enjoying national or regional recognition, and the circulation
among teachers, of documents establishing a link between teaching practices and the support required for
mastery of the language dimension. The idea is not to place an additional burden on teachers but, on the
contrary, to facilitate their teaching work.
! Subject-based assessments: particular attention should be focused on the importance of drawing the
implications from the links between subject-specific knowledge and mastery of the language dimension. The
designers of both formative and summative assessments should consider and take due account of the
linguistic knowledge and skills necessitated by the tasks set. Teachers should be able to prepare learners for
this aspect of tests.
3. Theory
For the purposes of linguistics and knowledge in the classroom it is important that the teacher establish the
lines of language which will be used. This includes determining all types of linguistic aspects which may
occur in class, from the interactions between students (student talk) and, also, the types of language use
which occur with the content.
First of all, it is important to specify within the subject the overall considerations for language within the
classroom. This provides the teacher will an overall picture of what will occur within the classroom during
the lesson/unit/module (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Specify the subject, language of transmission and content.
• What will the students be learning about overall? What subject will this be taught in? What
language?
! Assign precise scientific goals to oral interaction in the classroom.
• How will the students need to use language? To interact with their classmates? To learn new
knowledge?
! Catalogue the other discourse genres present in teaching.
• Specify their uses (comprehension, production, rewriting etc.)
• Will different language be needed for writing? Understanding/listening? Or
rewriting?
! Describe as clearly as possible the form of the oral and written texts expected from learners.
• What language will the learners need to identify/produce/rewrite/listen/read as written/oral/both.
! Differentiate texts used for the appropriation of knowledge from those used for the assessment of the
results of learning: they are not necessarily identical or drawn up in the same way.
• Texts for assessment should be accessible language for the leaners, with a structure they can guide
themselves through.
• Texts for the appropriation of knowledge should be accessible language for leaners with guidance
from the teacher, peers or themselves depending on the learning experience.
! Consider above all the relevance of these texts to the learning goals in the particular subject: What is the
relevance to learning of writing and memorizing summaries of chapters in the textbook?
• Consider what is the end goal of the learning experience?

 
 

 
 
 

Student talk
Secondly, once having outlined the lesson and the various uses of language, teachers should consider how
students interactions amongst themselves. This will provide a picture of how student talk can affect the
learning environment. Planning for the types of language/discourse that will occur in the classroom will
allow the teacher to guide the students in acquiring and utilizing the proper linguistic functions. The various
types of student talk include (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Socio-cultural talk. This discourse is distinguished from other ones because of the topic under
discussion. Student’s talk together about almost everything that has nothing to do with educational tasks:
family, friends, weekends, etc.
• The objective of such talk is to establish or maintain social relationships.
Sometimes such relationships are a basis for more education-related talk. There might be some learning that
can be characterized as incidental, but it is not learning that is directly related to educational objectives.
! Procedural talk. Students talk about how to carry out the assignment set for their work. Sometimes
there is some learning that might lead to procedural knowledge: How to do things, especially when they
argue for possible actions, proposing solutions. They learn about setting up experiments, carrying out
inquiries.
! Instrumental talk. Student’s talk is mainly directed towards fulfilling their task as efficiently as
possible (usually as quickly as possible). The question in the assignment e.g. needs an answer. So e.g.
students note an answer, even if they doubt if it is the correct answer, because the teacher expects and the
task requires an answer.
! Disputation talk. Students disagree, draw their own conclusions, and make their own individual
decisions. There is little or no co-operation. Tensions or even conflicts between students appear to be
counter-productive for their learning.
! Cumulative talk. Students build positively but uncritically on what the other one has said, there is no
construction, only accumulation of information.
! Pedagogical talk. Students take over the role of the teacher, explaining the topic, the content and the
task to each other. The «student teacher» as well as the students may learn from this talk. The student teacher
because he/she has to explain, to demonstrate, in short he/she is productively dealing with the content of the
lessons: verbalization can lead to elaboration of cognitive processes, to reflection, awareness, expansion of
knowledge. The other students may learn because of the individually directed explanation.
! Exploratory talk. Students discuss and argue about some school subject related topic, using or
exploring subject specific concepts. They explain these to each other, supply information, identifying
problems and applications. They discuss and evaluate information and interpretations, generate ideas,
suggest hypotheses, develop criteria. They listen and try to understand by asking and answering questions.
Possible tensions or even conflicts between learners appear to be productive for their learning.
Now, when planning for content and lines of language within the classroom. Teachers must consider that the
«academic language» should be broken down and categorized into different functions to reveal types of
language the students may be asked to do. For example, there is a difference between having students work
with oral versus written production. This first differentiation will indicate the type of language the teacher
needs to prepare for.
Next, teachers need to identify the «genre» the students will be working with. This is listed in the
introduction as how knowledge and language can function together, through expounding and discussing
knowledge (internal communities), transmitting knowledge (outside scientific communities through
education, e.g., textbooks), disseminating or popularizing knowledge (information for the general public).
Once the genre of knowledge that the students will be working with has been
established, it is important to consider the material as a whole. «Language may be considered at word level
(e.g. spelling and vocabulary) or sentence level (e.g. grammar and punctuation) but it is when it is considered
as a text that notions like context, meaning, purpose and deep understanding come more into play» (Beacco,
Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015). When teachers are intending on teaching not just language but content as well
it is fundamental to plan for the type of discourse (the purpose of the text) to establish the relationship
between the content and the language.
 
 

 
 
 

Consider the following of how to establish the lines of language within the classroom content and subject. It
is important to decide the type of language (Theoretical/general versus practical/specific) that is needed
within the learning context. Also to consider the type of activity (classify, apply principles, evaluate,
describe, sequence or choose) the students will be engaging in, to set out the language they will need to learn
with the content (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015).
 
Scaffolding
Due to the fact that students are learning content or even an L2 as a subject, it is important that students are
supported in their learning. In order for students to progress towards a more proficient language students
must be provided a variety of instructional and support techniques (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, &
Vollmer, 2015). These strategies are implemented and then slowly taken away from the student as they
progress in their learning. The idea behind scaffolding comes from Lev Vygotsky, whose tenets of learning
can be summarized as (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Learning precedes development.

! Language is the main vehicle (tool) of thought.
! Mediation is central to learning.
! Social interaction is the basis of learning and development. Learning is a process of apprenticeship and
internalization in which skills and knowledge are transformed from the social into the cognitive plane.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the primary activity space in which learning occurs.
The following techniques are included as ways of scaffolding language in the classroom (Beacco, Fleming,
Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):
! Explaining a new concept through a concept map.

! Making deliberate comparisons with a first / another language and culture.
! Focusing on particular words to develop a meta-language.
! Providing and explicating fruitful examples asking students to notice particular aspects/features of
language use.
! Highlighting language patterns for specific cognitive-linguistic functions (e.g. define, describe, explain,
evaluate, argue...).
! Providing textual models (genres) for oral or written content-based communication.
! Using questions to probe students’ conceptions and prompt them to describe their interpretations and
challenge their opinions using various ways of representing ideas and concepts (e.g. visuals, diagrams,
organizers, highlighting, various media and technologies).
! Giving feedback that relates to improving subject literacy.
The following charts demonstrate how scaffolding language features could be implemented for an
information report from upper primary to secondary. First included is the cycle of how the lesson is carried
out with scaffolding and following is the chart to understand the type of information that is scaffolded for
learners to produce the text necessary (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

4. Linguistic Competence in Education
Each subject must explicitly outline the linguistic components of the subject and learning, so the students
know what level is required to master.
«The Council of Europe has

provided [a] case study in
order to illustrate the
procedures necessary for the
identification and description
of the linguistic dimensions in
one particular subject. [They
are] characterized by the same
five-step procedure,
exemplified here for science
(in the procedure below
'science' can be replaced by
any subject)». (Beacco,
Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann,
& Vollmer, 2015).

Infant education
For those teachers in infant education language learning is central to students’ education. At this stage
students are developing their vocabulary, ability to understand, beginning to learn to write and learning how
to interact with one another. The following sets out general objectives for linguistic competences in infant
education (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

Test: Unit 9
UNIT 10: ASSESSMENT

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Principles
4. Formal assessment and evaluation
5. Informal assessment
1. Objectives
test, at the end.
To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections. Although this is the last unit in the
course, this unit provides not only theoretical information about assessment but also practical application for
teachers to use within their classrooms. While reading through the material always keep in mind the context
of the school (National, Regional, School...) implications for imparting assessment and evaluation within the
classroom. By the end of the unit the students will be able to:
- Students will differentiate between assessment and evaluation.
- Students will compare diagnostic, formative and summative assessment.
- Students will know the purpose for the three forms of assessment.
- Students will evaluate the implications for the three forms of assessment.
- Students will analyze the application of the three forms of assessment.
- Students will understand how informal and formal assessment overlap.
2. Introduction
Evaluation, assessment, exams, tests, projects, portfolios, the list goes on and on, one of the most debated
issues is student assessment and evaluation in the education system. This controversial topic tends to be in
the spotlight when educational reforms are applied by new parties controlling the government. As teachers it
can be very distressing and sometimes even confusing. The laws state one idea, but the reality of the
classroom is a whole other story.
The importance of assessment cannot be denied, although frustrating, particularly when teaching a subject
such as English as a foreign language (EFL), which is not content students can just regurgitate on an exam.
EFL works on various skills and competences through content teaching, making it difficult to determine the
proficiency of a student seeing as their skills and competences will continually change over the course of a
year. For the purposes of formal and informal education it is important to provide students, parents and
administrators a like with feedback on how the student is progressing in their language development and
learning.
Thus it is important to have a clear understanding of the difference between evaluation and assessment, the
implications of the law and transversal elements, and finally the various forms of assessment (formal and
informal). This overview will enable teachers to have a clear idea of the expectations when enacting
assessment or evaluations in class and the information they provide. On a final note, it is important to also
discuss assessment and evaluation policies within the school, each school may have requirements within the
language departments of how it must be enacted and how often. These questions are specific to each center
and, generally, are key in the final decisions made on implementation.
3. Principles
Assessment versus evaluation
The words assessment and evaluation seem as though they could be synonyms for one another. Though there
is a difference in the educational world of how the terms are used.
Assessment means for teachers to gather, summarize and interpret results to decide which learning
strategies should be implemented to enhance the learning experience (University of Nebraska at Lincoln,
2019). Assessment can be understood through the content (cognitive), skills (psychomotor) and attitude
(affective) learning that is set out at the beginning of each unit/module. Assessment can be both subjective
(self- peer- group- assessment) and objective (diagnostic test) (University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 2019).
Finally, it can also, be structured formally or informally depending on the needs of the teacher, informal
assessment may be asking a student in the middle of a lesson, whereas formal assessment may be through a
writing or interview.
Evaluation on the other hand, is when teachers gather, summarize and interpret results to demonstrate the
student’s mastery and capability of the content as well as to judge the effectiveness of the teaching
strategies (University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 2019). Teachers use evaluations to determine students
understanding of the content, skills and attitudes acquired in the learning. This is always a formal
process. It generally occurs in intervals, such as midterm term exams and final exams. The criteria for the
evaluation is set out and explained to the students so the students know what to expect and what criteria is
going to be evaluated when being evaluated. The information provided from evaluation gives the teacher
valuable feedback to discuss with the student in their learning process (University of Nebraska at Lincoln,
2019).
«The difference between assessment and evaluation lies within the intent of use. Choose assessment when
you wish to determine educational strategies. Use evaluation when you want to understand your students’
performance.» (University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 2019).
4. Formal assessment & evaluation
Formal assessment or evaluation can be regarded as what is done in formal education, from primary school
to higher education. This type of assessment/evaluation is what allows students to graduate to the next course
or type of education. This type of assessment/evaluation involves (School of Education and Social Work):
- The use of specific assessment/evaluation strategies to determine the degree to which students have
achieved the learning outcomes.
- Strategies including essays, exams, reports, projects, presentations, performances, laboratories or

workshops, resource development, artwork, creative design tasks, quizzes and tests, journal writing,
portfolio, etc.
- Individual and/or collaborative tasks that usually attract a mark.

• Group work may include both an individual and group component.
When implementing assessment/evaluation there are

multiple factors that need to be considered, although
they are not limited to this list, these are the most
important to highlight (Çelik & Türkan).

There are three types of assessment which will be discussed in regard to formal assessment: Diagnostic,
summative and formative. For teachers that do not work in a formal educational context, it is important they
also implement the various types of assessment to their learners to help them progress in their language
learning.
«When the cook tastes the soup, that’s formative assessment; when the customer tastes the soup, that’s
summative assessment.» Paul Black.
Diagnostic
At the beginning of the year, generally, teachers use a variety of tasks that can be used to determine
students’ level of «knowledge, skills, and understandings at the beginning of a course, grade level, unit
and/or lesson» (Types of Assessments). These types of tasks are done to test students on what they already
know and allow for teachers to make adjustments to the intended curriculum to meet the needs of the
students (Types of Assessments; Çelik & Türkan; School of Education and Social Work).
Diagnostic assessment is done for (Types of Assessments; School of Education and Social Work):
- Build on student strengths

- Clarify misconceptions.
- Adjust the curriculum to meet the needs of the students.
- Introduce new or unknown concepts.
- Establish a starting point.
The purposes for diagnostic assessment include evidence such as (Types of Assessments):
• Teachers are able to identify individual and class strengths and weaknesses.
• Teachers can identify and correct misconceptions.
• Teachers can explain how classroom instruction has been adapted to meet the needs of the students.
Examples of diagnostic assessment include but are not limited to (Types of Assessments):
- Initial writing prompts.

- KWL charts (Know – Want to Learn – Learned).
- Running Records.
- Informal Reading Assessments.
- Pre-tests.
- Surveys.
- Journals.
Summative
Summative assessment/evaluation is done to determine if the learning objectives set out at the beginning
of a unit/semester/end of the course/project/year have been achieved (Çelik & Türkan; School of Education
and Social Work). These are formal measurements of the level of achievement of learning. The information
provided in summative assessment/evaluation is used to assign a grade to the individual student. This is
generally done as a concluding point in the course.
Summative assessment is done for (Types of Assessments; School of Education and Social Work):
- Teachers can state their grade level and classroom areas of focus for meeting student academic needs.
- Administrators can state the instructional focus for each grade level and the
school.
- Administrators and teachers can communicate the strengths and weaknesses identified in assessment
data for their school, grade level, and classroom.
- Teachers can state which students need additional instruction in specific competences.
The purposes for summative assessment/evaluation include evidence such as (Types of Assessments):
• Teachers are able to identify individual and class strengths and weaknesses.
• Teachers can identify and correct misconceptions.
• Teachers can explain how classroom instruction has been adapted to meet the
needs of the students.
Examples of summative assessment/evaluation include but are not limited to (Types of Assessments; Center
for Educational Research and Innovation, 2008):
• Final exams.
• End of unit tests.
• Culminating projects.
• Portfolios.
• National/Regional exams at the end of a particular stage.
• Exams to enter into Universities.
• Teacher-designed quizzes and tests: Multiple choice true/false, short answer, matching, fill-in-the-blank,
short essay/response.
• Writing
 
 
 

• Technical creations for audiences. Spreadsheet, computer program, consumer product, scientific
instrument, machine, Blueprint, PowerPoint/slide show, podcast, website page, music cd compilation,
collage, drawing/painting, YouTube channel, class blog, Tumblr site, map vídeo/PSA, photo album, oral
history, sculpture, scrapbook, class Facebook page, graphic design.
• Interviews and Conferences.
• Portfolios.
• Self and Peer evaluations. Project evaluation (of self and others), unit evaluation, daily reflection.
• Learning Logs. Lists/notes from outside readings, reflective lesson logs, homework assignments,
questions/response from lecture, problem-solving entries, science observations.
• Journals: Quote of the day response, personal experience reflection, literary responses, event descriptions/
analysis, connection making between subjects or topics.
• Kinesthetic
• Dance routine, exercise/aerobic routine, TV commercial, community tour.
Formative
Formative assessment takes places in the day-to-day learning experiences the students participate in, it is
generally informal and occurs throughout the entire year. Although it occurs throughout the year, the
teachers must choose stopping points to reflect on the information gathered to readjust methods and
strategies in the classroom. It can be done through observing student’s behaviors during class activities and
providing immediate and meaningful feedback to the students (School of Education and Social Work).
Furthermore, «is often employed by teachers in their practice in order to make decisions about the direction
of their teaching[,] by monitoring their students’ understanding of the material, rate of progress, and so on,
teachers can adjust their teaching to suit their learners’ needs while the learning is still taking place» (Çelik &
Türkan).
Formative assessment/evaluation is done for (Types of Assessments; School of Education and Social Work;
Center for Educational Research and Innovation, 2008);
- Monitor student progress.

- Adjust instruction to maximize student achievement.
- Provide effective and timely feedback.
- Reveal students who need remediation.
- Predict performance on summative assessments.
- Placing emphasis on the process of teaching and learning, and actively involving
students in that process.
- Building students’ skills for peer- and self-assessment.

- Helping students understand their own learning, and develop appropriate
strategies for «learning to learn».
The purposes for formative assessment/evaluation include evidence such as (Types of Assessments):
- Teacher can state the types of formative assessments used regularly to gauge student progress.
- Teacher can explain how they have revised instruction based on assessment results.
- Teacher provides feedback to students.
- Teacher can show examples of revised student work.
- Teacher can describe student strengths and next steps.
Examples of formative assessment/evaluation include but are not limited to (Types of Assessments):
- Student self-assessments.
- Written Responses.
- Exit Tickets.
- Questioning.
- Conferencing.
- Observations.
- Rubrics.
The following table is included with 54 different examples of formative assessment. This is quite useful to
have a bank of examples of formative assessment to implement in the classroom.

5. Informal assessment
Informal assessment is done through «systematically observing and monitoring students during in class
learning and teaching experiences» (School of Education and Social Work). This can be done by interacting
with the students, circulating the classroom, providing opportunities for students to demonstrate their
knowledge in the learning process all the while collecting information about the student’s progress. This
information should be analyzed and then be used to provide feedback for the students.
It is important for teachers who are not in the formal educational context to realize that their assessment is
just as valuable as those that are. The assessments can vary in type and timing, bearing in mind it should suit
the needs of the students being taught. It’s recommended to look at the various types of formative assessment
and apply them within the informal learning contexts.

Test: Unit 10

Temas Curriculum

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Página 1 de 12 Curriculum and Course Design

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM

· Students will differentiate curriculum, syllabus and lesson plan.

Página 2 de 12 Curriculum and Course Design

! The objective of the program, its educational purpose.

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Common European Framework for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment

!Identify the needs of the students.

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4.1 Curriculum Design.

4.2 Determining Aims.

4.3 Program Preparation

4.4 Classroom Implementation.

Página 9 de 12 Curriculum and Course Design

4.5 Evaluating Processes/Products/Content.

5. Globalization, knowledge and curriculum

Knowledge: Depth and breadth.

Página 10 de 12 Curriculum and Course Design

! It is institutionalized, established in the public domain to promote education.

Informal learning occurs outside of the

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Página 1 de 10 Curriculum and Course Design

UNIT 2: KEY COMPONENTS

· Students will differentiate the essential components of a curriculum.

Página 3 de 10 Curriculum and Course Design

4. Common European Framework for Reference for Languages Policy

These considerations imply that (Council of Europe, 2001):

Página 4 de 10 Curriculum and Course Design

Página 5 de 10 Curriculum and Course Design

! Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL).

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

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CLIL in the classroom

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Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

• Language should be authentic and with an emphasis on meaning.

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(Graves & Garton, 2017).

• An ideational function to describe experience and express ideas.

RECOUNT: To retell events in order to inform.

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INFORMATION REPORT: To describe the way things are.

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UNIT 3: CREATING MATERIALS

· Students will differentiate between curriculum, syllabus and lesson plan.

Secondary Education Laws

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- Curricular and organizational measures of individualized attention.

Primary Education Laws

! Receptively is through listening or reading.

! Productively is through speaking or writing.

! Interaction is using both skills together, reading-writing or listening-speaking.

! General competences, which intervene when performing actions of all kind.

• Knowledge, facts, concepts, principles, rules, etc. (declarative knowledge).

• Skills, procedures and strategies (procedural knowledge: knowing how to use

• Attitudes and values (existential competence, individual characteristics, personality, etc.).

• Ability to learn (learning to learn).

! Communicative language competences empower a person to act using linguistic means.

Writing the curriculum

Página 4 de 11 Curriculum and Course Design

• Understanding keywords, phrases and brief oral message information.

• Use of simple sentences to exchange and obtain information.