J Forensic Sci, March 2016, Vol. 61, No.

2
doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.12959
TECHNICAL NOTE Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com

ANTHROPOLOGY

Jasmine Kaur Dhall,1 Ph.D.; and Anup Kumar Kapoor,1 Ph.D.

Fingerprint Ridge Density as a Potential

Forensic Anthropological Tool for Sex
Identification*

ABSTRACT: In cases of partial or poor print recovery and lack of database/suspect print, fingerprint evidence is generally neglected. In light
of such constraints, this study was designed to examine whether ridge density can aid in narrowing down the investigation for sex identifica-
tion. The study was conducted on the right-hand index digit of 245 males and 246 females belonging to the Punjabis of Delhi region. Five
ridge density count areas, namely upper radial, radial, ulnar, upper ulnar, and proximal, were selected and designated. Probability of sex origin
was calculated, and stepwise discriminant function analysis was performed to determine the discriminating ability of the selected areas. Females
were observed with a significantly higher ridge density than males in all the five areas. Discriminant function analysis and logistic regression
exhibited 96.8% and 97.4% accuracy, respectively, in sex identification. Hence, fingerprint ridge density is a potential tool for sex identifica-
tion, even from partial prints.

KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic anthropology, fingerprints, dactyloscopy, ridge density, sex identification

Ever since the first usage in the third century BC, fingerprints
have been a promising branch of forensic science and anthropol-
ogy. Fingerprint dermatoglyphic traits have been extensively
used in anthropology, genetics, and evolutionary studies (1).
However, some features such as fingerprint ridge density still
carry untapped potential. Recovery of partial prints and the lack
of suspect print or database are the two major limitations of fin-
gerprint investigations. In such cases, sex identification can be
the most crucial link to narrow down the investigation. Further-
more, sexual dimorphism in fingerprints has been of key interest
to the researchers. In a study among the Chuvashian population
of Russia, males were reported with higher total ridge count
(TRC) and absolute finger ridge counts (AFRC) than females,
for both the hands (2). Similarly, the quantitative value of der-
matoglyphic patterns in the Spanish population is lower in males
than in females (3). Variations have also been reported in the
minutiae frequencies of males and females (4).
Only few studies have focused on fingerprint ridge density so
far. These studies presented probability findings of the ridge
density values and significant difference in the ridge density of
males and females among various population groups, namely
Spanish (5), Argentinian (6), North Indian (7), South Indian (8),
Chinese (9), Caucasian and African Americans (10).
However, no study has provided the practical utilization of
ridge density for sex identification. Sex identification from ridge
density would give crucial information in forensic investigations
1 radial, radial, ulnar, upper ulnar, and proximal, were selected
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
*Funded by the University Grants Commission by providing the research
fellow grant to the main author.
Received 1 Sept. 2014; and in revised form 9 Mar. 2015; accepted 28
Mar. 2015.
even in cases of partial print recovery and lack of database/sus-
pect prints. This study investigates fingerprint ridge density in
the Punjabi (Khatri & Arora) population of the Delhi region.
The study explains the relation between sex and ridge density of
five selected count areas of the dactylogram. Furthermore, the
present research communication provides a general equation for
sex identification from ridge density.
Methods
Prior ethical clearance from the Department Ethical Commit-
tee was obtained to conduct the research. Informed written con-
sent from the subjects participating in the study was obtained
prior to the actual commencement of the study. The study was
conducted among unrelated and randomly selected 491 subjects,
comprising of 245 males and 246 females of the Punjabi Khatri
and Arora population groups in the northern Indian territory of
Delhi region. The age-group of the selected subjects varied
between 18 and 65 years. Exclusion criteria were defined as
subjects belonging to the non-Punjabi (Khatri and Arora) ethnic-
ity, subjects with disease or injury in the dermis, as evident
from the fingertips. Subjects were encouraged to clean and dry
their hands and digits properly before depositing the prints. The
right index digit prints were collected, using the standard
method of inking and rolling the digits (11). Complete pattern
area of the distal phalanx of the index digit was recorded.
Dactyloscopic examination was conducted using the 69 magni-
fication hand lens. Five ridge density count areas, namely upper
and designated. Each area was a square of 25 mm2. Radial/core
radial, ulnar/core ulnar, and proximal areas were selected fol-
lowing the standardized procedure (5). Upper radial and upper
ulnar areas (10) were selected such that they touch the extreme

424 © 2015 American Academy of Forensic Sciences

 DHALL AND KAPOOR . FINGERPRINT RIDGE DENSITY 425

ridge of the dactylogram. Figure 1 represents the five ridge den-

sity areas studied in the present research. For each subject, ridge
density was determined for all the five areas of the right index
digit. In each square, ridge density was determined by making a
diagonal across the ridge flow (10). The number of ridges cut-
ting the diagonal was accounted (endpoints included). The data
were analyzed using SPSS version 16.0 for Windows, SPSS
Inc., Chicago, IL. The significance level was tested at minimum
95% level. Descriptive statistics of the ridge density values were
presented, and comparison between males and females was
evaluated with t-test analysis. Probability of sex origin was cal-
culated from the known ridge density for males and females
using cross-tabulation and the law of total probability (Eq. 1) as
Results
The frequency distribution of the ridge density values in vari-
ous areas is presented in Figs 2–6. It was observed that the ridge
density varies within a range of 8–22 ridges/25 mm2 in the
study population. It further showed that males tend to possess a
lower ridge density than the females. No male was reported with
a ridge density higher than 19, and no female demonstrated a
ridge density lower than 10. Table 1 shows the descriptive
90
80

follows: 70
60

Frequency
PðAÞ ¼ PðBÞ; then PðAÞ 50
X ð1Þ 40
¼ ðA \ Bn Þ; Bn : n ¼ 1; 2; 3. . .A Finite Number Males
30
Females
20
Stepwise discriminant function analysis was performed to 10
determine the discriminating ability of the ridge density areas.
0
Wilks’ lambda method was used for the stepwise analysis. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Wilks’ lambda method provides the F statistic as discriminant
Ridge Density (Number of ridges/ 25mm2)
criteria, with higher values giving better discrimination (Wilks’
lambda= unexplained variance/total variance and minimum F
value was set at F = 3.84 for variables to enter the equation FIG. 2––Sex-wise frequency distribution of upper radial ridge density
and a maximum at F = 2.71 for variables to be removed, repre- among the study group.
senting significance levels of 0.05 and 0.1, respectively). Logis-
tic regression analysis was performed to attain a predicting
equation for sex estimation from the ridge density. The model 120

was evaluated at 0.5 limit value which explained that the values 100
<0.5 were evaluated as males, and those more than 0.5, as
females. Both discriminant function analysis and the regression 80
Frequency

model were cross-validated. Percentage accuracy implies the 60 Males

correctly identified cases obtained on computing the equations Females
in the data set. 40

20

0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Ridge density (Number of ridges/25mm2)

FIG. 3––Sex-wise frequency distribution of radial ridge density among the

study group.

120

100

80
Frequency

60
Males

40 Females

20

0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Ridge density (Number of ridges/ 25 mm2)

FIG. 1––Illustration of ridge density count areas in the right index finger- FIG. 4––Sex-wise frequency distribution of ulnar ridge density among the
print of subject. study group.
426 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

90 TABLE 2––Probability of sex origin from ridge density of selected count

areas.
80
70 Probability Obtained from the
60 Ridge Density Count Area Sample
Frequency

50
Probability
40 Males
Females
Upper Radial Ridge Density Males Females
30
20 ≤11 1 0
≤12 0.961 0.039
10 ≤13 0.921 0.077
0 ≤14 0.883 0.117
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 ≤15 0.748 0.252
Ridge density (Number of ridges/ 25 mm2)
>15 0.072 0.928
>16 0.022 0.979
>17 0 1
FIG. 5––Sex-wise frequency distribution of upper ulnar ridge density
>18 0 1
among the study group.
>19 0 1

Probability Obtained in Sample

100
Radial Ridge Density Males Females
90
80 ≤13 1 0
≤14 1 0
70 ≤15 0.985 0.015
≤16 0.946 0.054
Frequency

60
50 ≤17 0.821 0.180
Males >17 0.058 0.942
40 >18 0.009 0.991
Females
30 >19 0 1
20 >20 0 1
>21 0 1
10
0 Probability
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ridge density (Number of ridges/25mm2) Ulnar Ridge Density Males Females
≤13 0.950 0.050
FIG. 6––Sex-wise frequency distribution of proximal ridge density among
≤14 0.941 0.059
the study group.
≤15 0.877 0.123
≤16 0.769 0.231
>16 0.078 0.922
>17 0 1
TABLE 1––Descriptive statistics of the ridge density values of the various >18 0 1
count areas among the males and females of the selected population group. >19 0 1
>20 0 1
Mean $ SD
Ridge Density Independent t-Test Probability Obtained in Sample
Count Area Males Females t-Value
Upper radial 13.58 $ 1.39 16.14 $ 1.43 % 20.19* Upper Ulnar Ridge Density Males Females
Radial 15.96 $ 1.09 18.52 $ 1.32 % 23.45* ≤11 1 0
Ulnar 14.90 $ 1.81 17.13 $ 1.26 % 15.87* ≤12 1 0
Upper Ulnar 12.69 $ 1.59 16.22 $ 1.20 % 27.76* ≤13 0.982 0.018
Proximal 10.70 $ 1.10 12.88 $ 1.17 % 21.37* ≤14 0.935 0.065
*p is significant at <0.001 level. >14 0.118 0.882
>15 0.027 0.973
>16 0.020 0.980
characteristics of ridge density among males and females. The >17 0 1
>18 0 1
test results showed a significant difference (p < 0.001) with
respect to ridge density between the males and the females in all Probability
the five areas. The mean difference between the males and the
females was maximum in the upper ulnar area (3.53) and mini- Proximal Ridge Density Males Females
mum in the proximal area (2.18). The minimum ridge density
≤9 1 0
was encountered in the proximal area and maximum in the radial ≤10 0.990 0.009
area, in both males and females. ≤11 0.864 0.136
Table 2 shows the probability of sex origin from the ridge ≤12 0.714 0.286
density of various count areas. It was evident that the probability >12 0.062 0.938
>13 0.014 0.986
values were highly indicative of the sex origin. For the upper >14 0 1
radial area, a ridge density of ≤14 was most likely of male origin >15 0 1
and a ridge density of >15 was most likely of female origin.
 DHALL AND KAPOOR . FINGERPRINT RIDGE DENSITY 427

Likewise, in radial, ulnar, upper ulnar, and proximal areas, a
ridge density of ≤16, ≤15, ≤14, and ≤11, respectively, was most
likely of the male origin, whereas >17, >16,>14, and >12 in the
radial, ulnar, upper ulnar, and proximal areas, respectively, was
most likely of the female origin (Table 2).
Stepwise discriminant function analysis (Table 3) demon-
strated that the ulnar area did not contribute in the sex differenti-
ation. The discriminating ability of the four ridge density areas
was in the order: upper ulnar> radial> upper radial> proximal.
Further the discriminant function score was determined using the
constant and the unstandardized canonical discriminant function
coefficients (Eq. 2). The sectioning point (% 0.0035) was calcu-
lated using the group centroids. The subject was classified as a
female if the score was more than the sectioning point, while a

TABLE 3––Stepwise discriminant function analysis among the five ridge density areas.

Ridge Density Wilks’ Unstandardized Standardized Group Sectioning Percentage

Count Area Lambda F Value Coefficients Coefficients Centroids Point Accuracy
Upper radial 0.517 456.53* 0.234 0.388 % 1.804 (Males) % 0.0035 Males: 98.4%
Radial 0.471 549.63* 0.378 0.457 1.797 (Females) Females: 95.1%
Upper ulnar 0.388 770.63* 0.364 0.513 Total: 96.8%
Proximal 0.545 407.60* 0.343 0.329
*p is significant at <0.001 level.

Males

60 Mean = -1.8
Std.Dev. = 0.87
N = 245
50

40

30

20

10

0
-5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0

Females
Frequency

Mean = 1.8
50 Std.Dev. = 1.114
N = 246

40

30

20

10

0
-5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0

Discriminant Function Score

FIG. 7––Separate group plots of discriminant function scores of males and females.
428 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

score lower than the sectioning point classified the individual
as a male. The analysis presented 96.8% accuracy in sex
identification. Separate group plots of the discriminant scores of
males and females exhibited only a marginal overlapping area
(Fig. 7).
Di ¼ % 19:495 þ 0:234 ' upperradial þ 0:378 ' radial
ð2Þ
þ 0:364 ' upperulnar þ 0:343 ' proximal
Table 4 shows the association of sex with the ridge density
count areas using logistic regression. The Neagelkerke’s R2
showed that the model fits well for all the areas. The logit equa-
tions were computed for each area as well as for all the areas
together. When the areas were analyzed together, it was found
that upper radial, radial, upper ulnar, and proximal areas were
significant factors in the prediction of sex. However, the ulnar
area showed a nonsignificant odds ratio. The upper ulnar area
exhibited maximum percentage accuracy in the sex estimation.
When sex was identified using all the five areas together, the
regression model showed a 97.4% accuracy.
Discussion
The present study draws various novel inferences on the
basis of its findings. In previous studies on the ridge density
examination, mean ridge density of all the digits has been ana-
lyzed, while the present findings demonstrate consideration of a
single digit at a time. The approach appears to be more accurate
for forensic investigations, where all the ten digits may not be
available. Selection, standardization, and designation of the areas
were important dimensions of the present study. Most of the pre-
vious studies have focused on the probability of observing a
ridge density value, when the sex of the donor was known. In
the present study, the probability of sex origin has been deter-
mined when the ridge density value is known. Furthermore, the
present communication attempts to provide a general equation of
prediction and the discriminating ability of selected standardized
areas. It is evident that the approach in the present research is
more applicable as an investigation tool.
The frequency distribution highlights lower ridge density in
the proximal area and, thus, thicker ridges in the area. It is note-
worthy that the findings on the Indian population in the present
study and findings from a previous study on the Thai popula-
tions (12) show higher range of ridge density values than the
African Americans and the Caucasians of America (10). The
present findings show that the core values were highest for both
the sexes and the proximal area exhibited the lowest ridge den-
sity. This is in concordance with the disto-proximal gradient
extending from the fingertips to the proximal region of the palm
(13). Similar findings have been reported among the Spanish
population (5), where core values were higher than the proximal
count area values. Findings of previous studies on the frequency
distribution and the mean of ridge density values among various

TABLE 4––Association of sex with ridge density count areas.

Percentage Accuracy
Ridge Density
2
Count Area B Exp (B) Neagelkerke’s R Logit Regression Equation Males Females Total
Upper radial 1.437 4.209* 0.615 % 21.364 + 1.437*Upper radial 73.9 90.2 82.1
Radial 2.211 9.124* 0.736 % 37.871 + 2.211*Radial 95.1 79.3 87.2
Ulnar 1.678 5.356* 0.613 % 26.873 + 1.678*Ulnar 93.9 72.0 82.9
Upper ulnar 1.998 7.374* 0.799 % 29.262 + 1.998*Upper ulnar 87.3 93.9 90.6
Proximal 1.769 5.863* 0.638 % 20.790 + 1.769*Proximal 77.6 87.8 82.7
All areas together B Exp (B) 0.941 % 83.501 + 0.767*Upper radial+1.698*Radial+0.707 97.6 97.2 97.4
Upper radial 0.767 2.153* *Ulnar+1.669*Upper ulnar+0.667*Proximal
Radial 1.698 5.461^
Ulnar## 0.707 2.028
Upper ulnar 1.669 5.309*
Proximal 0.667 1.949^
*p is significant at <0.001 level.
^
p is significant at <0.05–0.01 level.
##
Ulnar region shows nonsignificant odds.

TABLE 5––Frequency distribution and mean of ridge density values among various population groups from previous studies.

Frequency Distribution of Ridge Density Mean Ridge Density

Radial Ulnar Proximal

Population Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females References
Caucasian 7.9–14.70 10.60–16.80 10.90 12.61 10
African American 8.2–14.30 9.7–16 11.14 13.32 10
South Indian 11–15 12–16 12.80 14.60 8
South Indian 10–17 10–17 12.57 14.14 11
Puna–Quebrada 13–22 (radial), 13–21 (ulnar), 14–22 (radial), 13–21 (ulnar), 16.67 18.47 16.39 17.62 14.33 16.13 6
11–18 (proximal) 12–20 (proximal)
Ramal 13–21 (radial), 12–20 (ulnar), 15–23 (radial), 14–23 (ulnar), 17.04 19.08 16.10 17.75 14.08 15.12 6
10–17 (proximal) 11–20 (proximal)
Uttarakhand 11–16 11–16 11.90 14.10 14
population
Thais 10–26 (radial), 9–26 (ulnar) 10–26 (radial), 9–26 (ulnar) 15.89 16.19 15.84 16 12

population groups are presented in Table 5. The difference in
the values can be attributed to the difference in the methodolo-
gies used.
It has been affirmed that the Y-chromosome is associated with
an increase in the ridge breadth (15). The findings of the present
study confirm such propositions by demonstrating a higher ridge
density among the females in all the dactylogram areas, in the
studied population. Surprisingly, both discriminant function anal-
ysis and the regression model implied that the ulnar ridge den-
sity was not reliable for sex determination.
Limitations of the Study
The study was conducted on a homogenous population group.
Hence, the interpopulation variability has not been accounted in
the present work. Moreover, only the right index digit has been
analyzed. The future implication of the research is to explore the
ridge density variation with respect to the population variability
and interdigital variations in both the hands. Furthermore, it is
not generally possible to determine the digit from a partial
chance print. Hence, a correlation coefficient of the ridge density
between the ten digits will increase the applicability of the tech-
nique.
Conclusion
Fingerprint ridge density is a potential forensic anthropology
tool with high applicability in the practical case scenarios. Ridge
density examinations can be especially suitable and can provide
a significant link in cases of partial prints and in the absence of
the database/suspect prints. Nevertheless, it is an effective sex
differentiation technique for forensic investigations and anthro-
pological variation studies. The accuracy of sex identification
was more than 95% (96.8 with discriminant function analysis
and 97.4% with logistic regression model). Hence, it can be sta-
ted that ridge density is an effective forensic anthropology
parameter to narrow down the investigations.
Acknowledgment
We are thankful to Dr. G.S. Sodhi (Associate Professor,
Department of Chemistry, S.G.T.B Khalsa College, University
of Delhi) for providing the technical support for the study.
DHALL AND KAPOOR . FINGERPRINT RIDGE DENSITY 429
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Additional information and reprint requests:
Jasmine Kaur Dhall, Ph.D.
Former UGC-SRF
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi
Delhi 110007
India
E-mail: jasminekaur1759@gmail.com