Photonics Laboratory

M. Karlsson

Lecture 4 Fourier optics

FoP Ch.4.1-4.3

Introduction
Propagation of light in free space
• Spatial harmonic functions and plane waves
• Transfer function of free space
Photonics Lecture IV 9

• Fresnel approximation, the Huygens-Fresnel

Fresnel diffraction cntd.
principle Despite that Fresnel diffraction patterns
• Fresnel diffraction, zone plates and lenses are somewhat counterintuitive, they are
fairly easy to see...
• Fraunhofer diffraction
...if we take a picture with laser light!
• Fourier transform using a lens

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 1

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fourier optics introduction

Fourier decomposition in time
• Arbitrary function of time f(t) = superposition of monochromatic
waves (harmonic functions) of different frequencies 𝜈. *)
• Harmonic function exp(j2π𝜈t) is the building block. Several of these
functions, each with its own amplitude F(𝜈) (Fourier
Z 1 transform of f(t)
at 𝜈), are added to construct f(t). f (t) = F (⌫) exp(j2⇡⌫t)d⌫
1

Fourier decomposition in space

• Arbitrary function of space coordinates f(x,y) = superposition of plane
waves (harmonic functions) of x, y of different spatial frequencies
𝜈x,𝜈y (= cycles per unit length in the x, y-directions).
Z exp(-j2π(𝜈xx + 𝜈yy)) is the building block.
• Harmonic function
1
f (x, y) = F (⌫x , ⌫y ) exp[ j2⇡(⌫x x + ⌫y y)]d⌫x d⌫y
1

*) Greek letter
"n", pronounced
see FoP, App. A
'nu' (like [new]).

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 2

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Optical systems
Fourier optics → light propagation through linear optical components (including free
space) is described using a linear-system approach. (Works since wave equation is
linear.)
Complex amplitudes in two transverse planes (i.e. planes normal to the optic (z)
axis) are regarded as the input and output of the system.
The system is characterized by either:
the impulse-response function (point spread function) = response to impulse (point) at
input; or by
the transfer function = response to spatial harmonic functions.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 3

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

The plane wave - spatial harmonic function

At points in arbitrary transverse plane, U(x,y,z) = A exp(-j(kxx + kyy + kzz)) =
spatial harmonic function.

In the z = 0 plane:
U(x,y,0) is identical to harmonic function f(x,y) = A exp(-j2π(νxx + νyy))
νx = kx/2π , νy = ky/2π = spatial frequencies (cycles/m)
kx, ky = spatial angular frequencies (radians/m)

Superposition of harmonic functions can describe any function f(x,y) via a

2-dim. Fourier decomposition.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 4

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Propagation of light in free space

Consider the plane wave U(x,y,z) = A exp(-j(kxx + kyy + kzz)) with wavenumber
k = (kx2 + ky2 + kz2)1/2 = 2π/λ:
Wavevector k=(kx,ky,kz) has angles θx = sin-1(kx/k), θy = sin-1(ky/k) with the x=0,
and y=0 planes, respectively.
In z=0 plane, U(x,y,0) = spatial harmonic function
f(x,y) = A exp(-j2π(𝜈xx + 𝜈yy)), 𝜈x = kx/2π and 𝜈y = ky/2π = spatial frequencies.

Harmonic function f(x,y) known → plane wave

U(x,y,z) can be determined
and vice versa (note wavelength dependence!)
U (x, y, z) = f (x, y) exp( jkz z)
r
2⇡
kz = ( )2 kx2 ky2

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 5

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Spatial spectral analysis

Consider a plane wave (traveling in z direction with unit amplitude) transmitted through a thin optical
element with complex amplitude transmittance t(x,y) = f(x,y) = exp(-j2π(𝜈xx + 𝜈yy)) = harmonic
function →
Plane wave is modulated by harmonic function, U(x,y,0) = f(x,y) (provided 𝜈x < 1/λ and 𝜈y < 1/λ)
Plane wave is converted into plane wave with wavevector directed θx = sin-1(λ𝜈x), θy = sin-1(λ𝜈y).

Example 1: f(x,y) = exp(-j2π𝜈xx):

If f(x,y) = sum of harmonic functions of different 𝜈x and 𝜈y the plane wave is converted into sum of
plane waves propagating in different directions; each spatial frequency is mapped into its direction.

Example 2:
A diffraction grating, f(x,y) = 0.5( 1 + cos(2π𝜈xx) ) = 0.5 + 0.25·(exp(-j2π𝜈xx) + exp(j2π𝜈xx)):

Plane wave is split into 3 parts traveling at angles ± sin-1(λ𝜈x), and a portion of it travels straight
through.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 6

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Example 4.1-3 e)
Calculate the plane wave content of a grating having this wave amplitude in the z=0-plane:
f(x)
X x 2m10
f (x) = rect( )
m
10 x/λ
5 10 20 40
This is thus a grating with 1 line per 20 wavelengths, i.e., λ/Λ=1/20

Solution:
Will be demoed. 1
X x 1 n⇡
f (x) = cn exp(jn2⇡ ) c0 = 1/2 cn = sin( )
1) Express f(x) in a Fourier series n= 1
20 ⇡n 2
2) Each term is a plane wave with its own propagation direction (k-vector)
3) In the far field (far from the grating) each plane wave will produce a
bright dot with amplitude given by the Fourier series coefficient.
20 r
X 2⇡ n n 2
U (x, z) = cn exp[j (x z 1 ( ) )] f(x) g(x)
n= 20
20 20
n=2
n=1
n=0
n=-1
n=-2

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 7

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

General case
General case: f(x,y) = superposition integral of harmonic functions,
Z Z
f (x, y) = F (⌫x , ⌫y ) exp( j2⇡(⌫x x + ⌫y y)]d⌫x d⌫y

with spatial frequencies 𝜈x,𝜈y and amplitudes F(𝜈x,𝜈y) (= Fourier transform of

f(x,y) at 𝜈x,𝜈y)

→ transmitted wave is the superposition of plane waves,

Z Z
g(x, y) = U (x, y, d) = F (⌫x , ⌫y ) exp( j2⇡(⌫x x + ⌫y y)] exp( jkz d)d⌫x d⌫y

q q
2⇡
kz = k 2 kx2 ky2 = 1 ( ⌫x )2 ( ⌫y )2
where

This integral is usually impossible to solve analytically due to the factor

exp(-jkz(𝜈x,𝜈y)d).

In the following: we will approximate this in two steps, Fresnel diffraction

and Fraunhofer diffraction.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 8

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Transfer function for free-space propagation

Free-space propagation a distance d can be seen as a 2-

dimensional filter with transfer
" function #
r
1
H(⌫x , ⌫y ) = exp j2⇡d 2
⌫x2 ⌫y2

1
Spatial frequencies inside the circle 2
⌫x2 + ⌫y2 <

undergoes a phase shift, whereas frequencies outside the

circle are attenuated (square root becomes imaginary).

Features with spatial frequencies >1/λ (= detail size < λ)

cannot be transmitted by an optical wave over distances >λ !

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 9

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fresnel approximation
The transfer function cannot be easily integrated (analytically)
so we will consider approximations of it.
Assume small spatial frequencies, i.e.
q 2
1 2 (⌫ 2
x + ⌫y2 ) ⇡ 1 (⌫x2 + ⌫y2 )
2
so approximately, the transfer function becomes

H(⌫x , ⌫y ) = H0 exp[j⇡ d(⌫x2 + ⌫y2 )]

which is known as the Fresnel approximation.

4d
Validity is propagation for diffraction angles θ so that ✓ ⌧1
4

The image becomes

Z Z
g(x, y) = H0 F (⌫x , ⌫y ) exp[j⇡ d(⌫x2 + ⌫y2 )] exp( j2⇡(⌫x x + ⌫y y))d⌫x d⌫y

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 10

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

The Fresnel impulse response

The Fourier transform of the transfer function is the impulse response
j x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
h(x, y) = exp[ jkd jk ] = h0 exp[ jk ]
d 2d 2d

physically, this is the response at (x,y,d) from a point source (Dirac

function) at (0,0).
The amplitud g(x,y) can then be written as the convolution integral
Z Z
k
g(x, y) = h0 f (x0 , y 0 ) exp[ j ((x x0 )2 + (y y 0 )2 )]dx0 dy 0
2d

This is the mathematical formulation of

the Huygens-Fresnel principle:

”Each point of a wavefront generates a

spherical wave. The new wavefront is
the superposition of all these waves.”

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 11

 Photonics Laboratory

8
I(x,y,d) = g(x,y)2 = 1 C(X) +
2 2
+
2
S(X) +
2 ( ) (
1 2 1M. Karlsson1
)
Example of Fresnel diffraction - the semi-infinite
X2=2x2/( d)
screen
e semi-infinite
Take for example f(x,y)=H(x) where H is the Heaviside step
function (1 for positive x, zero elsewhere). This diffraction pattern
C(X) =
X
cos(
2
2
)d
are the C(X)
0.8

0.7

0.6

een from a half-plane

0 0.5

becomes: Fresnel 0.4

1 1 2 1 X
integrals
0.3

) d2 2
2
I(x, y, d) = |g(x, y)| = ((C(X) + ) + (S(X) + ) ) S(X) = sin(
22
0.2
S(X)
2 0 2 0.1

om a largewhere
screenXcovering
0

2
= 2x 2 /λd
0 1 2 3

calculated by taking
andstep
e Heaviside C and S are Fresnel integrals.
function. 3

x 2
πt
2 ∫0
) ( )
2 2
X) + 1 1
+C(x) =S(X)cos( 1
+ )dt
1

2 22 0

x
πt 2
∫0
-1
d) S(x) = sin( )dt
2 -2

0.8

-3
0.7 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

C(X) 0.6

0.5
I(X) 1.4

0.4
1.2

1
Wave Optics
Ray Optics
0.3 0.8

0.6
0.2

0.1
S(X) 0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 X

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 12

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson
...if we take a picture with laser light!
Example of Fresnel diffraction (ii)

Fresnel diffraction
patterns are easy to see
— if you take pictures
with coherent (laser) light!
(needs magnification and
coherent light to be
observable).
See a nice video here.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 13

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fresnel zones
Instead of solving the convolution integral for circular apertures a
more intuitive approach based on Fresnel zones can be used.
The first Fresnel zone consists of all points inside the radius r1. The
second Fresnel zones of all points with radius between r1 and r2
y The amplitude at (0,0,d) is the integral (=sum)
r2 of small (complex) contributions from
d+2λ/2
r1 d infinitesimal rings at radius r. This sum spirals
d+λ/2 z slowly inwards as we integrate over the
transverse plane.
rN = Nλd
Im(U)

Contribution from first Fresnel

zone = 2 Utot(0,0,d)
Contribution from all Fresnel
zones = Utot(0,0,d)
Contribution from first 2 Fresnel
zones ≈ 0

Re(U)

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 14

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fresnel zones, cntd

Thus if you take an opaque plate that blocks

everything but the first Fresnel zone, you will double FZ1

the amplitude at U(0,0,d), and fourfold the intensity!

Further, if you block all even Fresnel zones we add all
in-phase odd zones to a huge maximum.
It works just as a focusing lens with focal distance d.
This is the Fresnel zone plate.
FZ5

FZ3

FZ1
FZ5
FZ3
FZ1

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 15

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fresnel zone plates and lenses

• A Fresnel zone plate works as a normal lens, but
with a focal length d=r12/λ which is strongly
wavelength dependent.
• It is the only image-forming element which has no
known prototype in nature!
• A Fresnel zone plate is useful when focusing, e.g.
X-rays for which ordinary glass is opaque.
• A given zone plate will have multiple focii (at d/m,
where m is an integer) due to the higher orders of
diffraction.
• Limitations can be remedied with a Fresnel lens,
where the phase changes continuously but
thickness is discontinuous. This is used in
lighthouses, projectors, etc. to save glass.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 16

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fraunhofer diffraction
Consider the limit when d is long (e.g. d >> a2/λ - longer than
required for the Fresnel approximation). If the exponent is
approximated as (x-x’)2≈x2-2xx’, the convolution integral becomes
Z Z
k x y
g(x, y) = C f (x0 , y 0 ) exp[j (xx0 + yy 0 )]dx0 dy 0 = CF ( , )
d d d
which is the direct Fourier transform of f(x,y)!
Physical explanantion: only one plane wave component
contributes to the complex amplitude at the point (x,y) in the
output plane.

The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is the FT of the object.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 17
 b Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson
2
a

Fraunhofer diffraction - examples

πby
sin( πax ) sin( )
U(x,y,d) = C λd λd
Rectangular aperture Circular aperture πax λd
πby
Photonics Lecture IV 16 λd

Fraunhofer diffraction - examples Aperture Far field

Aperture Far field Aperture Far-field pattern
Aperture Far-field pattern
2λ d2λd
ab

a
b
2λ d
2λd
a a
b

2.44 λd/a
J1(x) 0.6

πby J 1(πar )
sin( πax ) sin( )
U(x,y,d) = C λd
0.4

U(x,y,d) = C λd λd πar
πax πby
0.2

λd λd
λd 2 4 6 8 10 The Bessel
x
-0.2
function of
order 1
Aperture Far-field pattern

Photonicsaand Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 18

2.44 λd
 factor given by the FT of eachPhotonics
object, Laboratory
plus a (sma
Fraunhofer diffraction factor given by positions.
M. Karlsson
If the positions are random, the large scale
from a group
Fraunhofer of objects
diffraction from a group of objects
pattern dominates.
Diffraction from a set of equal apertures:
The diffraction pattern consists of a common (large-scale) factor given by the
N N
f(x,y) = ∑ u(x-xn,y-yn) ⊃ u(ν x,ν y) ∑ exp[j2π(xν yfactor
FT of each object, times a (small-scale) +yν y)] given by the positions of each
object.
n=1 For random positions, n=1 the object diffraction pattern dominates. A set of rec
The Fraunhofer pattern consists of a common (large-scale) at random
factor given by the FT
N of each object, plus a (small-scale)
N
X
factor given by positions.
X
f (x, y) = u(x xn , y yn ) ũ(⌫x , ⌫y ) exp(j2⇡(xn ⌫x + yn ⌫y ))
If the positions are random, the large scale
n=1 n=1
pattern dominates.

A period
A set of rectangles rectangle
at random positions

A set of rectangles at A regular grid of rectangles

random positions

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 19

A periodic set of
 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Fourier transform using a lens

Since a focusing lens images infinity on to the focal plane, it can
be used to map the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern to the focal
plane.
The incoming wavevector (kx,ky)/2π=(𝜈x,𝜈y) is mapped to the
point (x,y) = f λ (𝜈x, 𝜈y).
Each point in the focal plane will have the intensity of the
corresponding wavevector the fourier transform of the signal
before the lens!

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 20

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

The 2-f system

Consider case where lens placed distance d from input plane,
calculate amplitude in focal plane. The Fresnel approximation
gives
(x 2 + y 2)(d − f ) x y
g(x, y) = hl exp( jπ )F( , )
λf 2 λf λf

If d = f, which is called a 2-f system the phase factor that

depends on x and y vanishes.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 21

 Photonics Laboratory
M. Karlsson

Diffraction - summary
At increasing distances form the aperture one observes:
• Shadow of the aperture
• Fresnel diffraction pattern, i.e. aperture function convolved with
exp[jk(x2+y2)/(2d)]
• Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, i.e. the Fourier transform of the aperture
function. Far field has angular divergence proportional to λ/D.

Photonics and Lasers 2023, Jan 23 Lecture 4, “Fourier optics”, p. 22