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In finance, valuation is the process of estimating what something is worth. Items that are usually valued
are a financial asset or liability. Valuations can be done on assets (for example, investments in
marketable securities such as stocks, options, business enterprises, or intangible assets such as patents
and trademarks) or on liabilities.
Investors who are considering multiple investments or outlining an investment strategy may request
equity valuations of a company, to make the most informed investment decision. Valuation methods
based on the equity of a company typically include a thorough analysis of cash accounts, as well as a
forecast or projection of future dividends, future earnings (revenue) and the distribution of dividends.
The total equity of a company is the sum of both tangible assets and intangible qualities. Tangible assets
include working capital, cash, inventory, and shareholder equity. Intangible qualities, or intangible
"assets," may include brand potential, trademarks and stock valuations.
There are different methods/techniques of equity valuation. The majors are:
1. Balance Sheet Valuation
2. Dividend discount model
3. Free cash flow model
4. Earning Multiplier Approach
Note: we divide D1 (but not D0) by k - g to calculate intrinsic value. If the market capitalization rate for
Steady State is 12%, we can use the above equation to show that the intrinsic value of a share of Steady
State stock is:
V0 =
The above equation is called the constant growth DDM or the Gordon model, after Myron J. Gordon,
who popularized the model. It should remind you of the formula for the present value of perpetuity. If
dividends were expected not to grow, then the dividend stream would be a simple perpetuity, and the
valuation formula for such a non growth stock would be V0 = D1/k. As g increases, the stock price also
rises.
The constant growth DDM is valid only when g is less than k. If dividends were expected to grow forever
at a rate faster than k, the value of the stock would be infinite. If an analyst derives an estimate of g that is
greater than k, that growth rate must be unsustainable in the long run. The appropriate valuation model to
use in this case is a multistage DDM. The constant growth DDM is so widely used by stock market
analysts that it is worth exploring some of its implications and limitations. The constant growth rate
DDM implies that a stock’s value will be greater:
(i) The larger its expected dividend per share.
(ii) The lower the market capitalization rate, k.
(iii)The higher the expected growth rate of dividends.
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Another implication of the constant growth model is that the stock price is expected to grow at the same
rate as dividends. To see this, suppose Steady State stock is selling at its intrinsic value of $57.14, so that
V0 = P0. Then:
Note that price is proportional to dividends. Therefore, next year, when the dividends paid to Steady State
stockholders are expected to be higher by g = 5%, price also should increase by 5%. To confirm this, note
D2 = $4(1.05) = $4.20
P1 = D2/(k - g) = $4.20/(0.12 - 0.05) = $60.00
Note, $60.00 is 5% higher than the current price of $57.14.
To generalize:
P1 = P0(1 + g)
Therefore, the DDM implies that, in the case of constant expected growth of dividends, the expected rate
of price appreciation in any year will equal that constant growth rate, g. Note that for a stock whose
market price equals its intrinsic value (V0 = P0) the expected holding period return will be
E(r) = Dividend yield + Capital gains yield
This formula offers a means to infer the market capitalization rate of a stock, for if the stock is selling at
its intrinsic value, then E(r) = k, implying that k = D1/P0 + g. By observing the dividend yield, D1/P0,
and estimating the growth rate of dividends, we can compute k. This equation is known also as the
discounted cash flow (DCF) formula. This is an approach often used in rate hearings for regulated public
utilities. The regulatory agency responsible for approving utility pricing decisions is mandated to allow
the firms to charge just enough to cover costs plus a “fair” profit, that is, one that allows a competitive
return on the investment the firm has made in its productive capacity. In turn, that return is taken to be
the expected return investors require on the stock of the firm. The D1/P0 + g formula provides a means to
infer that required return.
5.2.3 The Two-Stage Model
The two-stage model attempts to cross the chasm from theory to reality. The two-stage model assumes
that the company will experience a period of high-growth followed by a decline to a stable growth
period.
The first issue to deal with when using the two-stage model is to estimate how long the high growth
period should last. Should it be 5 years, 10 years, or maybe longer?
The next requirement is that the model makes an unexpected transition from high growth to slow growth.
In other words, the model assumes that the firm may be growing at 9% for five years only to then grow at
6% (stable growth) until eternity. Is this realistic? Probably not. Most firms experience a gradual decline
in growth rates as their business matures (hence, using a three-stage dividend discount model may be
more appropriate).
Finally, just like the stable growth model, the two-stage dividend discount model is very sensitive to the
inputs used to determine the value of the equity.
Example: Assume that the first growth rate is 9% and pertains to the next five year and the second
growth rate is 6% for all years following with the current dividend of $1.30 and K=12.39%.
D0 = $1.30
K = 12.39%
Page 4 Chapter 5: Stock and equity valuation
g1 = 9%
g2 =6%
If we divide both sides of the equation by E (expected earnings during the next 12 months), the result is
⁄