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Areas Routing Hierarchy
Area-Border Backbone Areas
• Divide network into areas Router
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1.2 2.2.1
1.1
1.2.1 1.2 2.2.1
1.2.1
1.2.2
start
3
end
3.2.1
3
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Outline A Logical View of the Internet?
• After looking a
RIP/OSPF descriptions
• Routing hierarchy • End-hosts connected to
routers
• Routers exchange
• Internet structure messages to determine
R
connectivity R R R
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• What is an Autonomous System (AS)? ASNs are 16 bit values 64512 through 65535 are “private”
– A set of routers under a single technical Currently over 15,000 in use
administration, using an interior gateway protocol • Genuity: 1
(IGP) and common metrics to route packets within • MIT: 3
the AS and using an exterior gateway protocol • JANET: 786
(EGP) to route packets to other AS’s • UC San Diego: 7377
– Sometimes AS’s use multiple IGPs and metrics, but • AT&T: 7018, 6341, 5074, …
appear as single AS’s to other AS’s
• UUNET: 701, 702, 284, 12199, …
• Each AS assigned unique ID • Sprint: 1239, 1240, 6211, 6242, …
• AS’s peer at network exchanges • …
ASNs represent units of routing policy
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Example A Logical View of the Internet?
1 2 • RIP/OSPF not very
2.1 IGP
IGP
2.2 scalable area
EGP
1.1
hierarchies ISP ISP
1.2 2.2.1
5.1 5.2
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Outline Choices
• Link state or distance vector?
• Routing hierarchy – No universal metric – policy decisions
• Problems with distance-vector:
• Internet structure – Bellman-Ford algorithm may not converge
• Problems with link state:
• External BGP (E-BGP) – Metric used by routers not the same – loops
– LS database too large – entire Internet
• Internal BGP (I-BGP) – May expose policies to other AS’s
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Hop-by-hop Model Policy with BGP
• BGP advertises to neighbors only those routes • BGP provides capability for enforcing various
that it uses policies
– Consistent with the hop-by-hop Internet paradigm • Policies are not part of BGP: they are provided
– e.g., AS1 cannot tell AS2 to route to other AS’s in a to BGP as configuration information
manner different than what AS1 has chosen (need
• BGP enforces policies by choosing paths from
source routing for that)
multiple alternatives and controlling
advertisement to other AS’s
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BGP UPDATE Message Path Selection Criteria
• List of withdrawn routes • Information based on path attributes
• Network layer reachability information • Attributes + external (policy) information
– List of reachable prefixes • Examples:
• Path attributes – Hop count
– Origin – Policy considerations
– Path • Preference for AS
– Metrics • Presence or absence of certain AS
– Path origin
• All prefixes advertised in message have same
path attributes – Link dynamics
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AS_PATH Multi-Exit Discriminator (MED)
• List of traversed AS’s • Hint to external neighbors about the preferred
path into an AS
AS 200
170.10.0.0/16
AS 100
180.10.0.0/16
– Non-transitive attribute
– Different AS choose different scales
• Used when two AS’s connect to each other in
AS 300
more than one place
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MED MED
• MED is typically used in provider/subscriber scenarios
• Hint to R1 to use R3 over R4 link
• It can lead to unfairness if used between ISP because it
• Cannot compare AS40’s values to AS30’s may force one ISP to carry more traffic:
180.10.0.0
MED = 50
R1 R2
AS 10 AS 40
SF
ISP1
ISP2 NY
• ISP1 ignores MED from ISP2
180.10.0.0
MED = 120
180.10.0.0 • ISP2 obeys MED from ISP1
R3 MED = 200 R4 • ISP2 ends up carrying traffic most of the way
AS 30
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Decision Process Outline
• Processing order of attributes:
– Select route with highest LOCAL-PREF • Routing hierarchy
– Select route with shortest AS-PATH
– Apply MED (if routes learned from same neighbor) • Internet structure
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Internal BGP (I-BGP) Important Concepts
• R3 can tell R1 and R2 prefixes from R4
• R3 can tell R4 prefixes from R1 and R2 • Wide area Internet structure and routing driven
• R3 cannot tell R2 prefixes from R1 by economic considerations
– Customer, providers and peers
R2 can only find these prefixes through a direct connection to R1
Result: I-BGP routers must be fully connected (via TCP)! • BGP designed to:
•contrast with E-BGP sessions that map to physical links – Provide hierarchy that allows scalability
– Allow enforcement of policies related to structure
R1
• Mechanisms
E-BGP – Path vector – scalable, hides structure from neighbors,
AS1 R3 R4 AS2 detects loops quickly
R2 – IBGP structure/requirements – reuse of BGP, need for
I-BGP a fully connected mesh
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History
• Mid-80s: EGP
– Reachability protocol (no shortest path)
EXTRA SLIDES – Did not accommodate cycles (tree topology)
– Evolved when all networks connected to NSF
backbone
The rest of the slides are FYI • Result: BGP introduced as routing protocol
– Latest version = BGP 4
– BGP-4 supports CIDR
– Primary objective: connectivity not performance
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Link Failures Failure on an E-BGP Link
• If the link R1-R2 goes down
• Two types of link failures: • The TCP connection breaks
– Failure on an E-BGP link • BGP routes are removed
– Failure on an I-BGP Link • This is the desired behavior
138.39.1.1/30 138.39.1.2/30
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CIDR and BGP Options
• Advertise all paths:
– Path 1: through T can reach 197.8.0.0/23
AS X
197.8.2.0/24
– Path 2: through T can reach 197.8.2.0/24
AS T (provider)
197.8.0.0/23
– Path 3: through T can reach 197.8.3.0/24
AS Z
AS Y
197.8.3.0/24
• But this does not reduce routing tables! We
would like to advertise:
– Path 1: through T can reach 197.8.0.0/22
What should T announce to Z?
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