Child and Adolescent

Learners and Learning

Principles

Chapter 5 BEHAVIORAL
LEARNING
THEORIES AND
APPROACHES TO
https://imgbin.com/png/EnffTR
LEARNING
5G/human-development-png

Overview
This chapter covers topics on behavioral learning
Contents: theories and approaches to learning. This chapter also
provides students a wider perspective about what learning
is through the examination of various processes involved in
Lesson 1.
Understanding knowledge acquisition and analysis of child and
Learning and adolescents’ learning behaviors. Moreover, this chapter
Knowledge will introduce to you different learning approaches and
Acquisition theories that concern learning such as behavioral and
cognitive approaches. The educational implications of
these theories are also explicitly discussed to give you a
Lesson 2.
Approaches to
vivid explanation on their connection with the teaching-
Learning learning process.

Lesson 3.
Learning Learning Outcomes:
Theories
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

 Formulate one’s definition and explanation of how

learning occurs;

 Complete a comparative matrix on various approaches

to learning and describe how they are manifested in
the classroom; and

Time Allotment:  Identify various behavioral learning theories and analyze

their roles in knowledge acquisition and in the
9 hours
teaching process.

CHAD 1
 Assessing Prior Knowledge:

Directions: Read the following statements. Write True if the statement is

true and False if it is not true. Write your answers on the spaces provided.

1. Learning means acquiring knowledge and skills. 1. __________

2. Learning occurs even without a teacher. 2. __________
3. A temporary change in behavior manifest learning. 3. __________
4. Goal achievement always result from a reduction of
tension. 4. __________
5. Our schools provide semantic knowledge which are
declarative and procedural. 5. __________
6. Metacognitive knowledge is a knowledge dimension that
is basic to specific disciplines. 6. __________
7. Knowledge acquisition is the process of absorbing and
storing new information in memory. 7. __________
8. Motor learning involves the use of muscles and formation
of behavior. 8. __________
9. We learn to respond readily to selected aspects of the
environment. 9. __________
10. Problem-solving may not involve the complex application
of old experiences to new and different situations. 10. ________

CHAD 2
 LESSON 1 Understanding Learning and Knowledge
Acquisition
“The capacity to learn is a gift, the ability to learn is a
skill, the willingness to learn is a choice.”
- Brian Herbert

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the

following:

 Devise a star diagram showing the nature of learning and how it

occurs;
 Develop a comparative matrix showing “what learning is” and
“what learning is not”; and
 Formulate a personal definition and description of learning.

Getting Started:
The primary reason that humans have survived for more than
million years now is that they are capable of learning. People have made
tremendous innovations because of their ability to learn. They have the
capacity to amass voluminous bits of information because of learning.

Educators have realized that for students to be successful in the

21st century, they need to be lifelong learners. Helping them to develop
the skills necessary to become lifelong learners requires a different
approach to teaching and learning. Likewise, to create an environment in
which students will learn is a great task for teachers. But what does it
mean to learn something? Learning to some is a biological response to
external stimuli. To others, learning means constructing a personal
interpretation of reality.

It is common to think of learning, as something that takes place in

school, but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and
people continue to learn throughout their lives. Because learning
continues throughout our lives and affects almost everything we do, the
study of learning is important in many different fields.

An understanding of the nature of learning and the conditions

under which learning takes place effectively contribute to learning success

CHAD 3
on the part of the learners. Thus, this lesson will provide you with a
common understanding on the nature and views of learning and the
learning process. Similarly, you will be immersed on the relationship of
knowledge acquisition and learning alongside with the later notions on
learning.

“For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by

doing them.”
― Aristotle

Later Notions on Learning

Focusing Content:
 Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
studied the relationship between mind and body. He believed that
the mind could initiate behavior.
 John Locke (1632-1704) believed that the infant’s mind at birth is
a tabula rasa. “There is nothing in the mind that is not first in the
senses, except the mind itself.”
 Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) examined the shape of the skull
and concluded that its faculties are located in specific parts of the
brain. His study is called phrenology.
 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) introduced the theory of evolution. He
perceived human beings as a combination of biological heritage and
human experiences.
 Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) stated that learning and
memory can be studied experimentally. He introduced the
nonsense material.

Nature of Learning

When parents ask their children, “What did you learn in school
today?”, the most common replies are “I don’t know” and “Nothing.” Does
this indicate a general weakness of the educational system? No. It simply
indicates that learning often takes place without us realizing it.

Life consists of continuous experiences. Some skills are learned, like

throwing a ball, playing the piano, and computer programming. Other
skills are not considered as learned, like discriminating hamburgers of
Jollibee from McDonalds. However, these tastes are actually also learned.

What is Learning?

Learning . . .
 means gaining knowledge or skill.
 is a way of knowing things.
 is an increase in knowledge.
 is the method of acquiring information.
 is a way of thinking.
 is the process of storing ideas.
 is the process of memorization.
 is a means through which we make sense out of this world.

CHAD 4
  is a way of interpreting and understanding realities.
 is a change through which we conceptualize the world.
 is the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively
permanent change of behavior, which helps to attain goals or needs.

This latter definition covers the following essential aspects:

 Change
 …in knowledge (cognitivists) and behavior (behaviorists)
 The term “learning” does not apply to temporary change in
behavior, such as those resulting from drugs, illness, or
fatigue.
 It does not refer to changes resulting from maturation or
biological influence.
 Changes produced by learning are not always positive in
nature.
 A change that disappears after a few hours does not reflect
learning (Mayer, 2002).

 Behavior
 The changes brought about by learning are relatively
permanent.

 Experience
 …involves experience (maturation or growth)
 Learning can result from vicarious as well as direct
experiences. One can be affected by observing events and
behavior in the environment, as well as by participating in
them (Bandura, 1986).

Some More Definitions of Learning

 Learning is a reflective process whereby the learner either develops

new insights and understanding or changes and restructures his or
her mental processes (Ornstein, 1990).

 Learning is an integrated, on-going process occurring within the

individual, enabling him to meet specific
aims, fulfill his needs and interests, and cope Learning is a
with the learning process. This process
dynamic
involves unfreezing, problem diagnosis, goal
process; it is an
setting, new behavior, and refreezing
(Lardizabal, 1991). active and a
continuous
 Learning is a change in an individual caused process, a life-
by experienced (Slavin, 1995). long process of
reorganizing
 Learning is the acquisition through facts and
maturation and experience of new and more information.
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will
enable the learner to make better and more

CHAD 5
 adequate reactions, responses, and adjustments to new situations
(Calderon, 1998).
Essential Aspects of the Learning Process (Mowley)

 Motivation. An organism is constantly being bombarded by a lot of

stimulus from the environment. One's response to any stimulus is
directly proportional to the relative strength of one's motive.

 Goal. Behavior, being purposive, is oriented towards a goal. What

determines whether or not a person will strive towards a goal. What
determines whether or not a person will strive towards a goal is the
perceived probability of success.

 Readiness depends on training, experience and heredity. It is rated

according to:
 Physiological factors - maturation of sense organs.
 Psychological factors - motives, emotional factors, self-concept.
 Experiential factors - previously learned skills, concepts.

 Obstacle. The presence of obstacles in an occasion for learning new

modes of adjustment; it is a hindrance, or deterrence that
challenges the learner.

 Responses are actions or behavioral tendencies according to one's

interpretation of the situation. It may take the form of a direct attack
or a form in a circumventing manner, what we call going around the
bush.

Ways of Learning
L – Listen
E – Evolve
A – Adapt
R – Reciprocate
N – Network
I – Integrate
N – Navigate
G - Grow

Views of Learning

Two ways of describing learning:

 Learning is a relative change in behavior due to experience.
 Learning as a relative change in mental representatives or
associations due to experience.

Behaviorism VS Early Cognitive/

Developmental Theorists
SR-Theorist
Thorndike’s Law of Effect Piaget
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Vygotsky

CHAD 6
 Social Cognitive
Learning Theory of Bandura
 “habits” or specific ways of
thinking or behaving are
learned.
 stimulus-response and
reinforcement play important
roles in learning
Cognitive Psychology
Focus on Mental Processes
Knowledge Construction
 “cognitive structures” or more
general ways of thinking are
learned.
Tolman, Sign Learning
Kohler, Insights Learning

Thinking or cognition is defined as a mental activity that goes on in

the brain when a person is processing or communicating
information.

Thinking refers to the manipulation of mental representations for a

purpose. People use words, mental images, and mental models that
describe, explain, or predict the way things work.

Reasoning refers to the process by which people generate and evaluate

arguments and beliefs.
2 kinds:
1. Deductive reasoning—draws a conclusion from a set of
assumptions or general premises.
2. Inductive reasoning—draws from specific observations to more
general propositions.

Creativity is the process of solving a problem by combining innovative

or new ideas. It is the ability to produce something that is both
original and valuable.

What do we learn?
Simple responses. This is when behavior is established in the
presence of a new stimulus. E.g., an infant who is frightened by a
loud noise responds to furry animals in the same way even if the
loud noise and furry animals are not associated with the child’s
experience.
Muscular habits. Over the years, we develop highly coordinated
skills and sequences of behavior. When such learning involves
mainly the use of muscles, it is called motor learning. It is possible to
learn more complex motor habits through simple forms of
conditioning.
Perceptual responses. Symbolic interpretation involves past
experiences. Interpretation is a product of what is already stored in
the brain.
Motives. Although some motives are inherent at birth, others are
learned in the process of contending with the world in which we were
born. Even the psychological drives (such as hunger or thirst) are
learned through experience—the time, place, and number in which
such motives are appropriately and successfully expressed.
Attitudes. As we go through life, we learn to respond readily to

CHAD 7
 selected aspects of the environment. These learned responses are
called attitudes.
Emotional responses. We learn what to fear and what to love. E.g.,
fear of high places or enclosed places, blushing on certain situations,
and smiling at friends are all learned.
Problem-solving. Thinking is perhaps the most impressive kind of
learning human beings are capable of. It involves the complex
application of old experiences to new and different situations.
Language. We learn words and word combinations. We learn
mathematical symbols and learn to represent the world in terms of
words and symbols and to describe this world to others.
Personality. If we view personality as the patterned characteristics
of the whole organism, then it follows that much personality is
learned. Although some characteristics of the human system are
based directly on heredity and reach their mature state through the
biological processes, most behavioral traits, such as extroversion or
sociability, are largely a result of learning.

How does learning occur?

Learners learn only what they are ready to learn.
Learners construct their own understanding.

Knowledge Acquisition, Representation and Organization

 Knowledge acquisition is the process of

absorbing and storing new information in
memory, the success of which is often Knowledge
gauged by how well information can later be acquisition,
remembered (retrieved from memory). therefore, is a
 Knowledge acquisition is the process of process of
extracting, extrapolating, structuring, and learning.
organizing knowledge from one cognitive Learning is a
source to another. means of
knowledge
For more discussion about Knowledge acquisition.
Acquisition, go to this link:
https://www.answers.com/search?q=learning-
knowledge-acquisition.

There are numerous theories of how knowledge is represented and

organized in mind, including rule-based production models, distributed
networks, and prepositional models. However, these theories are all
fundamentally based on the concept of semantic networks (Vosniadow
et al., 1987).

Semantic network is a method of representing knowledge as a system of

connections between concepts in memory. According to the semantic
network models, knowledge is organized based on meaning, such that
semantically related concepts are interconnected.

CHAD 8
Figure 1. Schematic Presentation of a Semantic Network (Amayo, 2014)

Knowledge networks are typically represented as diagrams of nodes

(i.e., concepts) and links (i.e., relations). Learn more about semantic
networks here: https://www.livescience.com/42920-semantic-
memory.html

Types of Knowledge
 General vs. Specific knowledge involves whether the knowledge is
useful in many tasks or only one.
 Episodic knowledge refers to our biographical memory reflecting not
only what happened, but also when and where it happened. This
includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
 Semantic knowledge deals with memories and information that are
not tied with our personal biographies. Much of what our schools
provide is semantic knowledge which may be declarative or
procedural.

Types of Semantic Knowledge

 Declarative knowledge refers to one’s memory for concepts, facts, or
episodes. This is factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how
things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples
are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or
even the face of your crush. Declarative knowledge is organized
according to various levels:
 Descriptors
 Time elements
 Process
 Causal relationships
 Episodes
 Generalizations
 Principles
 Concepts
 Procedural knowledge refers to the ability to perform various tasks.
They may begin as declarative knowledge, but becomes procedural
with practice. Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a
cake, or getting the least common denominator.
 Conditional knowledge accounts for knowing “when and why” to
apply declarative or procedural strategies.
 Strategic knowledge helps us organize our problem-solving

CHAD 9
 processes by specifying the stages followed in order to arrive at
solutions.

Organization of Semantic Knowledge

 Facts are things that are known to be true. They are specific bits of
information that relate to a specific event, person, object, or
situation. Example: Magellan discovered the Philippines in 1521.
 Facts should be differentiated from the following:
1. Data are the things gathered through the process of research.
For example, numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on are data.
2. Information is a definite knowledge. Information does not
become knowledge unless we think critically about it. It is
transmitted to us through teaching, reading literature, or media
or through the use of senses.
3. Ideas may be suggestions, impressions or opinions. We use
brainstorming activities to generate ideas and suggestions. Ideas
that are triggered by suggestions are called hitchhikes.
4. Wisdom is gained through experience. It is a wise decision
formed from great knowledge and experience.
 Concepts are the basic units of thinking (Lahey, 2003). They are
general, abstract ideas of things, ideas, events, and qualities that
share common characteristics. Facts serve their important roles in
acquiring and understanding concepts.

Properties
(Common characteristics shared by all the examples of a concept)

Signs Referents
(Words or symbols that name a concept) (Examples of concepts)

Figure 2. Different structures essential in the formation of concepts

(Griffin, 2009)

 Types of concepts:
1. Simple concepts are plain and straightforward. E.g., let us have the
concept “pink”. All things which have the color “pink” regardless of
the other characteristics belong to the same concept.
2. Complex concepts can be:
a) Conjunctive concepts refer to the presence of two or more
qualities at the same time. For example, let us consider
the concept “mother”. It is conjunctive because it has two
simultaneous qualities (female and acting as a parent).
To be considered a “mother”, one must possess both
defining qualities.
b) Disjunctive concepts refer to the existence of one of two

CHAD 10
 common qualities or both. For example, the concept
“influenza” can be caused by one of two qualities or
clinical manifestations (high temperature and colds). The
concept “influenza” is disjunctive for it is identified by
the presence of one common quality or a combination of
both.

3. Concrete concepts are those which physical characteristics permit

us to classify objects.
4. Defined concepts are those that are treated beyond their physical
characteristics in their definition. Examples, “teacher” and “student”
are defined concepts.

 Categories are the divisions of concepts. According to Sternberg

(2006), there are three types of categories:
1. Natural categories are natural groupings that occur in a natural
setting. For example, the universe, the stars, and other members
of the solar system are natural categories.
2. Artifact categories are man-made categories. Examples are
books, schools, curricula, gadgets, machines, or equipment.
3. Nominal categories are arbitrary. They are labels assigned to a
situation or thing that is pre-specified. For illustration, the
concept “neighbor” has a nominal category. It means that its
meaning is unstable. A neighbor may be a friend or an enemy
who lives nearby, or one who lives next door.

 Generalizations are statements that contain the if-then or predictive

characteristics (Savage & Armstrong, 2006). They show
relationships among concepts.

 Hilda Taba proposed the following levels of knowledge:

1. Facts
2. Skills
3. Concepts
4. Principles
5. Attitudes or dispositions

 Anderson and Krathwohl (2000) offered the following dimensions of

knowledge:
1. Factual knowledge is knowledge that is basic to specific
disciplines. This dimension refers to essential facts, terminology,
details or elements that students must know or be familiar with in
order to understand a discipline or solve a problem.
2. Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of classifications, principles,
generalizations, theories, models, or structures pertinent to a
particular discipline.
3. Procedural knowledge is knowledge on how to do something,
methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms,
techniques, and methods.
4. Metacognitive knowledge is the awareness of one’s own cognition
and particular cognitive processes. It is strategic or reflective

CHAD 11
 knowledge about how to go about solving problems, cognitive
tasks, to include contextual and conditional knowledge and
knowledge of self.

Guidelines for Knowledge Acquisition

1. Process the material semantically.
2. Process and retrieve information frequently.
3. Learning and retrieval conditions should be similar.
4. Connect new information to prior knowledge.
5. Create cognitive procedures.

Mnemonics are strategies considered as memory aids that provide a

systematic approach for organizing and remembering facts that have no
apparent link of connection of their own (Omrod, 2004). For example,
some people remember the order of the planets in the solar system
(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) using
the following mnemonic: “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us
Noodles.” (http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-2-learning.htm).

CHAD 12
 Taking Action:
Activity 1.1
Describing
Learning

Directions: Draw a star and write the word “Learning” at the center. Think
of a word or a phrase that best describe/define learning and write
them in the boxes provided for each point of the star. Then provide
a short explanation on the description that you’ve written. Be
guided by the sample diagram presented below.

Explanation Description

Explanation Description Description Explanation

LEARNING

Explanation Description Description Explanation

Activity 1.2
Telling what learning
is and what it is not

Directions: Draw a T chart and label each column head with the two
opposing views of learning. Then, write on each column your
personal arguments to show the distinctions between the two
learning views.

Learning is… Learning is not…

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
9. 9.
10. 10.

CHAD 13
 Activity 1.3
Writing a Personal
Definitive Essay

Directions: Write a 3-paragraph essay reflecting your personal definition

and description of learning. Be guided by the rubric provided
below.
_____________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.

Levels of Performance
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Basic
Content (40%) Thesis statement is Thesis statement is Thesis statement is No established thesis
very well- established and the fairly developed. statement; lacks
established. Writer writer takes Writer’s position, clarity of focus.
takes a clear somewhat clear while stated in some
position in response position in response ways, lacks clarity.
to the articles’ to the article’s
argument. argument.
Organization Very clearly and Effectively Somewhat organized. No attempt at
(40%) effectively structured. Transitions may not organization; no
structured. Transitions are be smooth and there transitions used
Transitions are somewhat smooth are some errors in and/or frequent
smoothly and and there are some usage. errors in usage.
effectively used. errors in usage.
Mechanics (20%) All sentences are Mot sentences are Mot sentences are Sentences sound
well-constructed well-constructed and well-constructed but awkward, are
and have varied have varied they have similar distractingly
structures and structures and structures and repetitive, or are
lengths; no errors in lengths; few errors in lengths; several difficult to
spelling, spelling, errors in spelling, understand
punctuation, punctuation, punctuation, numerous errors in
capitalization, capitalization, capitalization, spelling, punctuation,
grammar, etc. grammar, etc., but grammar, etc., that capitalization,
they do not interfere interfere with grammar, etc., that
with understanding. understanding. interfere with
understanding.

CHAD 14
 LESSON 2 Approaches to Learning

“Children need the freedom to appreciate the infinite resources of

their hands, their eyes, and their ears, the resources of forms,
materials, sounds, and colors.”
- Loris Malaguzzi

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the
following:

 Create a mind map showing the different learning approaches

discussed in this lesson, the proponents, their salient features and
their implications to teaching and learning; and
 Conduct a rapid behavior analysis of students in light of these
approaches and write a report from this analysis.

Getting Started:

In the previous lesson, you have learned what learning is and what
learning is not. Learning is a central focus of educational psychology.
When people are asked what schools are for, a common reply is “To help
children learn.” The scope of learning is broad because it involves
academic behaviors and nonacademic behaviors. It occurs in schools and
everywhere else that children experience their world. Factors affecting and
processes involved in learning have been a topic of discussion among
educators and psychologists since then.

Over the years, many theories have been developed to examine the
processes involved in learning. Most learning theories concentrate on the
significance for the way that learning is delivered. There are many different
ways of learning both formally and informally: as part of a group, such as
in a classroom setting, one-to-one, such as in a mentoring or coaching
arrangement, and self-learning. Furthermore, people learn differently at
different times in their lives and in different circumstances.

Anchored on these varying tenets of learning, number of approaches

to learning have been proposed by different authorities. In this lesson, you
will be able to examine various learning approaches from the behaviorist,
cognitivist, and humanist perspectives and explore how these can be
applied in educating students. Finally, part of what you will be doing in
this module is to conduct a behavior analysis in the classroom in order to

CHAD 15
recommend strategies to increase desirable behaviors and decrease
undesirable ones.

“To learn is a natural pleasure.”

― Aristotle

Focusing Content:

1 Behavioral Approaches to Learning

 Behaviorism is the view that behavior should be explained by

observable experiences, not by mental processes.

 The behaviorist approach is concerned with learners responding to

some form of stimulus.

 This approach to learning is based on the idea that learners respond

to stimuli in their environment. The role of the learning facilitator,
therefore, is to provide relevant and useful stimuli so that the
learner responds to and gains the required knowledge or experience.

One of the main ways to use the behavioral approach to learning in

training and teaching is to specify clear behavioral objectives at the start and then
supply learning opportunities that ensure that the objectives are met.

Examples:
1. A child creating a poster.
2. A teacher explaining Math concepts to the child.
3. A student picking on another student.

 Mental processes are defined by psychologists as the thoughts,

feelings, and motives that each of us experiences but that cannot
be observed by others. Examples include children thinking about
ways to create the best poster, a teacher feeling good about
children’s efforts, and children’s inner motivation to control their
behavior.

 Two behavioral views:

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning

Both of emphasize associative learning, a type of learning which

indicates that two events are connected (associated).

 Behaviorist theories of learning essentially stress the importance of

the assertiveness of the tutor, and the passive participant who is

CHAD 16
 not given a great deal of choice other than to respond in a
predetermined way.

1.Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a

neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and
acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. It was popularized by
Ivan Pavlov.

 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) is a Russian psychologist who is

well-known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. His experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.

 Findings:
1. Stimulus Generalization – once the dog has learned to salivate at the
sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
2. Extinction – if you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation
eventually cease in response to the bell.
3. Spontaneous recovery – extinguished responses can be “recovered”
after an elapse time but it will soon extinguish again if the dog is not
presented with food.
4. Discrimination – the dog could learn to discriminate between similar
bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation
of food and which would not.
5. Higher-Order Conditioning – once the dog has been conditioned to
associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as
a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung.

 Key terms to remember:

1. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that automatically
produces a response without any prior learning, e.g., food.
2. Unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned response that is
automatically elicited by the UCS.
3. Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that
eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with
the UCS.
4. Conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to the conditioned
stimulus that occurs after UCS-CS pairing.

Fig. 3. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

CHAD 17
Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

Classical conditioning can be involved in both positive and negative

experiences of children in the classroom.
Examples:
1. A song could be neutral for the child until he/she joins in with other
classmates to sing it with accompanying positive feelings. (Positive)
2. A child fails and is criticized, which produces anxiety; thereafter,
the child associates tests with anxiety, so they can become a CS for
anxiety. (Negative)

2.Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a form

of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in
the probability that the behavior will occur. Its main architect was
Burrhus Frederick Skinner (B.F. Skinner), whose views built on the
connectionist views of E.L. Thorndike.

 B.F. Skinner studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors)

used in operating the environment. He believed in the S-R
pattern of conditioned behavior.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors followed by

positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by
negative outcomes are weakened. According to Thorndike, the correct S-
R association is strengthened, and the incorrect association is weakened,
because of the consequences of the organism’s actions. His view is called
S-R theory because the organism’s behavior is due to a connection
between a stimulus and a response.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

It states that the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the
probability that the behavior will occur. Consequences—rewards or
punishments—are contingent on the organism’s behavior.

 Reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that

increases the probability that a behavior will
occur. Remember:
 Positive reinforcement refers to a  Positive
reinforcement based on the principle that the reinforce-
frequency of a response increases because it is ment
followed by a rewarding stimulus. For means
example, a teacher’s positive comments something
improved the student’s writing behavior. is added
 Negative
 Negative reinforcement is a type of
reinforcement based on the principle that the reinforce-
ment
frequency of a response increases because an
means
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is removed. For
something
example, a father nags his son to do his
is removed
homework. He keeps nagging. Finally, the son
gets tired of hearing the nagging and does his

CHAD 18
 homework. The son’s response (doing his homework) removed
the unpleasant stimulus (nagging).

 Punishment is a consequence that decreases the probability a

behavior will occur.

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment

Behavior

Student asks a good Student turns homework Student interrupts

question in on time teacher
Consequence

Teacher praises student Teacher stops criticizing Teacher verbally

student reprimands student
Future behavior

Student asks more good Student increasingly Student stops

questions turns homework in on interrupting teacher
time

Table 1. Reinforcement and Punishment

2 Cognitive Approaches to Learning

 Cognition mean “thought”, and psychology became more cognitive

or began focusing more on thought in the last part of the twentieth
century.
 Four main cognitive approaches in learning:
1. Social cognitive approach emphasizes how behavior, environment,
and person (cognitive) factors interact to influence learning.
2. Information-processing approach focuses on how children process
information through attention, memory, thinking, and other
cognitive processes.
3. Cognitive constructivist emphasizes the child’s cognitive
construction of knowledge and understanding.
4. Social constructivist approach focuses on collaboration with others
to produce knowledge and understanding.

 Contrast cognitive theories are concerned with the role of the active
mind in processing learning opportunities and developing. The tutor
(if present) and the participant both engage with knowledge; the role
of the tutor is choosing the best method to convey understanding.

1.Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning. Social cognitive theory

states that social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play
important roles in learning. Cognitive factors include student’s

CHAD 19
 expectations for success; while social factors might involve student’s
observing their parent’s achievement behavior.

 Albert Bandura is the main architect of social cognitive

theory. He says that when students learn, they can
cognitively represent or transform their experiences.

Personal Factors
(Values, beliefs, goals,
self-efficacy,
expectations,
attributions, etc.)

Environmental
Factors Behavior
(reinforcement, (actions, choices,
instruction, feedback, statements, learning,
others behaviors, achievements, etc.)
conditions, etc.)

Figure 4. Reciprocal Determinism Model (Social Cognitive Theory; based

on Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989)

In Bandura’s learning model, person/cognitive factors play

important roles. The person/cognitive factor that Bandura has
emphasized the most in recent years is self-efficacy.

 Self-efficacy
 It is the focal point of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory.
 It is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform
a task, fulfill role expectations, or meet a challenging situation
successfully.

 A high sense of self-efficacy means a high sense of competence (ex.

knows that a task can do, more likely to do it – CONFIDENCE).

Bandura also emphasizes observational learning. It is learning that

involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others. It
involves imitation but is not limited to it.

 Specific processes involved in observational learning:

1. Attention. Before students can produce a model’s actions, they
must attend to what the model is doing or saying. Attention to the

CHAD 20
 model is influenced by a host of characteristics. For example, warm,
powerful, atypical people command more attention than do cold,
weak, typical people. Students are more likely to be attentive to
high-status models than to low-status models. In most cases,
teachers are high-status models for students.
2. Retention. To reproduce a model’s actions, students must code the
information and keep it in memory so that they can retrieve it. A
simple verbal description or a vivid image of what the model did
assists students’ retention. For example, the teacher might say, “I’m
showing the correct way to do this. You have to do this step first,
this step second, and this step third,” as she models how to solve a
math problem. A video with a colorful character demonstrating the
importance of considering other students’ feelings might be
remembered better than if the teacher just tells the students to do
this. Students’ retention will be improved when teachers give vivid,
logical, and clear demonstrations.
3. Production. Children might attend to a model and code in memory
what they have seen—but, because of limitations in their motor
ability, not be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. A 13-year-old
might watch basketball player Lebron James and golfer Michelle
Wie execute their athletic skills to perfection, or observe a famous
pianist or artist, but not be able to reproduce their motor actions.
Teaching, coaching, and practice can help children improve their
motor performances.
4. Motivation. Often children attend to what a model says or does,
retain the information in memory, and possess the motor skills to
perform the action but are not motivated to perform the modeled
behavior. This was demonstrated in Bandura’s (1965) classic Bobo
doll study when children who saw the model being punished did not
reproduce the punished model’s aggressive actions. However, when
they subsequently were given a reinforcement or incentive (stickers
or fruit juice), they did imitate the model’s behavior.

 Cognitive Behavioral Approaches and Self-Regulation

Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches. In the cognitive-behavioral

approaches, the emphasis is on getting students to monitor, manage, and
regulate their own behavior rather than letting it be controlled by external
factors. In some circles, this has been called cognitive behavior
modification (Spiegler, 2016). Cognitive-behavioral approaches stem from
both cognitive psychology, with its emphasis on the effects of thoughts on
behavior, and behaviorism, with its emphasis on techniques for changing
behavior. Cognitive-behavioral approaches try to change students’
misconceptions, strengthen their coping skills, increase their self-control,
and encourage constructive self-reflection (Miltenberger, 2016).

Self-instructional methods are cognitive-behavioral techniques

aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behavior. Self-
instructional methods help people alter what they say to themselves.

CHAD 21
 Following are some self-talk strategies that students and teachers can
use to cope more effectively with such stressful situations
(Meichenbaum, Turk, & Burstein, 1975):
 Prepare for anxiety or stress. “What do I have to do?” “I’m going
to develop a plan to deal with it.” “I’ll just think about what I have
to do.” “I won’t worry. Worry doesn’t help anything.” “I have a lot
of different strategies I can use.”
 Confront and handle the anxiety or stress. “I can meet the
challenge.” “I’ll keep on taking just one step at a time.” “I can
handle it. I’ll just relax, breathe deeply, and use one of the
strategies.” “I won’t think about my stress. I’ll just think about
what I have to do.”
 Cope with feelings at critical moments. “What is it I have to do?”
“I knew my anxiety might increase. I just have to keep myself in
control.” “When the anxiety comes, I’ll just pause and keep
focusing on what I have to do.”
 Use reinforcing self-statements. “Good, I did it.” “I handled it
well.” “I knew I could do it.” “Wait until I tell other people how I
did it!”

Self-Regulatory Learning. Educational psychologists increasingly

advocate the importance of self-regulatory learning (Kitsantas & Cleary,
2016). Self-regulatory learning consists of the self-generation and self-
monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal.
These goals might be academic (improving comprehension while reading,
becoming a more organized writer, learning how to do multiplication,
asking relevant questions) or they might be socioemotional (controlling
one’s anger, getting along better with peers) (McClelland, Diaz, & Lewis,
2016; McClelland, Wanless, & Lewis, 2016).

 What are some of the characteristics of self-regulated learners? Self-

regulatory learners do the following things (Winne, 2001, 2005):
 Set goals for extending their knowledge and sustaining their
motivation;
 Are aware of their emotional makeup and have strategies for
managing their emotions;
 Periodically monitor their progress toward a goal;
 Fine-tune or revise their strategies based on the progress they are
making; and
 Evaluate obstacles that may arise and make the necessary
adaptations.

2.Information Processing Theory. A cognitive approach in which

children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
Central to this approach are cognitive processes such as attention,
memory, and thinking. According to the information-processing
approach, children develop a gradually increasing capacity for
processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly
complex knowledge and skills.

CHAD 22
Mechanisms of Change
According to Robert Siegler (1998, 2016a, b), three mechanisms
work together to create changes in children’s cognitive skills: encoding,
automaticity, and strategy construction.
 Encoding is the process by which information gets stored in
memory. Changes in children’s cognitive skills depend on increased
skill at encoding relevant information and ignoring irrelevant
information. For example, to a 4-year-old, an s in cursive writing is
a shape very different from an s that is printed. But a 10-year-old
has learned to encode the relevant fact that both are the letter s and
to ignore the irrelevant differences in their shape.
 Automaticity refers to the ability to process information with little or
no effort. Practice allows children to encode increasing amounts of
information automatically. For example, once children have learned
to read well, they do not think about each letter in a word as a letter;
instead, they encode whole words. Once a task is automatic, it does
not require conscious effort. As a result, as information processing
becomes more automatic, we can complete tasks more quickly and
handle more than one task at a time. Imagine how long it would
take you to read this page if you did not encode words automatically
but instead focused your attention on each letter in each word.
 Strategy construction is the creation of new procedures for
processing information. For example, children’s reading benefits
when they develop the strategy of stopping periodically to take stock
of what they have read so far. Developing an effective repertoire of
strategies and selecting the best one to use on a learning task is a
critical aspect of becoming an effective learner (Bjorklund, 2012).

In addition to these mechanisms of change, children’s information

processing is characterized by self-modification (Siegler, 1998, 2016a, b).
That is, children learn to use what they have learned in previous
circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation. For example,
a child who is familiar with dogs and cats goes to the zoo and sees lions
and tigers for the first time. She then modifies her concept of “animal” to
include her new knowledge. Part of this self-modification draws on
metacognition, which means “knowing about knowing” (Flavell, 2004;
Guerten, Lejeune, & Meulemans, 2016; Sobel & Letourneau, 2016). One
example of metacognition is what children know about the best ways to
remember what they have read.

 Attention is the focusing of mental resources. Attention improves

cognitive processing for many tasks, from hitting a baseball to
reading a book or adding numbers (Rothbart & Posner, 2015). At
any one time, though, children, like adults, can pay attention to
only a limited amount of information. They allocate their attention
in different ways (Reynolds & Romano, 2016). Psychologists have
labeled these types of allocation as selective attention, divided
attention, sustained attention, and executive attention.

Selective attention is focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is

relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant. Focusing on one voice

CHAD 23
 among many in a crowded room or a noisy restaurant is an example of
selective attention.
Divided attention involves concentrating on more than one activity at
the same time. If you are listening to music while you are reading this,
you are engaging in divided attention.
Sustained attention is the ability to maintain attention over an extended
period of time. Sustained attention is also called vigilance. Staying
focused on reading this chapter from start to finish without
interruption is an example of sustained attention.
Executive attention involves planning actions, allocating attention to
goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on
tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances. An example of
executive attention is effectively deploying attention to carry out the
aforementioned cognitive tasks while writing a 10-page paper for a
history course.

 Memory is the retention of information over time. Educational

psychologists study how information is initially placed or encoded
into memory, how it is retained or stored after being encoded, and
how it is found or retrieved for a certain purpose later. Memory
anchors the self in continuity.

The main body of our discussion of memory will focus on encoding,

storage, and retrieval. Thinking about memory in terms of these processes
should help you to understand it better.

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Getting
Retaining Taking
information
information information
into the
over time out of storage
memory

Figure 5. Processing Information in Memory

 Encoding
Attention is a key aspect of the encoding process (Schneider, 2015).
By focusing their attention, as children listen to a teacher, do homework,
write a paper, read a book, watch a movie, listen to music, or talk with a
friend, they can encode the information into memory. In addition to
attention, encoding consists of a number of processes: rehearsal, deep
processing, elaboration, constructing images, and organization.

 Rehearsal. Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information over

time to increase the length of time information stays in memory. For
example, when you make a date to meet your best friend for lunch,
you are likely to repeat, or rehearse, the date and time: “OK—
Wednesday at 1:30.” Rehearsal works best when you need to encode
and remember a list of items for a brief period of time.
 Deep Processing. Following the discovery that rehearsal is not an
efficient way to encode information for long-term memory, Fergus
Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) proposed that we can process

CHAD 24
 information at a variety of levels. Their levels of processing theory
states that the processing of memory occurs on a continuum from
shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.
Shallow processing means analyzing the sensory, or physical,
features of a stimulus at a shallow level. This might involve
detecting the lines, angles, and contours of a printed word’s letters
or a spoken word’s frequency, duration, and loudness. At an
intermediate level of processing, you recognize the stimulus and
give it a label. For example, you identify a four-legged, barking
object as a dog. Then, at the deepest level, you process information
semantically, in terms of its meaning. For example, if a child sees
the word boat, at the shallow level she might notice the shapes of
the letters, at the intermediate level she might think of the
characteristics of the word (for instance, that it rhymes with coat),
and at the deepest level she might think about the last time she
went fishing with her dad on a boat and the kind of boat it was.
 Elaboration. Cognitive psychologists soon recognized, however, that
there is more to good encoding than just depth of processing. They
discovered that when individuals use elaboration in their encoding
of information, their memory benefits (Ashcraft & Radvansky,
2016). Elaboration is the extensiveness of information processing
involved in encoding. Thus, when you present the concept of
democracy to students, they likely will remember it better if they
come up with good examples of it. Thinking of examples is a good
way to elaborate information.
 Constructing Images. When we construct an image of something, we
are elaborating the information. For example, how many windows
are there in the apartment or house where your family has lived for
a substantial part of your life? Few of us ever memorize this
information, but you probably can come up with a good answer,
especially if you reconstruct a mental image of each room.
 Organization. If students organize information when they are
encoding it, their memory benefits (Schneider, 2015). When you
present information in an organized way, your students are more
likely to remember it.

Chunking is a beneficial organizational memory strategy that involves

grouping, or “packing,” information into “higher-order” units that can
be remembered as single units.

 Storage
After children encode information, they need to retain, or store, the
information. The three types of memory are sensory memory (which lasts
a fraction of a second to several seconds); short-term memory (lasts about
30 seconds); and long-term memory (which lasts up to a lifetime).

 Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original

sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief
time a student is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other
sensations.

CHAD 25
  Short-term memory is a limited-capacity memory system in which
information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the
information is rehearsed or otherwise processed further, in which
case it can be retained longer. Compared with sensory memory,
short-term memory is limited in capacity but relatively longer in
duration.
 memory span – the number of digits an individual can report
back without error in a single presentation.
 working memory – is a three-part system that holds
information temporarily as a person performs a task. It is a
kind of “mental workbench” that lets individuals manipulate,
assemble, and construct information when they make
decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and
spoken language.

There are three components of working memory:

1. The phonological loop is specialized to briefly store

speech-based information about the sounds of
language. The phonological loop contains two separate
components: an acoustic code, which decays in a few
seconds; and rehearsal, which allows individuals to
repeat the words in the phonological store.
2. Visuospatial working memory stores visual and spatial
information, including visual imagery. Like the
phonological loop, visuospatial working memory has a
limited capacity. The phonological loop and
visuospatial working memory function independently.
You could rehearse numbers in the phonological loop
while making spatial arrangements of letters in
visuospatial working memory.
3. The central executive integrates information not only
from the phonological loop and visuospatial working
memory but also from long-term memory.
 Long-term memory is a type of memory that holds enormous
amounts of information for a long period of time in a relatively
permanent fashion. A typical human’s long-term memory capacity
is staggering, and the efficiency with which individuals can retrieve
information is impressive.
In this model,
sensory input goes into
sensory memory.
Through the process of
attention, information
moves into short-term
memory, where it
remains for 30 seconds
or less, unless it is
rehearsed. When the
information goes into
long-term memory
storage, it can be
retrieved throughout a
Figure 6. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of Memory person’s lifetime.

CHAD 26
Long Term Memory Contents

 Declarative memory
is the conscious
recollection of
information, such as
specific facts or
events that can be
verbally
communicated.
Declarative memory
has been called
“knowing that” and Figure 7. Classification of Long-Term Memory’s
more recently has Contents
been labeled “explicit memory.”
 Procedural memory is non-declarative knowledge in the form of
skills and cognitive operations. Procedural memory cannot be
consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or
facts. This makes procedural memory difficult, if not impossible, to
communicate verbally. Procedural memory is sometimes called
“knowing how,” and it also has been described as “implicit memory.”
 Episodic memory is the retention of information about the where
and when of life’s happenings. Students’ memories of the first day
of school, whom they had lunch with, or the guest who came to talk
with their class last week are all episodic.
 Semantic memory is a student’s general knowledge about the world.
It includes the following:
1. Knowledge of the sort learned in school (such as knowledge of
geometry)
2. Knowledge in different fields of expertise (such as knowledge of
chess, for a skilled 15-year-old chess player)
3. “Everyday” knowledge about meanings of words, famous people,
important places, and common things (such as what the word
pertinacious means or who Nelson Mandela is)

Representing Information in Memory

Network Theories. Network theories describe how information in memory

is organized and connected. They emphasize nodes in the memory
network. The nodes stand for labels or concepts.

Schema Theories. Schema theories state that when we reconstruct

information, we fit it into information that already exists in our mind. A
schema is information—concepts, knowledge, information about events—
that already exists in a person’s mind.

A script is a schema for an event. Scripts often have information

about physical features, people, and typical occurrences. This kind of

CHAD 27
information is helpful when teachers and students need to figure out what
is happening around them.

Fuzzy Trace Theory. Another variation of how individuals reconstruct their

memories is fuzzy trace theory, which states that when individuals encode
information it creates two types of memory representations: (1) a verbatim
memory trace, which consists of precise details; and (2) a fuzzy trace, or
gist, which is the central idea of the information (Brainerd & others, 2006,
2015; Brainerd & Reyna, 2014).

 Retrieval and Forgetting

When we retrieve something from our mental “data bank,” we
search our store of memory to find the relevant information. Just as with
encoding, this search can be automatic or it can require effort.

 serial position effect – is the principle which states that recall is

better for items at the beginning and the end of a list than for items
in the middle.
 The primacy effect is that items at the beginning of a list
tend to be remembered. The recency effect is that items at
the end of the list also tend to be remembered.
 encoding specificity principle – the principle that states that
associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be
effective retrieval cues.

 Recall is a memory task in which individuals must retrieve

previously learned information, as students must do for fill-
in-the-blank or essay questions.
 Recognition is a memory task in which individuals only have
to identify (“recognize”) learned information, as is often the
case on multiple-choice tests.

Forgetting
One form of forgetting involves the cues we just discussed. Cue-
dependent forgetting is retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective
retrieval cues. The notion of cue-dependent forgetting can explain why a
student might fail to retrieve a needed fact for an exam even when he is
sure he “knows” the information.

The principle of cue-dependent forgetting is consistent with

interference theory, which states that we forget not because we actually
lose memories from storage but rather because other information gets in
the way of what we are trying to remember.

Another source of forgetting is memory decay. According to decay

theory, new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical “memory
trace,” which will eventually disintegrate. Thus, decay theory suggests
that the passage of time is responsible for forgetting.

CHAD 28
STRATEGIES FOR EXPERTISE AND LEARNING
Experts use effective strategies in understanding the information in
their area of expertise and in advancing it (Ericsson & others, 2016; Gong,
Ericsson, & Moxley, 2015).

1. Spreading Out and Consolidating Learning. Students’ learning

benefits when teachers talk with them about the importance of
regularly reviewing what they learn. Children who have to
prepare for a test will benefit from distributing their learning over
a longer period rather than cramming for the test at the last
minute.
2. Asking Themselves Questions. When children ask themselves
questions about what they have read or about an activity, they
expand the number of associations with the information they
need to retrieve. At least as early as the middle of elementary
school, the self-questioning strategy can help children to
remember.
3. Taking Good Notes. Taking good notes from either a lecture or a
text benefits learning (Halonen & Santrock, 2013). When
children are left to take notes without being given any strategies,
they tend to take notes that are brief and disorganized. Here are
some good note-taking strategies:
 Summarizing. Have the children listen for a few minutes and
then write down the main idea that a speaker is trying to get
across in that time frame. Then have the child listen for
several more minutes and write down another idea, and so
on.
 Outlining. Show the children how to outline what a speaker
is saying, using first-level heads as the main topics, second-
level heads as subtopics under the first-level heads, and
third-level heads under the second-level heads.
 Using concept maps. Help the children practice drawing
concept maps, which are similar to outlines but visually
portray information in a more spiderlike format.
4. Using a Study System. Various systems have been developed to
help people to remember information that they are studying from
a book. One of the earliest systems was called SQ3R, which
stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. A more
recently developed system is called PQ4R, which stands for
Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review. Thus, the
PQ4R system adds an additional step, “Reflect,” to the SQ3R
system. Here are more details about the steps in the PQ4R
system:
 Preview. Tell your students to briefly survey the material to
get a sense of the overall organization of ideas—to look at the
headings to see the main topics and subtopics that will be
covered.
 Question. Encourage the children to ask themselves
questions about the material as they read it.
 Read. Now tell the children to read the material. Encourage
your students to be active readers—to immerse themselves in

CHAD 29
 what they are reading and strive to understand what the
author is saying.
 Reflect. By occasionally stopping and reflecting on the
material, students increase its meaningfulness. Encourage
the children to be analytic at this point in studying.
 Recite. This involves children self-testing themselves to see if
they can remember the material and reconstruct it. At this
point, encourage the children to make up a series of questions
about the material and then try to answer them.
 Review. Tell your students to go over the material and
evaluate what they know and don’t know. At this point, they
should reread and study the material they don’t remember or
understand well.

3.Constructivism. Constructivism is a psychological and philosophical

perspective contending that individuals form or construct much of
what they learn and understand (Bruning et al., 2004). The learner is
an information constructor. Learning is active reconstruction and
reinterpretation of experience. Learner constructs knowledge using:
1) previous knowledge;
2) newly assimilated experience; and
3) newly developed insights.

The characteristics of a constructivist classroom, as pointed out by

authorities, are:

Eggen and Kauchak (2010) Cruickshank et al. (2009)

1. Learners construct 1. Active learning (when
understanding. students are directly
2. New learning depends on involved in finding
current understanding. something out for
3. Learning is facilitated by themselves) is preferable to
social interaction. passive learning (when
4. Meaningful learning occurs students are recipients of
within authentic learning information presented by the
tasks. teacher).
2. Learning takes place in
groups or social situations.
3. Learners should engage in
“authentic and situated”
activities.
4. Learners relate and bridge
new information to that
which they already have.
5. Learners reflect or think of
what is being learned.
6. Teachers facilitate
acquisition of information.

CHAD 30
 7. Teachers give scaffolding
assistance to learners for
progress.
8. Students are expected to
resolve what they thought
they knew with new
understandings.

Table 2. Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom

Two Views of Constructivism (Lucas & Corpuz, 2014)

Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive

constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal construction of
knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type
choose child-centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners
should be allowed to discover principles through their own exploration
rather than direct instruction by the teacher.

Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge

exists in a social context and is initially shared with other instead of
being represented solely in the mind of an individual”. It is based on
Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or
more people. According to social constructivists, the opportunity to
interact and share among learners help to shape and refine their ideas.
Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.
The underpinnings of constructivism:
 Genetic Epistemology by Jean Piaget
 Discovery Learning by Jerome S. Bruner
 Socio-Cultural Theory by Lev Vygotsky
 Multiple Intelligence by Howard Gardner
 Pragmatism/Constructivism (Experiential Learning) by John Dewey

Jean Piaget suggests that a learner experiences disequilibrium while

facing a challenging situation which prompts him for learning it. The
learner links the new situation with his prior experiences (schemas) and
assimilates the new instance to be part of his cognition. This process of
tolerating the newness of the unfamiliar situation is called
accommodation. Thus, the initial disequilibrium dissolves into well-
adjusted equilibrated state by “adaptation”.

Jerome Bruner is thought to have originated discovery learning in

the 1960s, but his ideas are very similar to those of earlier writers (e.g.
John Dewey). Discovery learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction
and is considered a constructivist approach to education. Bruner argues
that “Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to acquire information
in a way that makes that information more readily viable in problem
solving”. Bruner suggested that the ability to represent knowledge
develops in three stages. These are:

CHAD 31
 1. Enactive representation connotes learning about the world through
actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. This
also refers to the ability to represent objects in terms of their
immediate sensation of them. Examples are riding a bicycle, tying a
knot, and tasting an apple.
2. Iconic representation transpires when learning can be obtained
through using models and pictures. The learner can now use mental
images to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic representation
allows one to recognize objects when they are changed in minor
ways (e.g. mountains with and without snow at the top).
3. Symbolic representation occurs when the learner has developed the
ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol system to
encode knowledge. The most common symbol systems are language
and mathematical notation.

use of
number and
use of number
pictures signs
use of and real (symbolic)
blocks objects
(enactive) (iconic)

Figure 8. The stages of learning according to Bruner

Bruner also advances two notable concepts in teaching and learning

processes which demonstrate the constructivist approach:

Spiral curriculum believes that teachers must revisit the

curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on
students’ developmental levels. This is why certain topics are initially
presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers,
and then the same is tackled in high school, but in a much deeper level.
Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. Here,
the teacher plans, arranges, and facilitates learning activities that allow
learners to learn new, relevant knowledge independently under the
guidance of the teacher. Prerequisite knowledge is seen as important
criterion that allows learners to discover important principles.

Lev Vysgotsky is of the opinion that social interaction plays a

fundamental role in the development of cognition. He suggests three zones
of development.
1) The zone of actual development
2) The zone of proximal development
3) The zone of potential development

Vygotsky’s term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) relates to the

gap between what the child can learn without others help, and what he or
she can learn with the help of an adult or a more capable peer. The notion
of ZPD implies that a child’s development is determined by social
interaction and collaborative problem-solving. Research indicates that
communicating knowledge is essential for understanding. There are many

CHAD 32
ways in which knowledge can be shared for example, conferencing
between teacher and student, small group activities in which students’
voice their interpretations, oral reports, projects, role playing and
demonstrations.

Howard Gardner suggests that each individual manifests varying

levels of these different intelligences, and thus each person has a unique
“cognitive profile”. Gardner lists 9 areas of intelligence: 1) Linguistic; 2)
Logical-Mathematical; 3) Spatial; 4) Bodily-Kinesthetic; 5) Musical; 6)
Interpersonal; 7) Intrapersonal; 8) Naturalistic; and 9) Existential. A child
who masters the multiplication table easily is not necessarily more
intelligent overall than a child who struggles to do so. The second child
may be stronger in another kind of intelligence, and therefore may best
learn the given material through a different approach, may excel in a field
outside of mathematics, or may even be looking through the multiplication
learning process at a fundamentally deeper level that hides a potentially
higher mathematical intelligence than in the one who memorizes the
concept easily. Gardner’s theory argues that students will be better served
by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different
methodologies, exercises and activities to reach all students, not just
those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence.

John Dewey rejected the notion that schools should focus on

repetitive, rote memorization & proposed a method of "directed living" –
students would engage in real-world, practical workshops in which they
would demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and collaboration.
Students should be provided with opportunities to think from themselves
and articulate their thoughts. Dewey called for education to be grounded
in real experience. He wrote, "If you have doubts about how learning
happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative
possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence."

The Constructivist Classroom

 The focus shifts from the teacher to the students.
 It is not the place where the teacher (“expert”) pours knowledge into
passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled.
 Students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of
learning while the teacher acts more of a facilitator who coaches,
mediates, prompts, and helps students develop and assess their
understanding and their learning.

 Learning in a constructivist classroom is…

 Constructed. Learners make use of their previous knowledge to
create new knowledge and not as blank slates waiting for
knowledge to be etched.
 Active. Students are actively involved in creating new knowledge
for him/herself under the guidance of the teacher. Learning
activities require the students’ full participation (hands-on
experiments) that allows them to reflect on, think about their
activities.

CHAD 33
  Reflective. Students control their own learning process, and they
lead the way by reflecting on their experiences. Teachers help
create situations and activities where the students feel safe
questioning and reflecting their learning either privately or group
discussions.
 Collaborative. Learning in a constructivist classroom commonly
emphasizes collaboration as constructivists believe that
students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also
from their peers.

Constructivist Teaching and Learning Principles (Benoze, 2005 as cited by

Vega & Prieto, 2012)
1. Learners have their ideas.
2. Learners need first-hand experiences.
3. Learners like their ideas.
4. Learners see what they want to see.
5. Learners are not often aware of what they know.
6. Students need to know how to learn.
7. Learners may not discover experts’ conclusions.

Specific Strategies Grounded in Constructivism

1. Guided Discovery
2. Inquiry
3. Discussion
4. Cooperative Learning
Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning
1. Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth
manner, rather than taking up so many topics superficially.
2. Give varied examples.
3. Provide opportunities for experimentation.
4. Provide lots of opportunities for quality instruction.
5. Have lots of hands-on activities.
6. Relate your topic to real life situations.
7. Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

Behavioral Social Information- Cognitive Social

Cognitive Processing Constructivist Constructivist

Emphasis on Emphasis on Emphasis on Emphasis on Emphasis on

experiences, interaction of how children the child’s collaboration
especially behavior, process cognitive with others to
reinforcement environment, information construction of produce
and and person through knowledge and knowledge and
punishment (cognitive) attention, understanding understanding
as factors memory,
determinants interact to thinking, and
of learning influence other
and behavior learning cognitive
processes

Figure 9. Summary on Approaches to Learning

CHAD 34
 Taking Action:

Activity 2.1
Mapping out
Learning Approaches

Directions: Draw a mind map showing the different learning approaches

discussed in this lesson, the proponents, their salient features and
their implications to teaching and learning. Be guided by the sample
mind map provided below.

Salient Salient
Features Features
Propo- Implica- Propo- Implica-
nent/s tions nent/s tions

Behavioral Cognitive
View View Propo-
nent/s

Behavioral Learning Cognitive Cognitive Salient

Approaches Approaches View Features
Approaches

Implica-
tions
Behavioral Cognitive
View View

Propo- Implica- Propo- Implica-

nent/s tions nent/s tions
Salient Salient
Features Features

CHAD 35
 Activity 2.2
Writing a Behavior
Analysis Report

Directions: Choose a particular academic misbehavior that you want to

learn more about (e.g. cheating, tardiness, absenteeism, etc.).
Research relevant literature that talk about the nature and
consequences of the chosen misbehavior to the learning and
knowledge acquisition of the students. Interview three (3) to five (5)
teachers (depending on your field of specialization; elementary or
secondary) on their experiences of having students who misbehaved
and the strategy/ies they applied to correct or displace such
misbehavior. Record their responses and create a behavior analysis
report. The report should not be more than two (2) pages long
written in a short bond paper. Here are the things that your report
should contain:

 A rationale of the chosen misbehavior with complete and correct

citation of the sources;
 The responses of the teachers from the interview presented in
narrative form with support from readings of articles. This is called
substantiation of the report. Research for ideas from various
authors that agree or disagree with the answers of the teachers in
the interview; and
 The conclusion of the report. Discuss what things are revealed to be
important and relevant in your analysis to the teaching-learning
process and your future profession as a teacher.

CHAD 36
 LESSON 3 Learning Theories

“The human being by nature is a social animal.”

- Aristotle

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to do the

following:

 Draw a matrix to summarize the salient features of the learning

theories and their implications to teaching and learning; and
 Write an analysis report on a given case.

Getting Started:

Learning theories are theoretical frameworks that describe the

mechanisms of the absorption, processing and retention of knowledge
during the process of learning. Previously, you were introduced to various
learning approaches and you got to be acquainted with some of the major
psychological theories. This lesson will discuss some important learning
theories such as connectionism, conditioning, insight, experiential
learning theories, etc. to provide and extensive understanding of the
subject.

Learning theories are an organized set of principles explaining how

individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. By studying and
knowing different learning theories, you can better understand how
learning occurs. The principles of the theories can be used as guidelines
to help select instructional tools, techniques and strategies that promote
learning.

CHAD 37
 “The mind is an enchanting thing.”
― Marianne Moore

Focusing Content:

CONNECTIONISM

Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was a prominent U.S.

psychologist whose theory of learning—connectionism—was dominant in
the United States during the first half of the twentieth century (Mayer,
2003). He applied an experimental approach when measuring students’
achievement outcomes.

Trial-and-Error Learning
Thorndike’s major work is the three-volume series Educational
Psychology (Thorndike, 1913a, 1913b, 1914). He postulated that the most
fundamental type of learning involves the forming of associations
(connections) between sensory experiences (perceptions of stimuli or
events) and neural impulses (responses) that manifest themselves
behaviorally. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error
(selecting and connecting).

Trial-and-error learning occurs gradually (incrementally) as

successful responses are established and unsuccessful ones are
abandoned. Connections are formed mechanically through repetition;
conscious awareness is not necessary. Thorndike understood that human
learning is more complex because people engage in other types of learning
involving connecting ideas, analyzing, and reasoning (Thorndike, 1913b).

Laws of Exercise and Effect

Thorndike’s basic ideas about learning
The Law of Effect is
are embodied in the Laws of Exercise and central to Thorndike’s
Effect. The Law of Exercise has two parts: theory (Thorndike, 1913b):
The Law of Use—a response to a stimulus
When a modifiable
strengthens their connection; the Law of
connection between a
Disuse—when a response is not made to a situation and a response is
stimulus, the connection’s strength is made and is accompanied or
weakened (forgotten). The longer the time followed by a satisfying state
interval before a response is made, the of affairs, that connection’s
strength is increased: When
greater is the decline in the connection’s
made and accompanied or
strength. followed by an annoying state
of affairs, its strength is
The Law of Effect emphasizes the decreased. (p. 4)
consequences of behavior: Responses
resulting in satisfying (rewarding) consequences are learned; responses
producing annoying (punishing) consequences are not learned. This is a

CHAD 38
functional account of learning because satisfiers (responses that produce
desirable outcomes) allow individuals to adapt to their environments.

Other Principles
Thorndike’s (1913b) theory included other principles relevant to
education. One principle is the Law of Readiness, which states that when
one is prepared (ready) to act, to do so is rewarding and not to do so is
punishing. If one is hungry, responses that lead to food are in a state of
readiness, whereas other responses not leading to food are not in a state
of readiness. If one is fatigued, it is punishing to be forced to exercise.
Applying this idea to learning, we might say that when students are ready
to learn a particular action (in terms of developmental level or prior skill
acquisition), then behaviors that foster this learning will be rewarding.
When students are not ready to learn or do not possess prerequisite skills,
then attempting to learn is punishing and a waste of time.

The principle of associative shifting refers to a situation in which

responses made to a particular stimulus eventually are made to an
entirely different stimulus if, on repeated trials, there are small changes
in the nature of the stimulus. For example, to teach students to divide a
two-digit number into a four-digit number, we first teach them to divide a
one-digit number into a one-digit number and then gradually add more
digits to the divisor and dividend.

The principle of identical elements affects transfer (generalization),

or the extent that strengthening or weakening of one connection produces
a similar change in another connection (Hilgard, 1996; Thorndike, 1913b).
Transfer occurs when situations have identical elements and call for
similar responses. Thorndike and Woodworth (1901) found that practice
or training in a skill in a specific context did not improve one’s ability to
execute that skill generally. Thus, training on estimating the area of
rectangles does not advance learners’ ability to estimate the areas of
triangles, circles, and irregular figures. Skills should be taught with
different types of educational content for students to understand how to
apply them.

Revisions to Thorndike’s Theory

Thorndike revised the Laws of Exercise and Effect after other
research evidence did not support them (Thorndike, 1932). Thorndike
discarded the Law of Exercise when he found that simple repetition of a
situation does not necessarily “stamp in” responses. The presence of
corrective feedback during exercise is more necessary to ensure learning
or growth than mere repetition of a situation.

With respect to the Law of Effect, Thorndike originally thought that

the effects of satisfiers (rewards) and annoyers (punishments) were
opposite but comparable, but research showed this was not the case.
Rather, rewards strengthened connections, but punishment did not
necessarily weaken them (Thorndike, 1932). Instead, connections are
weakened when alternative connections are strengthened.

CHAD 39
Thorndike and Education
Some of Thorndike’s many contributions to education are the
following.

Principles of Teaching. Teachers should help students form good

habits. As Thorndike (1912) noted:
■ Form habits. Do not expect them to create themselves.
■ Beware of forming a habit which must be broken later.
■ Do not form two or more habits when one will do as well.
■ Other things being equal, have a habit formed in the way in which
it is to be used.

Sequence of Curricula. A skill should be introduced (Thorndike &

Gates, 1929):
■ At the time or just before the time when it can be used in some
serviceable way.
■ At the time when the learner is conscious of the need for it as a
means of satisfying some useful purpose.
■ When it is most suited in difficulty to the ability of the learner.
■ When it will harmonize most fully with the level and type of
emotions, tastes, instinctive and volitional dispositions most active at the
time.
■ When it is most fully facilitated by immediately preceding
learnings and when it will most fully facilitate learnings which are to follow
shortly.

Mental Discipline. Mental discipline is the view that learning

certain subjects (e.g., the classics, mathematics) enhances general mental
functioning better than learning other subjects.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

One of the most significant event in the early twentieth century

which helped establish psychology as a science and learning as a
legitimate field of study was the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), a
Russian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work on
digestion.

In the previous lesson, you learn that Pavlov’s legacy to learning

theory was his work on classical conditioning (Cuny, 1965; Hunt, 1993;
Windholz, 1997). Let’s us deepen your understanding of the theory. First,
let us look closely at the classical conditioning procedure.

Phase Stimulus Response

1 UCS (food powder) UCR (salivation)

2 CS (metronome), then UCR (salivation)

UCS (food powder)

3 CS (metronome) CR (salivation)

CHAD 40
 Thinking Tank

Given the figure above, describe the classical conditioning

processes of Pavlov. Write your answer on a separate answer sheet
and submit it together with your answers/outputs in other activities.

Pavlov’s Legacy

 Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary

behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific
procedures.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

 Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their

positive-associations with alcohol.
 Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects
the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the
immune response.
 Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop
advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including
Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.

John Watson and Classical Conditioning

 John B. Watson was an American psychologist and he was the first

person to use the term behaviorism to study human behavior. His
research was greatly influenced by Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Theory. Using Classical Conditioning Model, he made a research on
children’s emotion.

Watson’s postulated Emotion Learning by Stimulus Generalization.

According to Watson, human normally inherit three kinds of basic
emotions: fear, anger and love. These emotions can be learned through
the process of conditioning. This hypothesis is then followed by his
experiment, assisted by Rayner (1920).

He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said if he is given a dozen

healthy infants, he can make them into anything you want them to be, basically through
making stimulus-response connections through conditioning.

Experiment on Albert
 His subjects were a nine-month old baby, named Little Albert and a
white, tame mouse.
 The purpose of this experiment was to prove that the feeling of fear
towards the mouse can be learned through the process of
conditioning.
 Initially, the baby liked to play with the white mouse.

CHAD 41
  However, after given unconditioned stimulus, the baby was terrified
at the sight of the mouse and everything resembling it.

In a recorded video of his experiment, a white mouse was brought to

Little Albert. Little Albert was interested in it and played with it. The
second time the mouse was shown to Little Albert, a loud, startling sound
(unconditioned stimulus) was emitted all of the sudden from the back. The
reaction shown by the baby was fright and fear.

Here are the key findings of the experiment:

1. The mouse was a conditioned stimulus which Little Albert was
familiar with. At first, he was not afraid of it.
2. On the other hand, the loud, startling sound was an
unconditioned stimulus which Little Albert was not familiar with.
The sound came with the mouse all of the sudden and that has
caused Little Albert’s fear.
3. Each time the mouse was shown to Little Albert, it will be
followed by the sound. In this way, a conditioned response (fear)
was established.
4. The conclusion made was that, Little Albert had related the
sound with the white mouse which he played with previously.
5. Through this conditioning process (continuous exposure to the
mouse and the sound), Albert has learned to respond with fear.
6. Little Albert was also stimulated with other stimuli (white rabbit,
fur coat, fury thing) and he responded the same way- fear. This
is what Watson concluded as stimulus generalization – Little
Albert has generalized that all fury and white things will make
loud sounds, and thus he was afraid of them.

Implications of Watson’s Theory in Teaching and Learning

1. All types of behavior can be learned through the conditioning
process. Positive behavior can be taught by using suitable stimulus.
E.g.: A teacher rewarding her student with candies (stimulus)
each time he sweeps the floor. The student will adapt to this positive
behavior because of the stimulus.
2. In order to master the skill of problem solving, pupils ought to relate
the relationship between all responses systematically.
3. In order to consolidate what has been learned in the memory, more
exercises should be carried out after learning (plays important in
knowledge retention-long term memory).
4. During the teaching process, teacher should use suitable stimulus
to motivate pupils in learning, (rewards) and at the same time, avoid
using stimulus which will produce negative effect (excessive
punishments).

OPERANT CONDITIONING
A well-known behavioral theory is operant conditioning, formulated
by B. F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner (1904–1990). In 1948, after a difficult
period in his life, he published Walden Two, which describes how
behavioral principles can be applied to create a utopian society. Skinner

CHAD 42
and others have applied operant conditioning principles to such domains
as school learning and discipline, child development, language
acquisition, social behaviors, mental illness, medical problems, substance
abuse, and vocational training (DeGrandpre, 2000; Karoly & Harris, 1986;
Morris, 2003).

Conceptual Framework
This section discusses the assumptions underlying operant
conditioning, how it reflects a functional analysis of behavior, and the
implications of the theory for the prediction and control of behavior.
Scientific Assumptions. Pavlov traced the locus of learning to the
nervous system and viewed behavior as a manifestation of neurological
functioning. Skinner (1938) did not deny that neurological functioning
accompanies behavior, but he believed a psychology of behavior can be
understood in its own terms without reference to neurological or other
internal events.
Skinner raised similar objections to the unobservable processes and
entities proposed by modern cognitive views of learning (Overskeid, 2007).
Private events, or internal responses, are accessible only to the individual
and can be studied through people’s verbal reports, which are forms of
behavior (Skinner, 1953). Skinner did not deny the existence of attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, desires, and other forms of self-knowledge (he, after all,
had them), but rather qualified their role. Much of what is called knowing
involves using language (verbal behavior). Thoughts are types of behavior
that are brought about by other stimuli (environmental or private) and
that give rise to responses (overt or covert).

Functional Analysis of Behavior. Skinner (1953) referred to his

means of examining behavior as a functional analysis:
The external variables of which behavior is a function provide for what
may be called a causal or functional analysis. We undertake to predict and
control the behavior of the individual organism. This is our “dependent
variable”—the effect for which we are to find the cause. Our “independent
variables”—the causes of behavior—are the external conditions of which
behavior is a function. Relations between the two—the “cause-and-effect
relationships” in behavior—are the laws of a science. A synthesis of these laws
expressed in quantitative terms yields a comprehensive picture of the
organism as a behaving system (p. 35).

Learning is “the reassortment of responses in a complex situation”;

conditioning refers to “the strengthening of behavior which results from
reinforcement” (Skinner, 1953, p. 65). There are two types of conditioning:
Type S and Type R. Type S is Pavlovian conditioning, characterized by the
pairing of the reinforcing (unconditioned) stimulus with another
(conditioned) stimulus. The S calls attention to the importance of the
stimulus in eliciting a response from the organism. The response made to
the eliciting stimulus is known as respondent behavior.
Although Type S conditioning may explain conditioned emotional
reactions, most human behaviors are emitted in the presence of stimuli
rather than automatically elicited by them. Responses are controlled by
their consequences, not by antecedent stimuli. This type of behavior,
which Skinner termed Type R to emphasize the response aspect, is

CHAD 43
operant behavior because it operates on the environment to produce an
effect.
If the occurrence of an operant is followed by presentation of a
reinforcing stimulus, the strength is increased.... If the occurrence of an
operant already strengthened through conditioning is not followed by the
reinforcing stimulus, the strength is decreased (Skinner, 1938, p. 21).
We might think of operant behavior as “learning by doing,” and in
fact much learning occurs when we perform behaviors (Lesgold, 2001).
Unlike respondent behavior, which prior to conditioning does not occur,
the probability of occurrence of an operant is never zero because the
response must be made for reinforcement to be provided. Reinforcement
changes the likelihood or rate of occurrence of the response. Operant
behaviors act upon their environments and become more or less likely to
occur because of reinforcement.

Basic Processes
This section examines the basic processes in operant conditioning:
reinforcement, extinction, primary and secondary reinforcers, the
Premack Principle, punishment, schedules of reinforcement,
generalization, and discrimination.
Reinforcement. Reinforcement is responsible for response
strengthening—increasing the rate of responding or making responses
more likely to occur. A reinforcer (or reinforcing stimulus) is any stimulus
or event following a response that leads to response strengthening.
Reinforcers (rewards) are defined based on their effects, which do not
depend upon mental processes such as consciousness, intentions, or
goals (Schultz, 2006). Because reinforcers are defined by their effects, they
cannot be determined in advance.
The only way to tell whether or not a given event is reinforcing to a
given organism under given conditions is to make a direct test. We observe
the frequency of a selected response, then make an event contingent upon it
and observe any change in frequency. If there is a change, we classify the
event as reinforcing to the organism under the existing conditions (Skinner,
1953, pp. 72–73).

Reinforcers are situationally specific: They apply to individuals at

given times under given conditions. What is reinforcing to a particular
student during reading now may not be during mathematics now or
during reading later. Students typically find reinforcing such events as
teacher praise, free time, privileges, stickers, and high grades.
Nonetheless, one never can know for certain whether a consequence is
reinforcing until it is presented after a response and we see whether
behavior changes.
The basic operant model of conditioning is the three-term
contingency:
SD → R → SR
A discriminative stimulus (SD) sets the occasion for a response (R) to
be emitted, which is followed by a reinforcing stimulus (SR, or
reinforcement). The reinforcing stimulus is any stimulus (event,
consequence) that increases the probability the response will be emitted
in the future when the discriminative stimulus is present. In more familiar
terms, we might label this the A-B-C model:

CHAD 44
 A (Antecedent) → B (Behavior) → C (Consequence)
Positive reinforcement involves presenting a stimulus, or adding
something to a situation, following a response, which increases the future
likelihood of that response occurring in that situation. A positive reinforcer
is a stimulus that, when presented following a response, increases the
future likelihood of the response occurring in that situation. Let us take a
look at the succeeding table illustrating the use of positive reinforcers for
good behavior.

SD → R→ SR
Discriminative Response Reinforcing
Stimulus (Punishing)
Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement (Present positive reinforcer)
T gives independent L studies* T praises L for good work
study time*
Negative Reinforcement (Remove negative reinforcer)
T gives independent L studies T says L does not have
study time to do homework
Punishment (Present negative reinforcer)
T gives independent L wastes time T gives homework
study time
Punishment (Remove positive reinforcer)
T gives independent L wastes time T says L will miss
study time free time
*T refers to teacher and L to learner.

Negative reinforcement involves removing a stimulus, or taking

something away from a situation following a response, which increases
the future likelihood that the response will occur in that situation. A
negative reinforcer is a stimulus that, when removed by a response,
increases the future likelihood of the response occurring in that situation.
Some stimuli that often function as negative reinforcers are bright lights,
loud noises, criticism, annoying people, and low grades, because
behaviors that remove them tend to be reinforcing. Positive and negative
reinforcement have the same effect: They increase the likelihood that the
response will be made in the future in the presence of the stimulus.

Extinction. Extinction involves the decline of response strength

due to nonreinforcement. Students who raise their hands in class but
never get called on may stop raising their hands. People who send many
e-mail messages to the same individual but never receive a reply
eventually may quit sending messages to that person.
Extinction is not the same as forgetting. Responses that extinguish
can be performed but are not because of lack of reinforcement. In the
preceding examples, the students still know how to raise their hands and
the people still know how to send e-mail messages. Forgetting involves a
true loss of conditioning over time in which the opportunities for
responding have not been present.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers. Stimuli such as food, water,

and shelter are called primary reinforcers because they are necessary for
survival. Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that become conditioned

CHAD 45
through their association with primary reinforcers. A child’s favorite milk
glass becomes secondarily reinforcing through its association with milk (a
primary reinforcer). A secondary reinforcer that becomes paired with more
than one primary reinforcer is a generalized reinforcer. People work long
hours to earn money (a generalized reinforcer), which they use to buy
many reinforcers (e.g., food, housing, TVs, vacations).
Operant conditioning explains the development and maintenance of
much social behavior with generalized reinforcers. Children may behave
in ways to draw adults’ attention. Attention is reinforcing because it is
paired with primary reinforcers from adults (e.g., food, water, protection).
Important educational generalized reinforcers are teachers’ praise, high
grades, privileges, honors, and degrees. These reinforcers often are paired
with other generalized reinforcers, such as approval (from parents and
friends) and money (a college degree leads to a good job).

Premack Principle. Premack (1962, 1971) described a means for

ordering reinforcers that allows one to predict reinforcers. The Premack
Principle says that the opportunity to engage in a more valued activity
reinforces engaging in a less valued activity, where “value” is defined in
terms of the amount of responding or time spent on the activity in the
absence of reinforcement. If a contingency is arranged such that the value
of the second (contingent) event is higher than the value of the first
(instrumental) event, an increase will be expected in the probability of
occurrence of the first event (the reward assumption). If the value of the
second event is lower than that of the first event, the likelihood of
occurrence of the first event ought to decrease (the punishment
assumption).
Suppose that a child is allowed to choose between working on an
art project, going to the media center, reading a book in the classroom, or
working at the computer. Over the course of 10 such choices the child
goes to the media center 6 times, works at the computer 3 times, works
on an art project 1 time, and never reads a book in the classroom. For this
child, the opportunity to go to the media center is valued the most. To
apply the Premack Principle, a teacher might say to the child, “After you
finish reading this book, you can go to the media center.” Considerable
empirical evidence supports Premack’s ideas, especially with respect to
the reward assumption (Dunham, 1977).

Punishment. Punishment decreases the future likelihood of

responding to a stimulus. Punishment may involve withdrawing a positive
reinforcer or presenting a negative reinforce following a response.
Punishment suppresses a response but does not eliminate it; when
the threat of punishment is removed, the punished response may return.
The effects of punishment are complex. Punishment often brings about
responses that are incompatible with the punished behavior and that are
strong enough to suppress it (Skinner, 1953). Spanking a child for
misbehaving may produce guilt and fear, which can suppress
misbehavior. If the child misbehaves in the future, the conditioned guilt
and fear may reappear and lead the child quickly to stop misbehaving.
Punishment also conditions responses that lead one to escape or avoid
punishment. Students whose teacher criticizes incorrect answers soon

CHAD 46
learn to avoid volunteering answers. Punishment can condition
maladaptive behaviors, because punishment does not teach how to
behave more productively. Punishment can further hinder learning by
creating a conflict such that the individual vacillates between responding
one way or another. If the teacher sometimes criticizes students for
incorrect answers and sometimes does not, students never know when
criticism is forthcoming. Such variable behavior can have emotional by-
products—fear, anger, crying—that interfere with learning.
There are several alternatives to punishment as shown in the
following table:

Alternative Example
Change the Move misbehaving student away from other
discriminative stimuli misbehaving students.

Allow the unwanted Have student who stands when he or she should
behavior to continue be sitting continue to stand.

Extinguish the Ignore minor misbehavior so that it is not

unwanted behavior reinforced by teacher attention.

Condition an Reinforce learning progress, which occurs only

incompatible when student is not misbehaving.
behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement. Schedules refer to when

reinforcement is applied (Ferster & Skinner, 1957; Skinner, 1938; Zeiler,
1977). A continuous schedule involves reinforcement for every correct
response. This may be desirable while skills are being acquired: Students
receive feedback after each response concerning the accuracy of their
work. Continuous reinforcement helps to ensure that incorrect responses
are not learned.
An intermittent schedule involves reinforcing some but not all correct
responses. Intermittent reinforcement is common in classrooms, because
usually it is not possible for teachers to reinforce each student for every
correct or desirable response. Students are not called on every time they
raise their hands, are not praised after working each problem, and are not
constantly told they are behaving appropriately.
Intermittent schedules are defined in terms of time or number of
responses. An interval schedule involves reinforcing the first correct
response after a specific time period. In a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, the
time interval is constant from one reinforcement to the next. An FI5
schedule means that reinforcement is delivered for the first response made
after 5 minutes. Students who receive 30 minutes of free time every Friday
(contingent on good behavior during the week) are operating under a fixed-
interval schedule. In a variable-interval (VI) schedule, the time interval
varies from occasion to occasion around some average value. A VI5
schedule means that on the average, the first correct response after 5
minutes is reinforced, but the time interval varies (e.g., 2, 3, 7, or 8
minutes). Students who receive 30 minutes of free time (contingent on

CHAD 47
good behavior) on an average of once a week, but not necessarily on the
same day each week, are operating under a variable-interval schedule.
A ratio schedule depends on the number of correct responses or rate
of responding. In a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, every nth correct response is
reinforced, where n is constant. An FR10 schedule means that every 10th
correct response receives reinforcement. In a variable ratio (VR) schedule,
every nth correct response is reinforced, but the value varies around an
average number n. A teacher may give free time after every fifth workbook
assignment is completed (FR5) or periodically around an average of five
completed assignments (VR5).
Reinforcement schedules produce characteristic patterns of
responding. In general, ratio schedules produce higher response rates
than interval schedules. A limiting factor in ratio schedules is fatigue due
to rapid responding.

Generalization. Once a certain response occurs regularly to a given

stimulus, the response also may occur to other stimuli. This is called
generalization (Skinner, 1953). Skinner explained generalization by noting
that people perform many behaviors that lead to the final (reinforced)
response.
For example, students with good academic habits typically come to
class, attend to and participate in the activities, take notes, do the
required reading, and keep up with the assignments. These component
behaviors produce high achievement and grades. When such students
begin a new class, it is not necessary that the content be similar to
previous classes in which they have been enrolled. Rather, the component
behaviors have received repeated reinforcement and thus are likely to
generalize to the new setting.

Discrimination. Discrimination, the complementary process to

generalization, involves responding differently (in intensity or rate)
depending on the stimulus or features of a situation (Rilling, 1977).
Spence (1936) proposed that to teach discrimination, desired responses
should be reinforced and unwanted responses extinguished by
nonreinforcement. In school, teachers point out similarities and
differences among similar content and provide for periodic reviews to
ensure that students discriminate properly and apply correct problem-
solution methods.

Behavioral Change
Reinforcement can be given for making correct responses only when
people know what to do. Often, however, operant responses do not exist
in final, polished form. If teachers wait to deliver reinforcement until
learners emit the proper responses, many learners would never receive
reinforcement because they never would acquire the responses. We now
turn to a discussion of how behavioral change occurs in operant
conditioning, which has important implications for learning.

Successive Approximations (Shaping). The basic operant

conditioning method of behavioral change is shaping, or differential
reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired form or rate of

CHAD 48
behavior (Morse & Kelleher, 1977). To shape behavior, one adheres to the
following sequence:
■ Identify what the student can do now (initial behavior)
■ Identify the desired behavior
■ Identify potential reinforcers in the student’s environment
■ Break the desired behavior into small substeps to be mastered
sequentially
■ Move the student from the initial behavior to the desired behavior
by successively reinforcing each approximation to the desired behavior
It is important to note that shaping is learning by doing with
corrective feedback.

Chaining. Chaining is the process of producing or altering some of

the variables that serve as stimuli for future responses (Skinner, 1953). A
chain consists of a series of operants, each of which sets the occasion for
further responses. Chains are similar to Guthrie’s acts, whereas
individual three-term contingencies resemble movements. Some chains
acquire a functional unity; the chain is an integrated sequence such that
successful implementation defines a skill. When skills are well honed,
execution of the chain occurs automatically. Chaining plays a critical role
in the acquisition of skills (Gollub, 1977; Skinner, 1978).

Instructional Applications
Here are some implications of operant conditioning (Lucas &
Corpuz, 2011):
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer
(response) frames which expose the student to the subject in
gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and
received immediate feedback
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is
always correct and hence, a positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles derived from Skinner’s operant conditioning (Lucas &

Corpuz, 2011):
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that
responses can be reinforced (shaping).
3. Reinforcements will have generalized across similar stimuli
(stimulus generalization) producing secondary conditioning.

Learning Time. Operant theory predicts that environmental

variables affect students’ learning. One key environmental variable is
learning time.
Carroll (1963, 1965) formulated a model of school learning that
places primary emphasis on the instructional variable of time spent
learning. Time means academically engaged time, or time spent paying
attention and trying to learn. Although time is an environmental

CHAD 49
(observable) variable, this definition is cognitive because it goes beyond a
simple behavioral indicator of clock time.
Time Needed for Learning. One influence on this factor is aptitude
for learning the task. Learning aptitude depends on the amount of prior
task-relevant learning and on personal characteristics such as abilities
and attitudes. A second, related factor is ability to understand
instruction. This variable interacts with instructional method; for
example, some learners comprehend verbal instruction well, whereas
others benefit more from visual presentations.
Quality of instruction refers to how well the task is organized and
presented to learners. Quality includes what learners are told about what
they will learn and how they will learn it, the extent to which they have
adequate contact with the learning materials, and how much prerequisite
knowledge is acquired prior to learning the task. The lower the quality of
instruction, the more time learners require to learn.
Time Spent in Learning. Time allowed for learning is one influence
on this factor. The school curriculum includes so much content that time
allotted for a particular type of learning is less than optimal for some
students. When teachers present material to the entire class at once, some
learners are more likely to experience difficulty grasping it and require
additional instruction.
A second influence is time the learner is willing to spend learning.
Even when learners are given ample time to learn, they may not spend
that time working productively. Whether due to low interest, high
perceived task difficulty, or other factors, students may not be motivated
to persist at a task for the amount of time they require to learn it. Carroll
incorporated these factors into a formula to estimate the degree of learning
for any student on a given task:
degree of learning = time spent/time needed

Mastery Learning. Carroll’s model predicts that if students vary in

aptitude for learning a subject and if all receive the same amount and type
of instruction, their achievement will differ. If the amount and type of
instruction vary depending on individual differences among learners, then
each student has the potential to demonstrate mastery; the positive
relation between aptitude and achievement will disappear because all
students will demonstrate equal achievement regardless of aptitudes.
These ideas form the basis of mastery learning (Anderson, 2003;
Bloom, 1976; Bloom, Hastings, & Madaus, 1971). Mastery learning
incorporates Carroll’s ideas into a systematic instructional plan that
includes defining mastery, planning for mastery, teaching for mastery,
and grading for mastery (Block & Burns, 1977).
To define mastery, teachers prepare a set of objectives and a final
(summative) exam. Level of mastery is established (e.g., where A students
typically perform under traditional instruction). Teachers break the
course into learning units mapped against course objectives.
Planning for mastery means teachers plan instructional procedures
for themselves and students to include corrective feedback procedures
(formative evaluation). Such evaluation typically takes the form of unit
mastery tests that set mastery at a given level (e.g., 90%). Corrective
instruction, which is used with students who fail to master aspects of the

CHAD 50
unit’s objectives, is given in small-group study sessions, individual
tutorials, and supplemental materials.
At the outset of teaching for mastery, teachers orient students to the
mastery procedures and provide instruction using the entire class, small
groups, or individual seat work activities. Teachers give the formative test
and certify which students achieve mastery. Students who fall short might
work in small groups reviewing troublesome material, often with the aid
of peer tutors who have mastered the material. Teachers allow students
time to work on remedial materials along with homework. Grading for
mastery includes a summative (end-of-course) test. Students who score at
or above the course mastery performance level receive A grades; lower
scores are graded accordingly.

Programmed Instruction. Programmed instruction (PI) refers to

instructional materials developed in accordance with operant conditioning
principles of learning (O’Day, Kulhavy, Anderson, & Malczynski, 1971).
PI incorporates several learning principles (O’Day et al., 1971).
Behavioral objectives specify what students should perform on completion
of the instruction. The unit is subdivided into sequenced frames, each of
which presents a small bit of information and a test item to which learners
respond. Learners work at their own pace and respond to questions as
they work through the program. Feedback depends on the learner’s
response. If the learner is correct, the next item is given. If the learner
answers incorrectly, additional remedial information is presented and the
item is tested in slightly different form.
Because PI reflects shaping, performance increments are small and
learners almost always respond correctly. Linear and branching programs
are distinguished according to how they treat learner errors. Linear
programs are structured in such a way that all students proceed through
them in the same sequence (but not necessarily at the same rate).
Branching programs are set up so that students’ movement through them
depends on how they answer the questions.

Contingency Contracts. A contingency contract is an agreement

between teacher and student specifying what work the student will
accomplish and the expected outcome (reinforcement) for successful
performance (Homme, Csanyi, Gonzales, & Rechs, 1970). A contract can
be made verbally, although it usually is written.
Contracts specify goals or expected outcomes in terms of particular
behaviors to be displayed. The “contingency” is the expected outcome,
which often can be reduced to, “If you do this, then you will receive that.”
The behaviors should be specific—for example, “I will complete pages 1–
30 in my math book with at least 90% accuracy,” or “I will stay in my seat
during reading period.” General behaviors (e.g., “I will work on my math”
or “I will behave appropriately”) are unacceptable.

CONTIGUOUS CONDITIONING
Another individual who advanced a behavioral perspective on
learning was Edwin R. Guthrie (1886–1959), who postulated learning

CHAD 51
principles based on associations (Guthrie, 1940). For Guthrie, the key
behaviors were acts and movements.

Acts and Movements

Guthrie’s basic principles reflect the idea of contiguity of stimuli and
responses:
A combination of stimuli which has accomplished a movement will on
its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement (Guthrie, 1952, p. 23).
And alternatively,
Stimulus patterns which are active at the time of a response tend, on
being repeated, to elicit that response (Guthrie, 1938, p. 37).

Movements are discrete behaviors that result from muscle

contractions. Guthrie distinguished movements from acts, or large-scale
classes of movements that produce an outcome. Playing the piano and
using a computer are acts that include many movements.
Contiguity learning implies that a behavior in a situation will be
repeated when that situation recurs (Guthrie, 1959); however, contiguity
learning is selective. The contiguity principle also applies to memory.
Verbal cues are associated with stimulus conditions or events at the time
of learning (Guthrie, 1952). Forgetting involves new learning and is due to
interference in which an alternative response is made to an old stimulus.

Associative Strength
Guthrie’s theory contends that learning occurs through pairing of
stimulus and response. Guthrie (1942) also discussed the strength of the
pairing, or associative strength:
A stimulus pattern gains its full associative strength on the occasion of
its first pairing with a response (p. 30).
He rejected the notion of associations through frequency, as
embodied in Thorndike’s original Law of Exercise (Guthrie, 1930).
Although Guthrie did not suggest that people learn complex behaviors by
performing them once, he believed that initially one or more movements
become associated. Repetition of a situation adds movements, combines
movements into acts, and establishes the act under different
environmental conditions.

Rewards and Punishments

Guthrie believed that responses do not need to be rewarded to be
learned. The key mechanism is contiguity, or close pairing in time between
stimulus and response. The response does not have to be satisfying; a
pairing without consequences could lead to learning.
Guthrie (1952) disputed Thorndike’s Law of Effect because satisfiers
and annoyers are effects of actions; therefore, they cannot influence
learning of previous connections but only subsequent ones. Rewards
might help to prevent unlearning (forgetting) because they prevent new
responses from being associated with stimulus cues.
Contiguity is a central feature of school learning. Flashcards help
students learn arithmetic facts. Students learn to associate a stimulus
(e.g., 4 x 4) with a response (16). Foreign-language words are associated
with their English equivalents, and chemical symbols are associated with
their element names.

CHAD 52
Habit Formation and Change
Habits are learned dispositions to repeat past responses (Wood &
Neal, 2007). Because habits are behaviors established to many cues,
teachers who want students to behave well in school should link school
rules with many cues. The key to changing behavior is to “find the cues
that initiate the action and to practice another response to these cues”
(Guthrie, 1952, p. 115). Guthrie identified three methods for altering
habits: threshold, fatigue, and incompatible response.

Method Explanation Example

Threshold Introduce weak stimulus. Introduce academic
Increase stimulus, but keep content in short
it below threshold value that blocks of time for
will produce unwanted children. Gradually
response. increase session
length, but not to a
point where students
become frustrated or
bored.

Fatigue Force child to make Give child who makes

unwanted response paper airplanes in
repeatedly in presence of class a stack of paper
stimulus. and have child make
each sheet into a
plane.

Incompatible In presence of stimulus, Pair cues associated

response have child make response with media center with
incompatible with unwanted reading rather than
response. talking.

Punishment is ineffective in altering habits (Guthrie, 1952).

Punishment following a response cannot affect the stimulus–response
association. Punishment given while a behavior is being performed may
disrupt or suppress the habit but not change it. Punishment does not
establish an alternate response to the stimulus. The threat of punishment
even can prove to be exciting and bolster the habit. It is better to alter
negative habits by replacing them with desirable ones (i.e., incompatible
responses).
Guthrie’s theory does not include cognitive processes and thus is
not considered to be a viable learning theory today. Nonetheless, its
emphasis on contiguity is timely because current theories stress
contiguity. In cognitive theories, a key point is that people must
understand the relationship between a stimulus (situation, event) and the
appropriate response. Guthrie’s ideas about changing habits also are
thought provoking and provide good general guidance for anyone wishing
to develop better habits.

CHAD 53
PERCEPTION AND GESTALT THEORY – INSIGHT LEARNING

Perception (pattern recognition) refers to attaching meaning to

environmental inputs received through the senses. For an input to be
perceived, it must be held in one or more of the sensory registers and
compared to knowledge in LTM. These registers and the comparison
process are discussed in the next section.
Gestalt theory was an early cognitive view that challenged many
assumptions of behaviorism. Although Gestalt theory no longer is viable,
it offered important principles that are found in current conceptions of
perception and learning. This theory is explained next, followed by a
discussion of perception from an information processing perspective.

Gestalt Theory
The Gestalt movement began with a small group of psychologists in
early twentieth-century Germany. Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive
response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes
and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt, means
“form” or “configuration”. Psychologists, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that
perceivers (or learners) were not passive, but rather active. They suggested
that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual
process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like
past experiences, needs, attitudes, and one’s present situation can affect
his perception.

Principles of Organization. Gestalt theory postulates that people use

principles to organize their perceptions. Some of the most important
principles are figure-ground relation, proximity, similarity, common
direction, simplicity, and closure (Koffka, 1922; Köhler, 1926,
1947/1959).
The principle of figure–ground relation postulates that any
perceptual field may be subdivided into a figure against a background.
Such salient features as size, shape, color, and pitch distinguish a figure
from its background. When figure and ground are ambiguous, perceivers
may alternatively organize the sensory experience one way and then
another.

The principle of proximity states that elements in a perceptual field

are viewed as belonging together according to their closeness to one
another in space or time. Most people will view the lines (in the given
figure) as three groups of three lines each, although other ways of
perceiving this configuration are possible. This principle of proximity also

CHAD 54
is involved in the perception of speech. People hear (organize) speech as a
series of words or phrases separated with pauses. When people hear
unfamiliar speech sounds (e.g., foreign languages), they have difficulty
discerning pauses.

The principle of similarity means that elements similar in aspects

such as size or color are perceived as belonging together. Viewing the given
figure, people tend to see a group of three short lines, followed by a group
of three long lines, and so on. Proximity can outweigh similarity; when
dissimilar stimuli are closer together than similar ones, the perceptual
field tends to be organized into four groups of two lines each.

The principle of common direction (good continuation) implies that

elements appearing to constitute a pattern or flow in the same direction
are perceived as a figure. The lines in the given figure are most likely to be
perceived as forming a distinct pattern. The principle of common direction
also applies to an alphabetic or numeric series in which one or more rules
define the order of items. Thus, the next letter in the series abdeghjk is m,
as determined by the rule: Beginning with the letter a and moving through
the alphabet sequentially, list two letters and omit one.

The principle of simplicity states that people organize their

perceptual fields in simple, regular features and tend to form good
Gestalts comprising symmetry and regularity. This idea is captured by the
German word Pragnanz, which roughly translated means
“meaningfulness” or “precision.”

CHAD 55
 Individuals are most likely to see the visual patterns in the figure
shown as one geometrical pattern overlapping another rather than as
several irregularly shaped geometric patterns. The principle of closure
means that people fill in incomplete patterns or experiences. Despite the
missing lines in the pattern shown in the figure, people tend to complete
the pattern and see a meaningful picture.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

 The six Gestalt principles not only influence perception but they
also impact on learning.
 Teachers should encourage their students to discover the
relationship of the elements that make up a problem.
 Incongruities, gaps, or disturbances are essential stimuli in the
learning process.
 Educational instruction should be based on the Laws of
Organization.

In a learning environment, the Gestalt Theory applies to problem

solving and perception. However, it can be used in all aspects of education.
A perfect example was provided by Wertheimer himself, when he asked
children to find the area of a parallelogram. He suggested that, as long as
parallelograms had a normal shape, the children could apply the standard
procedure in order to determine the area. However, if the parallelogram
had an irregular shape, children could not apply the same logic or
principles, but had to solve the problem by understanding the actual
structure of the shape.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

Introduction
David Allen Kolb (1939- ), American "organizational" sociologist and
educational theorist, is best known for his research into experiential
learning and learning styles. His research has its roots in the works of
John Dewey, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget and the more recent work of
Jack Mezirow, Paulo Freire and other theorists, focusing on how humans
process experience. As part of that tradition, Kolb states that experiential
learning is a process where knowledge results from making meaning as a
result of direct experience, i.e., or simply "learning from experience." His
experiential learning theory is a holistic or “meta-view” of learning that is
a combination of experience, perception, cognition, and behavior.

CHAD 56
 Experiential learning is a cyclical process that capitalizes on the
participants' experiences for acquisition of knowledge. This process
involves setting goals, thinking, planning, experimentation, reflection,
observation, and review. By engaging in these activities, learners
construct meaning in a way unique to themselves, incorporating the
cognitive, emotional, and physical aspects of learning.
"Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me,
and I will understand." (Confucius Circa 450 BC)

The Experiential Learning Theory

Experiential Learning Theory "provides a holistic model of the
learning process and a multi-linear model of adult development" (Baker,
Jensen, & Kolb, 2002, p. 51). In other words, this is an inclusive model of
adult learning that intends to explain the complexities of and differences
between adult learners within a single framework. The focus of this theory
is experience, which serves as the main driving force in learning, as
knowledge is constructed through the transformative reflection on one's
experience (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002).
The learning model outlined by the Experiential Learning Theory
(ELT) contains two distinct modes of gaining experience that are related
to each other on a continuum: concrete experience (apprehension) and
abstract conceptualization (comprehension). In addition, there are also two
distinct modes of transforming the experience so that learning is achieved:
reflective observation (intension) and active experimentation (extension)
(Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002). When these four modes are viewed
together, they constitute a four-stage learning cycle that learners go
through during the experiential learning process. The learners begin with
a concrete experience, which then leads them to observe and reflect on
their experience. After this period of reflective observation, the learners
then piece their thoughts together to create abstract concepts about what
occurred, which will serve as guides for future actions. With these guides
in place, the learners actively test what they have constructed leading to
new experiences and the renewing of the learning cycle (Baker, Jensen, &
Kolb).

Figure 7. The graphic above is a representation of the Experiential

Learning Cycle, which includes the components of experience, critical
reflection, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation, and more
critical reflection. Real experiences help the individual learn advanced

CHAD 57
 abstract concepts. The experiences might result in paths, which allow the
individual to actively collect information to learn and become a member of the
community of practice. Perhaps critical thinking and reflection may refine
ideas or lead the individual to consider alternate possibilities. Each phase
potentially leads to another and builds upon the former (LaBanca, 2008).

Applications of Experiential Learning Theory

There are currently many applications of Experiential Learning
Theory within educational systems, especially on college campuses. These
examples include field courses, study abroad, and mentor-based
internships (Millenbah, Campa, & Winterstein, 2000). Additional
examples of well-established experiential learning applications include
cooperative education, internships and service learning. There are also
numerous examples of computer-based interventions based on
experience.

1. Cooperative Education (Co-Op) is a structured educational strategy

integrating classroom studies with work-based learning related to a
student's academic or career goals. It provides field-based
experiences that integrate theory and practice. Co-Op is a
partnership among students, educational institutions, and work
sites which include business, government, and non-profit
community organizations.
2. Internships. Closely related to cooperative education are
internships. An internship is typically a temporary position, which
may be paid or unpaid, with an emphasis on on-the-job training,
making it similar to an apprenticeship. Interns are usually college
or university students, but they can also be high school students or
post graduate adults seeking skills for a new career. Student
internships provide opportunities for students to gain experience in
their field, determine if they have an interest in a particular career,
create a network of contacts, and, in some circumstances, gain
school credit.
3. Service learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates
meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to
enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and
strengthen communities with the emphasis on meeting community
needs. Because of its connection to content acquisition and student
development, service-learning is often linked to school and college
courses. Service-learning can also be organized and offered by
community organizations.
4. Field Course Scenario. Schools offer a field-based campus course t
that requires students to actively participate in activities other than
those normally encountered during a lecture or recitation section of
class. These students are introduced to various theories and
principles concerning a particular topic through lectures, but
application and use of the techniques occurs when students
participate and discuss the nature of the experience they had first-
hand.
5. Role Play Scenario. Another popular use of experiential learning
which has been around for a long time is role play. It has been used
for educational and training purposes, for military strategic and

CHAD 58
 tactical analysis and simply as games. We role play in childhood-
imitating our parents, playing with dolls and cars, building sand
castles and pretending we are princes and warriors-with the result
that learning takes place, preparing us for life.
6. Simulations and Gaming. Simulations and gaming within
instruction also involve direct experience and thus are valid
examples of experiential learning.
7. E-learning. Yet another application of experiential learning is in the
field of e-learning. Specifically, there has been an effort to utilize
this model to increase the effectiveness of Continuing Professional
Development (CPD) e-learning courses. It was found that many of
these courses did not allow for concrete experience and active
experimentation due to the fact that the learning processes were
based on more traditional learning methods and not capitalizing on
the self-directed nature of the learners (Friedman, Watts, Croston,
& Durkin, 2002). However, with the use of different technologies
such as multimedia resources, web-based discussions, online
planners, and creative tasks, e-learning courses could be improved
in a manner that would strengthen the entire experiential learning
cycle for the learner (Frank, Reich, & Humphreys, 2003).

Steps to Integrating Experiential Learning in the Classroom

1. Set up the experience by introducing learners to the topic and
covering basic material that the learner must know beforehand (the
video scenario as well as discussion).
2. Engage the learner in a realistic experience that provides intrigue
as well as depth of involvement (mock trial).
3. Allow for discussion of the experience including the happenings that
occurred and how the individuals involved felt (discussion
afterwards).
4. The learner will then begin to formulate concepts and hypotheses
concerning the experience through discussion as well as individual
reflection (discussion afterwards, but also could be done with
journaling).
5. Allow the learners to experiment with their newly formed concepts
and experiences (interpreting current conflict and conflict
resolution scenario).
6. Further reflection on experimentation (discussion, but could also be
done through journaling).

Revised Experiential Learning Cycle

Critiques of the previous model of the Experiential Learning Cycle
have led to the construction another model, which includes Kolb's beliefs
and at the same time confronts the weaknesses that have been found.
Below (Figure 8) is a representation of a model that could be used for this
purpose. The idea behind this model was to include the observations of
the learners own subjective reality as a starting point for experience. Then,
a disruptive experience occurs, which challenges the habitual patterns of
the learner. Once the experience has been encountered learners enter a
stage of emotion inventory in which they become cognizant of their
emotions in reaction to the experience. These emotions then play a role in

CHAD 59
the next step, which is a stage of reflective observation similar to that
outlined by Kolb in his model. After this stage, learners enter a stage of
conceptualization and hypothesis formation in which they attempt to
piece the information gathered thus far concerning the experience into
logical chunks. Once this occurs, learners address the experience in some
manner. This may include active experimentation to test a hypothesis. Or,
it may also include higher order planning which requires even more in-
depth examination of the experience. This stage can lead to two different
types of experiences, expected and disruptive, both of which lead to
repetition of the learning cycle. The expected experiences include those
which can be predicted by the concepts and hypothesis that were
established in the learning cycle. Disruptive experiences, on the other
hand, include those that conflict with the concepts that were formulated
in the experiential process. It is also readily evident in the model that the
experiential learning cycle can occur individually or within a social group.

Figure 6.2. The graphic depicts the revised experiential learning cycle.
It includes the encompassing circle of the environment as well as cycle of
events in the learning process that can occur individually or in a group. The
different elements are explained below in the order that they appear on the
cycle.

A. Performed Individually
 Subjective Stimuli: Observations about an individual's surrounding
environment and nature made by the individual, as well as more
affective and temporal judgments about things not really seen but
that are definitely felt. It is possible that individuals can learn from
this activity and not enter the cycle depicted below.

B. Can Occur Individually or in a Social Group

 Disruptive Experience: Experience that is a disruption of the
habitual manner in which an individual experiences thing. This is
in contrast to a non-reflective experience borne out of habit.
 Emotion Inventory: Inventory of emotions that are created by the
disruptive experience.

CHAD 60
  Reflective Observation: Observations concerning the experience and
reflection upon the event including causes, possible effects, etc.
 Conceptualization/Hypothesizing: Further processing of the
experience; creating concepts to explain the experience and
construction of explanatory hypotheses.
 Addressing: The concepts and hypotheses that have been
constructed are formulated and the experience is addressed in some
manner. There is an attempt to predict future experience. This may
involve planning, active experimentation, or cautious testing.

Educational Implications
Experiential Learning Theory outlines the manner in which learners
gain knowledge and understanding through experiences. Though some
may debate which steps are present in experiential learning, there is no
debate about the worth of experience in learning. Through experience,
learners are able to construct firsthand a sense of understanding of the
events going on around them. Educators have begun to harness the power
of experience in study abroad courses, field studies, role plays, and
numerous computer-based interventions. The future could bring even
more applications of this theory, a possibility as exciting for the learner as
much as it is the facilitator.

CHAD 61
 Taking Action:

Activity 3.1
Linking Theory
and Practice

Directions: Draw a matrix similar to the one given below. Write the salient
features and educational implications of each learning theory.

Learning Proponents Salient Educational

Theories Features Implications
1. Connectionism

2. Classical
Conditioning

3. Operant
Conditioning

4. Contiguous
Conditioning

5. Gestalt Theory

6. Experiential
Learning
Theory

CHAD 62
 Activity 3.2.1
Connecting with
the Classroom

Directions: The following activity is a case analysis. Read the given case
and answer the questions that follow. Answer the questions using
principles of behavioral learning theories and correct terminology.
After which, write a 250-word reflective essay on your own thoughts
from the case you are working on.

Adam, a student in Mr. Potter’s fourth-grade class, is disruptive from

time to time, although he is very bright. One day during language arts, Adam
began talking loudly to other students in his area. He was also laughing and
telling jokes. Mr. Potter chose to ignore Adam’s behavior, hoping he would
stop on his own. But Adam didn’t stop. Instead, his behavior became more
raucous. Still Mr. Potter ignored it. Soon Adam was making enough noise that
Mr. Potter was afraid that students in the neighboring classrooms would be
disturbed, so he verbally reprimanded Adam. Adam was a bit quieter for the
next few minutes. After that, however, he once again became loud and
disruptive. Again Mr. Potter verbally reprimanded him. This time he also told
Adam that if he continued with his disruptive behavior, he would have to go
to the office. Adam’s behavior became even more disruptive, so Mr. Potter sent
him to the office. When Adam arrived at the office it was full of people—
teachers getting their mail and making copies, volunteers signing in, students
who were ill, students sent on errands, and other students who had been sent
for disciplinary reasons. The school secretary told Adam to have a seat, which
he did. He conversed with every person who entered the office as well as those
who were there when he arrived. Half an hour after his arrival, he was sent
back to class. He behaved quite well for the rest of the day, to Mr. Potter’s
relief.
The next day when students were assigned to write a paragraph, Adam
once again became disruptive. He loudly told jokes to his classmates, laughed
until tears were streaming down his face, and threw a paper airplane across
the room. Mr. Potter reprimanded him and asked him to stop. When Adam
didn’t comply, Mr. Potter sent him to the office, which was once again bustling
with activity. Over the course of the next two weeks, Adam was sent to the
office for disrupting class each day, always during a writing assignment. Mr.
Potter was perplexed. Even more perplexing was that within three school
days, other children were becoming disruptive as well, requiring that they too
be sent to the office.

1. What are the issues in this case?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. Why did Adam continue to disrupt class despite the consequences?

_______________________________________________________________________

CHAD 63
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

3. What has Adam learned?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

4. Why did the other students join Adam in his disruptive behavior?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

5. What should Mr. Potter do now?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

6. What was Mr. Potter most likely trying to do when he initially

ignored Adam’s disruptive behavior?
a. He was trying to extinguish the behavior by not reinforcing it.
b. He was trying to negatively reinforce the behavior.
c. He was trying to positively reinforce the behavior.
d. He was trying to punish the behavior.

7. If Adam’s goal was to escape writing assignments, which of the

following best explains the consequences in operant conditioning
terms?
a. Adam was negatively reinforced for his behavior. An aversive stimulus
was removed.
b. Adam was positively reinforced for his behavior. A pleasant stimulus
was presented.
c. Adam was punished for his behavior. A pleasant stimulus was
removed.
d. Adam was punished for his behavior. An aversive stimulus was
presented.

CHAD 64
 Activity 3.2.2
Writing a Reflective Essay

Directions: Reflect on this situation: Imagine that you are an elementary school
teacher and a child is having difficulty sustaining attention on a learning task.
What strategies would you try to use to help the child sustain attention?

_____________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.

Levels of Performance
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Basic
Content (40%) Thesis statement is Thesis statement is Thesis statement is No established thesis
very well- established and the fairly developed. statement; lacks
established. Writer writer takes Writer’s position, clarity of focus.
takes a clear somewhat clear while stated in some
position in response position in response ways, lacks clarity.
to the articles’ to the article’s
argument. argument.
Organization Very clearly and Effectively Somewhat organized. No attempt at
(40%) effectively structured. Transitions may not organization; no
structured. Transitions are be smooth and there transitions used
Transitions are somewhat smooth are some errors in and/or frequent
smoothly and and there are some usage. errors in usage.
effectively used. errors in usage.
Mechanics (20%) All sentences are Mot sentences are Mot sentences are Sentences sound
well-constructed well-constructed and well-constructed but awkward, are
and have varied have varied they have similar distractingly
structures and structures and structures and repetitive, or are
lengths; no errors in lengths; few errors in lengths; several difficult to
spelling, spelling, errors in spelling, understand
punctuation, punctuation, punctuation, numerous errors in
capitalization, capitalization, capitalization, spelling, punctuation,
grammar, etc. grammar, etc., but grammar, etc., that capitalization,
they do not interfere interfere with grammar, etc., that
with understanding. understanding. interfere with
understanding.

CHAD 65
Multiple Choice Test

Directions: Read and analyze the following questions. Write the letter of
the correct answer on the blanks provided before the number.

1. According to the psychological definition of learning, all of the following

are examples of learning except ____________.
a. writing
b. sneezing
c. swimming
d. washing dishes
2. Mr. Zeller does not believe his students have learned anything unless
they demonstrate it to him. This demonstration could be through
assignments they turn in to him, answering questions in class, or the
way they behave. Which approach to learning is most consistent with
Mr. Zeller’s ideas?
a. cognitive
b. behavioral
c. social cognitive
d. conditioning
3. How would you describe the ‘food’ in Pavlov’s experiment?
a. unconditioned stimulus
b. neutral stimulus
c. conditioned stimulus
d. unconditioned response
4. What is a punishment?
a. An unpleasant event or stimulus
b. Any desired event or stimulus that weakens or decreases a
behavior
c. A disagreeable consequence
d. Something that an individual dislike
5. What is Thorndike's law stating that if an act is followed by a satisfying
change in the environment, the likelihood that the act will be repeated
in similar situations?
a. Law of Conditioning
b. Law of Readiness
c. Law of Exercise
d. Law of Effect
6. Which of the following correctly shows how an information is processed
and stored as a memory?
a. Senses – Perception – Long Term Memory – Sensory Memory
b. Senses – Sensory Memory – Short Term Memory – Decay
c. Senses – Sensory Memory – Short Term Memory – Retrieval
d. Senses – Sensory Memory – Short Term Memory – Long Term
Memory

CHAD 66
7. In cooking rice, you need to first, measure the rice and wash it; second,
put in water of the same volume with rice; and third, place in heat.
What kind of knowledge was exhibited?
a. Procedural Knowledge
b. Conditional Knowledge
c. Declarative Knowledge
d. Domain-Specific Knowledge
8. Information processing is most closely aligned with
a. behaviorism
b. cognitive psychology
c. social cognitive theory
d. ecological theory
9. Who contend that the key mechanism of learning is contiguity, or close
pairing in time between stimulus and response?
a. Ivan Pavlov
b. John Watson
c. Edwin Guthrie
d. John Dewey
10. How does constructivism view learning process?
a. It is active thereby learners need to discover learning on their
own.
b. It is collaborative which require all members of the community
to help learners learn.
c. It is passive so learners need to rely on their teachers for
knowledge.
d. It is systematic that learners need to build strong knowledge
foundation to achieve mastery of complex concepts.

Test II.1. Identification

Directions. Label the following examples with positive reinforcement,

negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative
punishment.

1. A child is throwing a tantrum because he

wants a biscuit. The mother gives the child
a biscuit and the tantrum stops.
2. A teacher awards gold stars for pupils’ good
work.
3. Taking paracetamol for a headache.
4. Getting a fine and points in your license for
over speeding.
5. Giving a student detention for not doing
their homework.
6. Receiving applause for a performance.
7. Applying sun cream before going out in the
sun.
8. Not letting a footballer play for the rest of the
season for biting an opponent.
9. Going to prison for breaking the law.

CHAD 67
10. Taking away a child’s chores because they
did well at school.

TEST II.2. Identification

Directions. Identify the gestalt law being described in the given

statements. Write your answers on the blanks provided for before the
number.
a. Law of Proximity b. Law of Similarity
c. Law of Closure d. Law of Good Continuation
e. Law of Good Pragnanz f. Law of Figure/Ground

____ 1. Teaching prerequisites subjects will help the learners to cope with
the lesson.
____ 2. The most important words in the paragraph are written in bolder
fonts.
____ 3. Topics with commonalities are taught next to each other.
____ 4. Analogous lessons or contents should be grouped together to make
learners develop understanding more efficiently and effectively.
____ 5. The student-to-student tutoring helps the student who is
challenged mentally to enhance their knowledge, moral-attitude and
skills.

Test III. Modified True or False

Directions. Read and analyze the following statements. Write your

NICKNAME (e.g. BONG) if the statement is true. If not, underline the
word/s that make/s the sentence incorrect or false and give the correct
word/s. Write your answers on the spaces provided before the number.

__________ 1. The idea of classical conditioning draws on the process of

forming associations.
__________ 2. The law of readiness necessitates teachers to use rewards
and punishment to ensure learning.
__________ 3. A behaviorist teacher ensures orderly learning environment
and systematic giving of learning activities.
__________ 4. The work of B.F. Skinner is basically an extension of Pavlov’s
study on classical conditioning.
__________ 5. The behaviorist perspective emphasizes that behaviour is
mostly a product of conditioning and thought processes occurring in the
mind.

TEST IV. Essay

Directions. Read carefully and answer briefly the following questions. Five
(5) points for each question.

1. Can thinking be taught in the classroom? In what ways? Explain

your answer.

CHAD 68
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. How will the various theories of learning help teachers facilitate the
learning process among students?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

3. Is there one best theory that explains how learning takes place or
how learning can best be achieved? Why do you say so?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

CHAD 69
 REFERENCES

Acero, V., Javier, E., & Castro, H. (2008). Child and adolescent
development. Rex Printing Company, Inc.

Anonat, R. D. (2014). Child and adolescent development (Updated and

Revised Edition). Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.

Aquino, A. (2015). Facilitating human learning (2nd ed.). Rex Books Store.

Aubrey, K. & Riley, A. (2019). Understanding and using educational

theories (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications, Ltd.

Corpuz, B., Lucas, M., Borado, H. & Lucido, P. (2018). The Child and
Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. LORIMAR
Publishing, Inc.

Corpuz, B., Lucas, M., Borado, H. & Lucido, P. (2015). Child and
Adolescent Development. LORIMAR Publishing, Inc.

Matthews, L. (2019). Theories of learning: an educational perspective.

Larsen & Keller Education.

Rungduin, T. & Rungduin, D. (2019). Child and Adolescent Learners and

Learning Principles. ADRIANA Printing Co., Inc.

Santrock, J. (2011). Educational psychology: theory and application to

fitness and performance (6th ed.). McGraw Hill, Inc.

Schunk, D. (2012). Learning theories: an educational perspective (6th ed.).

Pearson Education, Inc.

Zhou, M. and Brown, D. (2015). Educational learning theories (2nd ed.).

Education Open Textbooks.
1.https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/education-textbooks/1

CHAD 70
 APPENDIX A

RUBRICS:

Rubric 1.1 Oral Presentation

(Picture & Article Analysis, Research Literature Matrix, Research Poster)

Category 4 3 2 1
Preparedne Student is Student The student Student does
ss completely seems pretty is somewhat not seem at
prepared prepared but prepared, all prepared
and has might have but it is clear to present.
obviously needed a that
rehearsed. couple more rehearsal
rehearsals. was lacking.
Uses Always (99- Mostly (80- Sometimes Rarely
complete 100% of 98%) speaks (70-80%) speaks in
Sentences time) speaks in complete speaks in complete
in complete sentences. complete sentences.
sentences. sentences.

Speaks Speaks Speaks Speaks Often

clearly clearly and clearly and clearly and mumbles or
distinctly all distinctly all distinctly cannot be
(100-95%) (100-95%) most (94- understood
the time, and the time, but 85%) of the or
mispronoun mispronoun time. mispronoun
ces no ces one Mispronoun ces more
words. word. ces no more than one
than one word.
word.

Vocabulary Uses Uses Uses Uses several

vocabulary vocabulary vocabulary (5 or more)
appropriate appropriate appropriate words or
for the for the for the phrases that
audience. audience. audience. are not
Extends Includes 1-2 Does not understood
audience words that include any by the
vocabulary might be new vocabulary audience.
by defining to most of that might
words that the be new to the
might be new audience, audience.
to most of but does not
the define them.
audience.

Stays on Stays on Stays on the Stays on It was hard

topic topic all topic most topic some to tell what
(100%) of the (99-90%) of (89-75%) of the topic
time. the time. the time. was.

CHAD 71
Posture Stands up Stands up Sometimes Slouches
and Eye straight, straight and stands up and/or does
Contact looks relaxed establishes straight and not look at
and eye contact establishes people
confident. with eye contact. during the
Establishes everyone in presentation
eye contact the room .
with during the
everyone in presentation
the room .
during the
presentation
.
Content Shows a full Shows a Shows a Does not
understandi good good seem to
ng of the understandi understandi understand
topic. ng of the ng of parts of the topic
topic. the topic. very well.

CHAD 72