THEORIES OF LEARNING
Behaviorism/Associative Learning Theory
Learning theories fill the pages of books
related to education and classroom practice, each
one offering a different account of how people learn
and what constitutes as learning.
Each theory presents its own definition of
learning; yet, if we understand these theories
thoroughly, we can say that they relate to one
another and serve as sound teaching practices to
develop a holistic learner.
Learning theories are sets of conjectures
and hypotheses that explain the process of learning
or how learning takes place. There are many
learning theories that guide instruction.
According to Akdeniz et al., the three basic
approaches while dealing with learning theories are
behaviorist (behaviorism), cognitivist
(cognitivism), and constructivist
(constructivism).
One of the most famous learning theory is
Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory.
This theory explains that children take an active
role in the learning process.
As learners interact with the world around
them, they continually add new knowledge, build
upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held
ideas to accommodate new information.
While these approaches overlap, they are
interdependent or one approach serve as a
foundation of another.
This means that the cognitive approach
recognizes behaviorism because the cognitive
process is seen in behaviorist learning.
Likewise, the constructivist approach
anchors its principles on the cognitive approach.
Because theories vary in their quality and
rigor it is vital that you be well-informed of the
classical and current theories that are emerging in
the context of education.
As pointed out by Wilson and Peterson
(2006), the Scottish physicist James C. Maxwell is
credited for his saying, “There is nothing as
practical as a good theory.”
You should, therefore, be critical in applying
the learning theories you think is or are most
applicable in any given situation.
What is more important for now is that you
gain a repertoire of learning theories that you will
need as future teachers.
1.
Approach
Behaviorism depicts observable and
measurable aspects of human behavior.
All behaviors are directed as stimuli.
Meaning, changes in behavior are evident and will
result in stimulus-response associations.
Behaviorism believes that behaviors can be
measured, trained and changed.
Moreover, behaviorism suggests that learners
must be actively engaged and rewarded
immediately for their involvement in the activity in
order to achieve learning.
Nonetheless, it cannot be pre-determined that
learners respond positively to praise and that active
learning follows.
In this case, learning must be active and
outright praise is given to increase behavior.
John B. Watson, known as the Father of
Behaviorism, and Burrhus Frederic Skinner are the
two principal originators of behaviorist approaches
to learning.
Watson believed that human behavior is
prompted by specific stimuli.
On the other hand, Skinner believed that
behavior is controlled through positive and negative
consequences.
Watson’s view of learning was partly influenced by
Ivan Pavlov.
According to Pavlov, behavior is acquired
through conditioning.
Conditioning is an established manner that
occurs through interaction with the environment.
There are two major types of conditioning:
Classical and Operant conditioning.
Parkay and Hass (2000) stated that an
individual selects one response instead of another
because of prior conditioning and psychological
drives existing at the moment of action.
Beliefs of Behaviorist Approach
 It operates on the principle of “Stimulus-
response”
 Behavior is observable and measurable
 It prefers actual behavior as an indicator of
learning.
1.1. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known

for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment Stage 2: During conditioning
involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov
was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to Bell (neutral stimulus)
study digestion. This when he stumbled upon ↓ paired with
classical conditioning.
Meat → Salivation
Pavlov’s Experiment (unconditioned stimulus) (unconditioned response)
Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral
stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Stage 3: After conditioning has occurred
Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the
dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). Bell → Salivation
During conditioning, the bell was rung a few (conditioned stimulus) (conditioned response)
seconds before the dog was presented with food.
After conditioning, the ringing of the bell Classical Conditioning
(conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation Somehow you were conditioned to associate
(conditioned response). This is classical particular objects with your teacher. So at present,
conditioning. when you encounter the objects, you are also
This type of conditioning asserts that an individual reminded of your teacher. This is an example of
learns when a previously neutral stimulus is classical conditioning.
repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
until a neutral stimulus evokes a
conditioned/desired response. Principles of Implications
Learning in
Features of Classical Conditioning Classical
Unconditioned stimulus – Produces an emotional Conditioning
or physiological response.
Unconditioned response – Natural occurring Acquisition. A A child learns to fear the
emotional response. process by dentist’s clinic by associating it
Neutral stimuli – Stimuli that do not elicit a which the with a painful tooth extraction
response. conditioned that he or she has experienced.
Conditioned stimulus – Evokes an emotional or response is
physiological response after being conditioned. acquired from
Conditioned response – Learned response from a the experience
previously neutral condition. of another
person.
Phases of Classical Conditioning
Legend: Stimulus – A child tends to be anxious in all
 UCS – Unconditioned Stimulus Generalization. instances in school because of
 UCR – Unconditioned Response A process by the first-hand experience he or
 NS – Neutral Stimuli which the she has experienced with a
 R – Response conditioned terror teacher.
 CS – Conditioned Stimulus response is
 CR – Conditioned Response transferred to
other stimuli
Stage 1: Before conditioning has occurred similar to the
original
Bell → No Response conditioned
(neutral stimulus) stimulus.
 individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur
in the environment.
Principles of Learning Implications A response produces a consequence such as
in Classical defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math
Conditioning problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-
R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
Stimulus – A child should be able to conditioned to respond.
Discrimination. A distinguish things that
process by which a seem alike but are Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R
conditioned response is different (b from d, p theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens
transferred to other from b or plus (+) sign the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer
stimuli different from the from negative (-) sign). and a negative reinforcer.
original conditioned Otherwise, learning
stimulus. If disabilities will occur. This type of conditioning stresses the use of
generalization is a pleasant and unpleasant consequences to control
reaction to similarities, the occurrence of behavior.
discrimination is a
reaction to differences. Learners tend to repeat the behavior that led to
favorable outcomes and suppress those that
Extinction. A process The anxiousness of a produced unfavorable results. They are inclined to
by which a conditioned child toward a terror behave and are motivated when their output are
response is lost. teacher gradually properly acknowledged and rewarded.
vanishes if, in the
succeeding days, he or In operant conditioning, we often hear and use the
she experiences words reinforcer and reinforcement.
pleasant treatment from In Skinnerian terms, a reinforcer is a
the teacher. Otherwise, stimulus, whereas reinforcement is the effect of
phobias will occur. this stimulus.

1.2 Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Types of Reinforcer

Conditioning and Reinforcement
Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner
believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on
changes in observable behavior, excluding any
likelihood of any processes taking place in the
mind.
Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a
utopian society based on operant conditioning. He
also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in
which he pointed out how the principles of operant
conditioning function in social institutions such as
government, law, religion, economics and
education.
Skinner’s work differs from that of the three
behaviorists before him in that he studied operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on
the environment). Thus, his theory came to be
known as Operant Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that
learning is a result of change in overt behavior.
Changes in behavior are the result of an
1.Primary reinforcer. A stimulus that is related to
both biological and physiological needs such as
food, clothing, shelter, warmth, human touch, etc.
Example: A child is excited to go to school on the
first day of class because of his or her new pair of
shoes, uniform, bag, opportunity to meet new
friends and teachers, etc., but unmindful of his or
her new lessons.
2. Secondary Reinforcer. A stimulus that
reinforces a behavior after being previously
associated with a primary reinforcer. It includes
money, grades in schools, tokens, etc.
Example: A child learns to value money because
he or she needs it to buy food, clothing, or any
other basic needs.
3. Positive Reinforcer. A stimulus is added to a
situation or event to strengthen a behavior.
Example: Increasing the hours of watching movies
because the learner achieved a perfect score in an
examination.
4. Negative Reinforcer. A stimulus is withdrawn to
a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.
Example: Taking away a learner’s favorite toy when
the learner misbehaves
Schedules of Reinforcement
1.Fixed Radio (FR). This reinforcement is
dispensed following a constant number of desired
behaviors.
Example: The learner is given praise or rewarded
for every correct answer or desirable behavior
displayed.
2. Fixed Interval (FI). This reinforcement is
dispensed following a constant amount of desired
time.
Example: The talkative learner will be given praise
or reward only if he or she will remain quiet for 10
minutes. Following the token, no additional
reinforcement will be given until another 10 minutes
passed.
3. Variable Ratio (VR). This reinforcement is
dispensed following a varying amount of trials.
Example: In joining a math competition, a learner
will not know when he or she will win even after
several trials of competing.
4. Variable Interval (VI). This reinforcement is
dispensed following a varying amount of time.
Example: A learner who is fishing in a pond will
have to wait for a few minutes or hours before he or
she can catch a fish.
Both the fixed ratio and fixed interval are
predictable. This means that learners will know
when they will get or receive the reward or praise.
On the other hand, variable ratio and variable
interval are both unpredictable. This means that
learners will not know when they will get or receive
the reward or praise.
Types of Reinforcement
1.Verbal. Learners excel more when they are given
praise for performing well in the examination. On
the other hand, learners who did not perform well in
the examination are encouraged to study harder
and do better next time.
Example: Praise, encouragement
2. Physical. Learners feel proud when given a pat
on the shoulder or hug for doing great in their
“Sabayang Bigkasan” However, physical
reinforcement must be used with caution because
of the issue of sexual harassment. Still, human
touch has been found to be an effective tool to
increase the confidence of learners.
Example: touch, pats, hugs
3. Nonverbal. Learners feel relaxed and
comfortable when they are given smiles or warm
looks during a discussion.
Example: Smiles, winks, warm looks
4. Activity. Learners enjoy the class discussions
more if varied games or any related class activities
are incorporated in them.
Example: games, enjoyments
5. Token. Learners appreciate their efforts when
given corresponding points or tokens.
Example: points, stars
6. Consumable. Learners find it satisfying when
given consumable rewards like chocolates,
candies, and crackers by the teacher.
Example: cookies, candies
Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will
reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small
amounts so that responses can be
reinforced (“shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will generalize across
similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”)
producing secondary conditioning.
Principles of Examples Principle of • Learners involved in
Learning in Extinction. fighting are
Operant Punishment involves immediately referred
Conditioning presenting a strong to the principal.
stimulus that • Late assignments
Principle of A learner is misbehaving in
decreases the are given a grade of
Contracts. The class.
frequency of a “0.”
relevant behavior is The teacher and learner
particular response. • Three records of
identified, then the devise a behavioral
Punishment is tardiness in
teacher and the contract to minimize
effective in quickly attending class
learner decide on distractions. Provisions
eliminating results to dialogue
the terms of the include that the learner will
undesirable with parents.
contract be punctual, will sit in front
behaviors. • Failure to do
of the class, will raise a
homework results in
hand when he or she has
after-school
questions or comments,
detention (the
and will not leave his or her
privilege of going
seat without permission.
home is removed.”
Principle of • Smiling at the
Premack Principle • Learners can go
Consequences. learner after a
or “Grandma Rule” home only after
Consequences correct response
Less derived accomplishing the
happen after the • Giving
activities can be given task or tasks
“target” behavior commendation to
increased by looking for the day.
occurs. It could be: learners for their
at them to do more • Stress to the
• Positive or accomplishments
desired activities. learners that there is
negative; • Selecting learners
time for play, study,
• Expected or for a special task.
and sleep.
unexpected; • Praising the
• Immediate or learners’ ability to
long-term; their parents.
• Extrinsic or
Intrinsic; Implications of Operant Conditioning
• Material or
Symbolic (a
failing grade); 1. Practice should take the form of question
• Emotional or (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which
Interpersonal; expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.
and
• Unconscious
2. Require that the learner makes a response for
Principle of • Obtaining a score of every frame and receives immediate feedback.
Reinforcement. 80% or higher
Negative makes the final
reinforcement exam optional. 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so
increases the • Submitting all the response is always correct and hence, a positive
probability of a assignments on reinforcement.
response that time results in the
removes or prevents lowest grade being
an adverse dropped. 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is
condition. • Perfect attendance paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
is rewarded with a praise, prizes and good grades.
“homework pass.”
•
 1.3 Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism behavior causes frustration. she does not yet know
It further explains that the basic strokes of
Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the making someone to do writing will only lead to
original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. something that he or she frustration and
More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text does not want to do is also disappointment.
book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the frustrating. Below are the
first one to use this term. three tenets of the law of
readiness.
He explained that learning is the result of When Someone is ready to
associations forming between stimuli (S) and execute some act, doing it
responses (R). is satisfying and results in a
Such associations or “habits” become feeling of happiness.
strengthened or weakened by the nature and When someone is ready to
frequency of the S-R pairings. execute some act, not
doing it is annoying and
The model for S-R theory was trial and error disappointing
learning in which certain responses came to be When someone is not
repeated more than others because of rewards. ready to execute some act,
The main principle of connectionism (like getting forced to do it is
all behavioral theory) was that learning could be annoying and frustrating
adequately explained without considering any
unobservable internal states. Law of Exercise. This law Teachers should
explains learning by doing. provide learners with
It means selecting and connecting Below are the two tenets of varied enhancement
constitute learning. Prior to Skinner’s operant the law exercise. activities, exercise, or
conditioning, which reinforces behavior, Thorndike Law of Use – connections seatworks for practice.
has classified the concepts related to between stimulus and
reinforcement-based learning (Doolittle, 2001). response are reinforced as
Thorndike calls this connectionism they are used.
instrumental conditioning, which explains that there
is a probability for a behavior to occur again when Law of Effect. This law Teachers should
followed by a positive experience. explains that reward recognize the
reinforces a behavior, achievement of
This idea is also explained in Thorndike’s main whereas punishment learners and
tenet, the “Law of effect”. However, it should be decreases its occurrence. encourage others to
remembered that Skinner focused on the perform better.
association between the response and the Halo Effect. This law Good looking and
reinforcement, while Thorndike focused on the describes the “physical beautiful learners are
connection between the stimulus and the response. attractiveness stereotype” outright perceived to
and the “what is beautiful is be smart and
Principles of Learning in Implications good” principle. It means intelligent. Thus,
Connectionism that the teacher’s teachers should
impression of the learner’s evaluate learners
Multiple Responses. This A child tries multiple physical attributes according to their
refers to a variety of responses to solve a influences how he or she performance and not
responses that would lead certain problem feels and thinks about the on their physical
to a conclusion or arrival of learner’s character. appearance.
an answer.
Law of Set and Attitude. Giving homework and
This explains that prior advanced reading
instruction/experience prepares a child well in
affects a given task. class.
Law of Readiness. Asking a child to write
This law explains that the letters of the
interfering with oral directed alphabet when he or
Principles derived from Thorndike’s
Connectionism
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards
(laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained
together if they belong to the same action
sequence (law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of
previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned.
2. Cognitivism Approach
Behavioral psychology is based on factual and
procedural rules, rewards, and punishment. It gives
way to cognitive psychology, which is based on
models for making sense of real-life experiences
and how we receive and interpret information.
Research suggests that learners – from a very
young age – make sense of the world and actively
engaged in a process of comprehension or “minds
on” work. This gave birth to multiple cognitive
theorists who advocate on the existence of prior
knowledge or background, better known as schema
in learning new information.
They became interested in the function of the brain
and memory. How does the brain hold, compress,
and interpret information to give good results to
existing and problematic phenomena? What are the
memory and the process of information needed to
yield desirable and excellent outcomes?
In a cognitivist approach, cognitive processes and
activities such as processing information, mental
representations, guesses, and expectations are
accepted as bases in the interpretation of learning.
Beliefs of Cognitivist Approach
 It focuses on memory as the storage and
retrieval of information.
 It prefers to concentrate on analyzing
cognitive processes.
 It considers schema as essential in learning.
2.1 Edward Chance Tolman’s Latent Learning –
Place Learning.
This theory was first introduced by Hugh Blodgett,
who made use of the paradigm of learning without
reinforcement. Tolman, on the other hand, captured
the idea and developed studies on “latent learning.”
According to this theory, learning occurs in
situations where there is no certain reward because
of the presence of “cognitive maps.”
Living organisms organize a map in their minds
about their physical environment. An example of
this is a human being’s innate need to know where
and how to go to places that will provide food when
he or she is hungry, not because of the connection
of stimulus-response. This is the reason why
Tolman emphasized that organisms organize
behavior around a purpose, which he calls the
theory of “purposive behaviorism”.
2.2 David Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning
Theory.
David Ausubel’s story focuses on the verbal
learning method. According to Ausubel’s theory,
learners learn new information – whole to pices -
through direct exposure to information rather than
discovery. In short, learning is gained through
deductive reasoning. Information organized by the
teacher is presented and readily received by the
learners. Hence, meaningful learning occurs when
new experiences are related to what learners
already know.
Two Dimensions of Learning Processes
Reception Discovery Learning
Learning
In reception In discovery learning,
learning, learners learners focus on identifying
receive the the key ideas and work out to
information from the store this information on their
teacher; therefore, own. Therefore, the teacher
the teacher should should expose learners to
present ideas or varied activities.
concepts to the
learners in a well-
organized manner.
2.3 Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning
Theory/Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction.
This theory, as opposed to Ausube’s Theory of
meaningful verbal learning, emphasizes that
learning is more meaningful to learners when they
have the opportunity to interact among themselves
and with their environment through conducting
experiments, exploring and manipulating materials
and equipment, wrestling with questions, and
finding solutions to their questions.
2.4 Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight
Learning/Problem-solving Theory.
This is rooted in Gestalt theory, where an individual
evaluates information as a whole rather than
receiving it in isolation (“The whole is greater than
the sum of the parts”). This theory also emphasizes
that learners have the capacity to determine and
understand the nature of any given phenomenon in
a bigger view that involves exploring, analyzing,
and structuring perception until a solution is found,
where mostly problem is solved through the
“cognitive trial and error” method.
Kolher used the chimpanzee experiment in
describing the above pattern. A chimpanzee was
placed inside a cage. At some point, the
chimpanzee felt hungry and it started to look for
food. Upon looking up, it gazes at the food hanging
on top of the cage. It reached for the food but
failed. It saw a stool and stepped on it to reach for
the food. The second time around, the chimpanzee
did not succeed. It failed once again, however, the
chimpanzee did not lose hope.
It paused for a while and looked for potential
solutions. At this point, it piled up at the stools and
it attempted to step on them to reach for the food.
But again, it failed. It was about to lose hope when
suddenly it saw a piece of stick. The chimpanzee
got stick and planned on how to use it; gaining
insight to finally use the stick. The experiment
likewise led Kolher to arrice at the idea of “insight”.
Insight is the imaginative power to discern
immediately the true meaning of situation.
2.5 George Miller’s Theory of Data Processing.
This theory is grounded on Edward C. Tolman’s
latent learning, claiming that learning is a complex
and internal process that occurs with some mental
processes. This theory emphasized that information
is the basic means of learning and explains
learning in terms of the memory system. It focuses
on how information foes into the memory and how it
is stored and retrieved as the need arises.
Three Main Elements of Information Processing
1.Information Stores. It refers to the places where
information is stored. It is composed of the
following different types of memory:
Sensory record. It is the stage where first-hand
information is received using the different senses.
Short-term memory (processor). It is the stage
where information is processed and tuned into
behavior before it is transferred to long-term
memory.
Long-term memory. It is the stage where
information is continually stored and has three
different parts where different types of information
are kept as:
Semantic memory. It is the storage of verbal
information such as concepts, principles, and
generalizations in solving problems.
Recollectional memory. It is the storage of
records and events, phenomena, time, and places
which have a memorable impact on the learners.
Operational memory. It is the storage of skills and
ordinal, applied, and methodological information
needed to complete a task.
2. Cognitive processes. It refers to mental
activities that help in transferring information to one
memory to another such as:
Attention. It is the power to focus on selective
information. Efficient learning depends on the
selective ability of the learner.
Perception. It is the process of describing the
information received.
Repetition. It is the process of storing repetitive
information for it to stay longer in the short-term
memory.
Coding. It is the process of deducing or using
codes when transferring information from short-
term memory to long-term memory. In other words,
learner needs to filter information that is necessary
for learning.
Storing. This process is anchored on Anderson
and Bower’s model that information is established
on verbal units including structures of subject and
verb rather than perception. This means that the
learner’s stored information are reliable and
sufficient to stand the test of time.
Retrieving. It is the process of looking for, finding,
and activating information when needed.
3. Executive cognition or cognition information.
It refers to the harmonization between information
stores and cognitive processes for data processing.
Information Processing Model
2.6. Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s
information Processing Theory. This theory
describes how information is processed into
memory so that learners get the best out of the
stored information. Memory is the central point for
learning, which is the ability to store information
that can be used at a later time. Hence, learners
learn when the human mind takes in information
(encoding), performs an operation in it, stores the
information (storage), and retrieves it when needed
(retrieval).
It is said that when we recall information, we call on
our LTM to help us remember things because it is
the one that is activated during the retrieval phase.
It could last from minutes to a lifetime.
Three Components of LTM According to
Tulving (1993)
1. Episodic. It is the recall of a particular time and
place, events, and dates of one’s personal
experiences.

Stages of Human Memory 2. Procedural. It is the recall of specific skills or

steps in completing a task or refers to “knowing
1. Sensory Memory (SM). This stage utilizes all how.”
the different senses such as olfactory, auditory,
sight, smell, and touch in capturing information. Causes of Forgetting
Senses must be functional because they help 1. Retrieval Failure. It explains that forgetting
encode captured information that will be transferred is due to the inability to recall information.
to the short-term memory. However, it would only 2. Decay theory. It explains that forgetting is
last for less than a second. An example of this is a due to the failure of using information.
learning going to school who may enjoy looking at Information gradually fades when it is not
the beautiful green trees around but may tend to utilized.
forget once he or she reaches school. 3. Interference theory. It explains that
forgetting is due to the influence of other
2. Short-term Memory (STM). This stage selects learning.
information through processes of attention and
perception transferred by the sensory memory. The Guidelines to Help Learners Effectively Process
STM’s role is to process information perceived by Information (Zhou and Brown, 2015)
the sensory memory. It is said to be the temporary
storage of information because the short-term Guidelines Example
memory is working in progress while filtering the
most important information to be stored in the long-
term memory. Gain attention of Move around the room or use
learners. voice variations.
Once information is filtered, it is transferred to the
Ask learners to Conduct a review of the past
LTM. Nonetheless, if the LTM judges it as
recall prior lesson.
unnecessary and needs more filtering, it goes back
relevant learning.
to the STM for review. After the STM reviews and
deduces information, it is transferred to the LTM. Point out missed Emphasize that vital information
Once information is appropriate and right, it is important can be found on the bulletin
brought to the LTM to be saved. If SM lasts for only information. board, handouts, study guides,
less than a second, STM would last up to 13-30 etc.
seconds.
Organize Present information from simple
For example, when a transferee is introduced to his essential to complex.
or her teachers, he or she has a tendency to forget information.
some of their names. Some strategies such as
Categorize Present information in a logical
repetition, memorization, making sense,
related sequence. Teach learners to look
associating, and grouping could be used to
information. for similarities and differences.
increase the capacity of short-term memory to
recall.
Relate new Connect information to what is
3. Long Term Memory (LTM). It is the permanent information to already known.
storage of information related to the different areas existing ones.
of life and is activated when information is needed.
 Teach how to Provide different graphic
encode organizers like mnemonics, Venn
information for diagram, spider map etc.
easy
remembering.
Repeat learning Show different ways of
process. presenting and manipulating
information.
Overlearn Conduct drills daily
material.
Pay attention to Engage learners in non-mental
overloaded metal activity
tasks.
2.7. Allan Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory.
This theory affirms that when two or more
modalities are used in teaching-learning, it is likely
that learners learn better and faster. This theory
upholds the principle of individual differences and
learning styles and addresses children with special
needs.
2.8. Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning.
This theory explains that learning skills are
arranged hierarchically from stimulus-response
associations to concepts, principles, and problem
solving.
Hierarchy of Learning
1. Signal Learning. This learning refers to
responses that are learned involuntarily.
2. Stimulus-response learning. This learning
refers to responses that are learned
voluntarily.
3. Chaining/Motor-verbal response. This
learning refers to combining or chaining two
or more separate motor or verbal responses
to develop a more complex response.
4. Verbal association. This learning refers to
the use of verbal connections to create
associations.
5. Discrimination Learning. Refers to a
selective response, which applies to given
stimuli.
6. Concept Learning. Refers to classifying
and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts.
7. Principle Learning (Rule learning). Refers
to combining and relating concepts to form
rules.
8. Problem-Solving. Applying rules to
appropriate problem situations. It is
considered the most complex condition.
Nine Events of Instruction
1. Gaining attention (reception). It is the
process of getting the learner’s attention
before the start of the lesson. It is like
asking the learners to pay attention to the
discussion.
2. Informing learners of the objective/s
(expectancy). Telling the learners what to
expect in the lesson. When learners are
informed of the objective/s and understand
them, they will be guided properly and know
what to expect after.
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
(retrieval). Reviewing the previous lesson.
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective
perception). Connecting the past lesson to
the present lesson.
5. Providing learning guidance (Semantic
encoding). Presenting new concepts
through guided activities.
6. Eliciting performance (responding).
Knowing whether the learners understood
the lesson through oral participation.
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement).
Verbal feedbacking, praising those who
performed well and encouraging more those
who did not perform well.
8. Assessing performance (Retrieval).
Evaluating the performance of the learners
either in a written examination or other
means of authentic evaluation.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
(generalization). Transferring learning to
another situation to enhance the retention of
the lesson.
Robert Gagne gave two reasons why there is a
need to transfer learning:
1. Learning in one context enhances a related
performance in another context (Perkins &
Salmon, 1992)
2. Learning is extended in one context to new
contexts (Brandsford, Brown, & Cocking,
1999)
 Types of Transfer Learning Beliefs of Constructivism
 Society and culture affect learning
Specific. Learning is General. Learning is  Learning involves community engagement
transferred to similar transferred to dissimilar  Social interaction is equally important
situations. situations. because of the characteristics of learners as
Example: When the Example: When the social learners.
learner is able to learner is able to balance
balance him/herself on him/herself on a low 3.1 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
a 4-inch beam, he or beam, he or she is able to This theory stresses that learners take active roles
she is able to balance balance him/herself on a in understanding, creating, and making sense of
him/herself on an bicycle. information in terms of developmental stages,
elevated 4-inch beam. developmental tasks, and learning styles.

The following are the major considerations when

Lateral. The learner is Vertical. The learner is
applying this theory:
able to perform a new able to learn more
1. There are things that learners can and
task at about the same advance or complex skill.
cannot understand at different ages.
level. Example: Learner are
2. Learners develop cognitive abilities through
Example: Learners can able to add and multiply or
developmental stages.
solve word problems read and write.
3. Learners fit in new experiences into their
given in text and later
existing schema (assimilation)
solve a similar problem
4. Learners alter existing schema to integrate
on the board.
their new experiences (accommodation)

3. Constructivism Approach In a discussion about cognitive development, it is

The constructivism approach is anchored on Jean
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism and Lev
Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism. Constructivism
advocates that learners build knowledge out of their
experiences and ideas. This knowledge is then
shared and enhanced through interaction with
significant others.
Jean Piaget observed that learners create new
knowledge from their prior experiences through the
process of assimilation and accommodation.
However, Vygotsky, who has been a supporter of
Piaget’s work, insists that in order for learners to
gain a greater amount of learning, they should be in
constant encounter with significant others.
Vygotsky explained that a deeper understanding of
concepts is achieved through language and
interaction with one another.
Sotto believed learners take responsibility for their
own learning, while teachers facilitate learning
within a social context. In short, learners are given
the opportunity to work individually and collectively.
Lave and Wenger (1991) and Duffy (2009) stressed
that learning does not only depend on cognitive
processes but also social interactions and
community engagement and other learning
processes in a “contextualized” learning.
essential to also include the elements that influence
learner’s cognitive development according to Elliot
(2007) such as:
1. Maturation occurs naturally as learners
grow older.
2. As learners grow, develop and mature,
there is greater interaction with their
environment, allowing them to learn from
their actions and modify their predetermined
ideas.
3. The process of learning from others
depends on the learner’s developmental
stages and learning styles to develop their
learning ability. Elliot (2007) calls this
process as social transmission.
3.2 Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s Social
Constructivism
This theory emphasizes that learning is built
through social encounters with peers and adults.
The heart of learning involves active social
interaction. Social interaction vis-à-vis culture is
vital in the learning process. As mentioned by
Tomasello et al. (1993), social interaction and
culture affect learning. Meaning, forming their own
view pf the world relies heavily on interaction with
significant others and the essentiality of culture.
This led to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory.
The following are the major considerations when
applying this theory:
 1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) It
refers to the gap between actual and
potential development. Actual development
is what learners can do on their own.
Potential development is what learners do
with help.
2. Scaffolds (Sf). A competent assistance
extended to the learners as they begin the
journey of learning. These scaffolds could
be circumvented once learners have
learned already.
3. Social Interaction (SI). Refers to the
frequent interaction of learners with other
people that influence learning.
4. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Refers
to the significant others that learners look
for when in doubt. Ones who have grander
knowledge than the learners.
3.3 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that
occurs within a social context. It considers that
people learn from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation and
modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico did
watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must
have imitated it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the
leading proponent this theory.
General principles of social learning theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior
of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in
behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has
to be represented by a permanent change
in behavior, in contrast social learning
theorists say that because people can learn
through education alone, their learning may
not necessarily be shown in their
performance. Learning may or may not
result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the
last 30 years, social learning theory has
become increasingly cognitive in its
interpretation of human learning. Awareness
and expectations of future reinforcements or
punishments can have a major effect on the
behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a
bridge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theories and cognitive learning
theories.
How the environment reinforces and punishes
modeling
People are often reinforced for modeling the
behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling. This is in
several possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
For example, a student changes dress to fit
in with a certain group of students has a
strong likelihood of being accepted and thus
reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third
person. The observer might be modeling
the actions of someone else, for example,
an outstanding class leader or student. The
teacher notices this and compliments and
praises the observer for modeling such
behavior thus, reinforcing that behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to
reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors
that we learn from others produce
satisfying or reinforcing results. For
example, a student in multimedia class
could observe how the extra work a
classmate done is fun. This student in turn
would do the same extra work and also
experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior
affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This where the model is reinforced for a
response and then the observer shows an
increase in that same response.
Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a
film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One
group of children saw the model being praised for
such action. Without being reinforced, the group of
children began to also hit the doll.
Contemporary Social learning perspective of
reinforcement and punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both
reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on learning. They are not the sole or
main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence
the extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences
cognitive processes that promote learning.
Therefore, attention pays a critical role in
learning, and attention is influenced by the
 expectation of reinforcement. An example
would be, when the teacher tells a group of
students that what they will study next is not
on the test. Students will not pay attention
because they do not expect to know the
information for a test.
Cognitive Factors in social learning
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as
well as behaviorist factors (actually operant
factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura
makes a distinction between learning
through observation and the actual imitation
of what has been learned. This is similar to
Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social
learning theorists contend that attention is a
critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being
reinforced, people form expectations about
the consequences that future behaviors are
likely to bring. They expect certain
behaviors to bring reinforcements and
others to bring punishment. The learner
needs to be aware, however, of the
response reinforcements and response
punishment. Reinforcement increases a
response only when the learner is aware of
that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed
that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person. In fact each of
these three variables, the person, the
behavior, and the environment can have an
influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of
models. There is the live model, an actual
person demonstrating the behavior. There
can also be a symbolic model, which can be
a person or action portrayed in some other
medium, such as television, videotape,
computer programs.
Behaviors that can be learned through
modeling
Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly,
through modeling. Examples that can be cited are,
students can watch parents read, students can
watch the demonstrations of mathematics
problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful
situation.
Aggression can be learned through models.
Research indicates that children become more
aggressive when they observed aggressive or
violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior
are influenced by observation and modeling. This
includes moral judgements regarding right and
wrong which can, in part, develop through
modeling.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to
occur
Bandura mentions four conditions that are
necessary before an individual can successfully
model the behavior of someone else.
1. Attention – The person must first pay
attention to the model.
2. Retention - The observer must be able to
remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is
using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction – The third condition is
the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated. This means
that the observer has to be able to replicate
the action, which could be a problem with a
learner who is not ready developmentally to
replicate the action. For example, little
children have difficulty doing complex
physical motion.
4. Motivation – The final necessary ingredient
for modeling to occur is motivation.
Learners must want to demonstrate what
they have learned. Remember that since
these four conditions vary among
individuals, difference people will reproduce
the same behavior differently.
Effects of modeling on behavior
1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of
previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously
forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar
behaviors. For example, a student might
see a friend excel in basketball and he tries
to excel in football because he is not tall
enough for basketball.
Educational implications of social learning
theory
1. Students often a great deal simply by
observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior
can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
This can involve discussing with learners
 about the rewards and consequences of
various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping
for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using
shaping, which is operant conditioning,
modeling can provide a faster, more
efficient means for teaching new behavior.
To promote effective modeling, a teacher
must make sure that the four essential
conditions exist; attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model
appropriate behaviors and take care that
they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a
variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down
traditional stereotypes.
3.4 Jean Lave and Wenger’s Situated
Learning
This theory posits that learners learn in
particular situations and contexts in which the
nature of the situation significantly impacts the
process of learning. More so when learning
involves social relationships and co-
participation exist between and among learners.
understand and teach human intellect learning
style, personality development, and
understanding behaviors (Chapman, 2014)
Gardner knew that his Multiple Intelligences
theory had some room to grow since he
mentioned that multiple intelligences were not
limited to the original seven. Furthermore,
Gardner believed that there could be additional
intelligences worthy of inclusion in the model.
Chapman (2014) stated that Gardner added
Naturalist Intelligence (refers to relationship
toward natural environment), Spiritual or
Existential Intelligence (refers to relationship
toward Supreme Being or refers to one’s
personal philosophy or belief), and Moral
Intelligence (refers to taking care of the welfare
of living things and their well-being) among the
list of intelligences.
However, Gardner suggested to use “existential
intelligence” rather than “spiritual intelligence”
because of the challenge of codifying
quantifiable scientific criteria attached to it
(Dhiman, 2017)

They share various conversations of the same

type, which they term as Community of Practice
(CoP). CoP is an organic self-organized group
of individuals from various geographical
locations. Though coming from different places,
they come together and communicate regularly
to discuss issues of mutual interest and the
best interest of the group.
Other related theories significant to learning
could either be explicitly classified as
behaviorist, cognitivist, or constructivist
because of their varied natures.

3.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Multiple

Intelligences.
This theory postulates that persons have the
capacity to possess all intelligences in varying
degrees because of the influences of both
heredity and environment. Gardner defines
intelligence as the overall mental ability of a
learner. He has utilized aspects of cognitive and
developmental psychology, anthropology, and
sociology to support his claim on human
intellect.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence became a

phenomenon in the education industry as a
conventional model in various capacities that
 The table below shows the original seven with the inclusion of the additional intelligences.

Capability and
Intelligence Competence Perception Examples

1. Linguistic. Learners have an intense Ability to learn different Words and Writers, poets,
passion for spoken and written language. languages and use them language lawyers, speakers
to accomplish goals

2. Logical-Mathematics. Learners can Ability to discover Logic and Scientists,

analyze problems logically and patterns, reason numbers mathematicians
scientifically through mathematical deductively, and think
operations logically

3. Musical. Learners are adaptive to skills Ability to recognize and Music, sound, Musicians,
in performance, composition, and compose musical rhythm composers
appreciation of musical patterns. pitches, tones, and
rhythms

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic. Learners make Ability to coordinate Body movement Athletes, dancers

use of their own body or whole body in mental abilities with control
solving and conveying thoughts or ideas. bodily movements.

5. Spatial-Visual. Learners can Ability to fathom and Images and Engineers,

distinguish and utilize patterns of space optimize the use of space surveyors
and confined areas spaces

6. Interpersonal. Learners work Ability to understand the Other people’s Educators,

effectively with others. intentions, motivations, feelings salespeople,
and desires of other religious counselors,
people. politicians

7. Intrapersonal. Learners work Ability to understand Self-awareness Self-directed

effectively with oneself. oneself, appreciate one’s individuals
feelings, fears, and
motivations

8. Naturalist. Learners have an Ability to recognize, Natural Nature lover,

appreciation of the environment and categorize, and grow environment environmentalist.
nature. upon certain features of
the environment

9. Spiritual/Existential. Learners are Ability to use collective Religion and Human rights
concerned with various social issues. values and intuition to ‘ultimate issues’ advocates,
understand others and legislators,
the world around them theologians

10. Moral. Learners observe rules, Ability to apply rules and Ethics, humanity, Traffic enforcers,
behaviors, and attitudes that govern the regulations in daily life value of life police officers,
sanctity of life. situations. peace and order
advocates.
3.4.2. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic intelligence
This theory believes that learner learns even
outside the classroom. The environment is the best
classroom for them. Thus, learners are encouraged
to explore the outside world to give meaning to their
learnings.
3.4.7. David Kolb’s Experiential Learning
This theory focuses on constructing knowledge as
a result of one’s reflective experience which serves
as the main driving force in learning (Baker,
Jensen, and Kolb, 2002)

Kind of Intelligence 4. Connectivism Approach

1. Practical Intelligence. The ability to do well
in formal and informal educational settings;
this is also known as “street smart”
individuals.
2. Experiential Intelligence. The ability to deal
with current situations so that novel
situations that may arise in the future are
easily handled.
3. Componential Intelligence. Ability to process
metacognition and knowledge-acquisition
components effectively.
The Connectivism approach is self-directed
learning where learners learn on their own with the
use of computer aided instruction (CAI). They
search, explore and navigate information mostly
with the internet connectivity and it is the current
way of learning, most especially in this time of new
normal. Learners are engaged in modular lessons
conducted through synchronous and asynchronous
modalities where learner work at their own space.

3.4.3. Wilhelm Wundt’s Structuralism

Assumes the discovery structure of the mind is built
upon the basic elements of ideas and sensations
and could only be completed through introspection.
Introspection is self-examination of one’s thoughts,
memories, perceptions, and motivations.

3.4.4. William James’ Functionalism

Examines how the mind functions and the mental
processing that leads to adaptive behavior. While
the functionalists, were concerned with both mental
processes and adaptive behavior, the major
emphasis was on behavior (Zhou and Brown,
2015).

3.4.5. Kurt Lewin’s “Life space” and “field

theory”
“Life space” refers to reality such as need,
aspirations, desires and goals. While “field theory”
refers to the functions of both person and
environment. Hence, learning occurs when the
learners’ existing environment is in harmony with
their present reality. Therefore, learning activities
must be relevant to their needs, aspirations and
goals.

3.4.6. Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

This theory highlights the role of emotion in the
development of an individual’s personality, which
eventually affects the progress of learning and
behavior.