Individual Difference, students’ multicultural and cross-

Learning/Thinking Styles and Aspect of Personality in which cultural awareness

Learners Show Wide Variation • You can encourage or even initiate
Multiple Intelligences
co-curricular experiences that are
Physical Condition aimed at promoting diversity
Student Diversity
• A child for instance, may be awareness.
• Students are diverse in their
considered healthier than another 3. Use varied instructional
culture and their ethnicity, their
child yet have poorer vision or methods to accommodate student
experience, their learning and many
hearing that the other. A number of diversity in learning style
other aspects.
child suffer form various physical • Diversify the sensory/perceptual
Individual Differences
defects such as lameness, speech modalities through which you
• Account for our distinguishing
defects (Stuttering, stammering, deliver and present information
characteristics that make us
lisping, etc.) and other physical 4. Diversify your methods of
“unique.”
handicaps. assessing and evaluating student
Specific Factors Influencing
Emotional Response and Attitude learning
Differences Among Learners
• Learners vary in their emotional • You can accommodate students
1. Age Differences and Personal
patter or temperament. School diversity not only by varying what
Adjusment
Children bring to their school life you do with your teaching, but also
• Age represents the learner’s level
varying kinds of degrees of varying what you ask students to do
of maturity and hence his possible
attitudes and emotional tendencies. to demonstrate learning.
educability.
Mental Abilities and Specific 5. Purposely form small- groups of
• As the learner matures and he is
Aptitudes students from diverse background.
exposed to more complex
• Individual differences in mental You can form groups of students
environmental forces, his patterns
abilities and aptitudes are apparent with different learning styles,
of behaviour will change.
in the classroom. Some children are different cultural background, etc
2. Sex Differences
able to learn faster than others. • Small peer-learning groups may
• Certain biological factors like
Different kinds of Learners be effective for promoting student
anatomical, physical and
1. Genius or Mentally Gifted progress to a more advanced stage
physiological differences between
2. Superior or Bright of cognitive development
boys and girls may lead
3. Average
psychological differences.
4. Dull or Borderline  LEARNING THINKING STYLES
• As children develop self-concepts
5. Mentally Retarded or • Hilliard describes “learning styles”
in accordance with their roles,
Feebleminded as the sum of the patterns how
certain differences in their patterns
Social Adjustment individuals develop habitual ways
of behavior become apparent.
• As individual emerges from the of responding to experience
3. Family and Community
sheltered life within the home • Refer to the preferred way an
Background
toward an expanded social and individual process information.
• Studies in psychology have shown
physical environment, new They describe a person’s typical
that there exist wide variations
problems arise and additional made of thinking, remembering or
among members of different
needs and want appear. problem solving.
families.
• Social Adjustment is desirable and There are several perspective
• The experiences which an
necessary. about learning-thinking styles. We
individual acquires in his contact
Some Tips of Students Diversity shall focus on:
with his environment at home an in
1.Encourage learners to share their 1. Sensory preferences
the community cause him to be
personal history and experiences 2. Global-analytic continuum
different in his attitude toward
• Students will be made to realized Sensory preferences - Individuals
learning and in his demonstrated
that they have something in tend to gravitate toward one or two
achievement.
common with the rest. They also type of sensory input and maintain
differ in several ways. a dominance in one of the following
2. Integrate learning experiences types of learners.
and activities which promote 1. Visual Learners -These learners
must see their teacher’s actions global, non- linear and holistic in Study Tips:
and facial expressions to fully thought preferences. -Detailed Notes
understand the content of a lesson. Successive Processor (left brain) -Flash cards (memorization)
Ri Charde further breaks down prefers to learn in a step-by-step -Read out loud
visual learners into: sequential format, specific to -Group Discussion
a. Visual-iconic general. -Debate
b. Visual-symbolic Simultaneous Processor (right Logical/Mathematical
Visual-iconic - Those who prefer brain) prefers to learn beginning
Intelligence
this form of input are more with the general concept and then
• analyze problems logically
interested in visual imagery such as going on to specifics.
• Is familiar with the concepts of
film, graphic displays, or pictures in
quantity, time, and cause and
order to solidify learning. Multiple Intelligence
effect.
Visual-symbolic - Those who prefer Howard Gardner
• The ability to detect patterns,
this form of input feel comfortable • 1943 - Present
with abstract symbolism such as • Harvard Graduate School of reason deductively and think
mathematical formulae or the Education logically.
written word. • "An important part of that Careers:
2. Auditory Learners - They learn understanding is knowing who we - Accountant
best through verbal lectures, are and what we can do... - Computer programmer
discussions, talking things through Ultimately, we must synthesize our - Pharmacist
and listening to what others have to understandings for ourselves." - Scientist
say. 8 types of "Intelligences" - Banker
Auditory Learners fall into two - Doctor
• There is no single measure of
categories: - Engineer
intelligence.
a. The Listeners - City Planner
• Each person possesses a
b. The Talkers Study Tips:
spectrum of intelligences that are
The Listeners - This is the more -Make Charts/Graphs of new
combined and used in personal
common type. They remember information
ways.
things said to them and make the -Organized Notes based on
• Intelligences evolve with Categories or importance
information their own.
development and application. Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence
The Talkers - They are the ones
Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence • Prefers to touch, handle, or
who prefer to talk and discuss.
•Listens and responds to the manipulate what is to be learned.
They often find themselves talking
spoken word. • Develops coordination and a
to those around them.
• Enjoys reading, writing, and sense of timing.
3. Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learners -
Persons benefit much from a hands discussing. • Learns best by direct involvement
on approach, actively exploring the • Remembers what has been said. and participation.
physical world around them. • Remembers what has been read. • Remembers most clearly what
Global-analytic continuum Analytic • Speaks and writes effectively. was done, rather than what was
- Analytic thinkers tend toward the • Can learn other languages. said or observed.
linear, step-by-step process of Careers: Careers:
learning. - Radio/TV Announcer - Dancer
Global -Global thinkers lean - Writer - Construction
towards non-linear thought. - Librarian - Coach
- Athlete
- Lawyer
In accord with Roger Sperry’s - Architect
- Teacher
model, the left-brained dominant - Mechanic
- Politician
individual is portrayed as the linear - Massage Therapist
- Translator
(analytic), verbal, mathematical - Clown
- Comedian
thinker while the right-brained Study Tips:
person is on who is viewed as -Act out concepts
-Study with others - Forms and maintains social
-Real life examples to connect with relationships. Careers:
new concepts. - It allows people to work effectively - Biologist
Visual/Spatial Intelligence with others. - Park Ranger
• Learns by seeing and observing. Careers: - Veterinarian
• Recognizes faces, objects, shapes, - Travel Agent - Geographer
colors, details, and scenes. - Therapist - Chef
• Uses visual images as an aid in - Religious Leader - Astronomer
recalling information. - Home maker - Environmentalist
• Enjoys doodling, drawing, painting, - Nurse - Weather Forecaster
sculpting, or otherwise reproducing - Politician Study Tips:
objects in visible form. - Receptionist -Study outdoors
Careers: - Waiter -Connect new knowledge with prior
- Photographer - Social Worker knowledge
- Landscaper Study Tips: -Focus on how information
- Pilot -Study with others connects to natural surroundings
- Artist -Discussion Groups
- Decorator -Blogging with classmates about LEARNERS WITH
- Fashion Designer class issues
EXCEPTIONALITIES
- Makeup Artist Intrapersonal Intelligence
- Surgeon • Understands oneself, and
3- tier terms:
Study Tips: appreciates one's feelings, fears
IMPAIRMENT
-Make pictures when studying and motivations.
- Loss or abnormality of
-Graphs and charts to visualize new • Works independently.
psychological, physiological or
information. • Establishes and lives by an ethical
anatomical structure or function.
Musical Intelligence value system.
-Intrinsic to the individual
• skill in the performance, • Strives for self-actualization.
DISABILITY
composition, and appreciation of Careers:
-Measurable impairment or
musical patterns. - Creative Writer
limitation that "interferes with a
• recognize and compose musical - Philosopher
person's ability. ( to walk, lift, hear,
pitches, tones, and rhythms. - Self Employed People
or learn. It may refer to a physical,
• Develops the ability to sing and/or - Entrepreneur
sensory or mental condition.
play an instrument. - Counselor
(Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996)
Careers: - Psychologist
HANDICAP
- Composer - Researcher
-Disadvantage that occurs as a
- Dancer - Guru
result of a disability.
- Disc Jockey Study Tips:
" Disability has become more
- Figure Skater -Study Alone
accepted and used, replacing"
- Song Writer -Personal incites along with class
handicap".
- Singer notes to clarify information
"In the Philippine Constitution,
- Band Member -Quiet surroundings
Article XIV, Section 2:"provide adult
- Conductor Naturalist Intelligence
citizens,the disabled, and out of
Study Tips: - Recognizes and can name many
school youth with training..."
-Listen to music while studying different types of trees, flowers,
-Use Rhymes to help remember and plants.
CATEGORIES OF
information - Has an interest in and good
EXCEPTIONALITIES
-Make songs from class notes knowledge of how the body works
Exceptionalities
Interpersonal Intelligence and keeps abreast of health issues.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod's Educational
- Perceives the feelings, thoughts, - Has an understanding of, and
Psychology (2000)
motivations, behaviors, and interest in, the main global
• Cognitive or Academic
lifestyles of others. environmental issues.
Difficulties
• Social/Emotional and Behavioral
Difficulties
• Physical Disabilities and Health
Impairments
• Sensory Impairments
• Giftedness
COGNITIVE OR ACADEMIC
DIFFICULTIES
a. Learning Disabilities- perception,
language, memory or
metacognition
• Dyslexia- reading disorder
• Dysgraphia - writing disorder
• Dyscalculia - arithmetic disorder
• Dyspraxia - psychomotor disorder
b. ADHD (AttentionDeficit
Hyperactivity Disorder) - perception,
language, memory or
metacognition.
c. Speech and Communication
Disorders- spoken language
including voice disorders (e.g.
difficulties pronouncing sounds or
articulation disorders, and
stuttering).
SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL AND
BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES
a. Autism- social skills, repetitive
behaviors, speech and non- verbal
communication.
b. Mental Retardation - sub-average
intelligence and
deficits in adaptive behavior
(imbecile).
c. Emotional/ Conduct Disorders
-presence of emotional states like
depression and agression
disturbing learning and
performance in school.
PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND
HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS
a. Physical and health impairments
- affects individual's energy and
strength, mental alertness and
muscle control.
b. Severe and Multiple
Impairments
- presence of two or more different
types of disabilities.
SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS
a. Visual Impairments
- malfuction of the eyes or optic
nerves that prevent normal vision
even:
• Myopia (farsightedness)
• Hyperopia ( nearsightedness)
• Astigmatism
b. Hearing Impairments
(otherwise known as hearing loss)
-malfunction of the ear or auditory
nerves that hinders perception of
sounds within the frequency range
of normal speech.
GIFTEDNESS
• speaks of talent, which includes
all areas of a child's life: academic,
artistic, athletic and social. (US
Dep't of Education,1993)
• involves significantly high levels of
cognitive development.
(6) Six areas where giftedness
could be found:
1.Creative thinking
2.Leadership
3.General Intellectual Ability
4.Psychomotor
5.Specific academic ability
6.Visual/ Performing Arts
Characteristics:
• Perfectionists and idealistic
• Heightened sensitivity to their own
expectations and those of others
• Maturity beyond age
• Problem solvers
• Abstract thinkers
INDIVIDUAL WITH DISABILITIES
EDUCATION ACT (IDEA)
What is IDEA?
• The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) is a federal
law that requires schools to serve
the educational needs of eligble
students with disabilities.
• Schools must evaluate students
suspected of having disabilities,
including learning disabilities.
• Not every child with learning and
attention issues qualifies for
special education services under
IDEA.
Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)
a. Autism
b. Deaf- Blindness
c. Deafness
d. Emotional Disturbance
e. Hearing Impairment
f. Intellectual Disabilty
g. Multiple Disabilities
h. Orthopedic Impairment - caused
by disease (e.g. poliomyelitis, bone
tuberculosis); impairments from
other causes (e.g, cerebral palsy,
amputations, and fractures)
i. Other Health Impairment- having
limited strength , vitality or
alertness
j. Specific Learning Disability
k. Speech or language Impairment
l. Traumatic Brain Injury - acuired
injury to the brain caused by an
external physical force, resulting in
total or partial functional disability
or psychosocial impairment
m. Visual Impairment
What is Individual Education
Program?
A federal law called that individuals
with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) requires that public schools
create an IEP for every receiving
special education services. Kids
from 3 through high school
graduation or a minimum age of 22
( whichever comes first) may be
eligible for an IEP.
Special Education Process
• "accomodation" - may be used to
describe an alteration of
environment, curriculum format, or
euipment that allows an individual
with a disability to gain access to
content and/or complete assigned
tasks.
• "modification" - may be used to
describe a change in the curriculum.
 F. Asking and providing assistance psychological disorders are best
G. Encouragement treated by altering behavior
H. Patience, patience, patience, and patterns.
PATIENCE! Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
• He was a Russian physiologist
RECOGNIZING A LEARNERS WITH who studied the behavior of dogs
A LEARNING EXCEPTIONALITIES and developed a theory of classical
conditioning, which explains how
people associate two stimuli in
their minds and react to one of
them as though it was the other.
Pavlov also had the following
findings:
• Stimulus generalization
DEALING LEARNERS WITH • Extinction
EXCEPTIONALITIES • Spontaneous Recovery
A. People - First Language - is used • Discrimination
to speak appropriately and • Higher-Order Conditioning
respectfully about an individual with Edward Thorndike
disability. • Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)
• No generic labels The learning theory of Thorndike
• Emphasize abilities; not represents the original S-R
limitations framework of behavioral
• No euphemisms psychology. Learning is the result
• No implication of illness of of associations forming between
suffering. stimuli and responses. Such
LEARNING: BEHAVIORIST
PEOPLE FIRST LANGUAGE associations or "habits" become
PERSPECTIVE
• Person with a disabily strengthened or weakened by the
What is behaviorist perspective?
• Person with an intellectual, nature and frequency of the S-R
• The behaviorist perspective is a
cognitive developmental disability pairings.
theory of psychology that states
• Person with an emotional or He Came Up with This Three
that human behaviors are learned,
behavioral disability, person with a Primary Law
not innate. The behaviorist
mental health or a psychaiatric 1. Law of Effect
approach asserts that human
disability. 2. Law of Exercise
beings have no free will and that all
LANGUAGE TO AVOID 3. Law of Readiness
actions, characteristics and
• The disabled, handicapped "Law of Effect"
personality traits are the result of a
• Retarted, slow, moronic, defective, • Which stated that any behavior
person's environment and the
afflicted, special person that is followed by pleasant
cultural forces that shape it.
• insane, crazy, psycho consequences is likely to be
Behaviorist Perspective
DEALING LEARNERS WITH repeated, and any behavior
Two Categories:
EXCEPTIONALITIES followed by unpleasant
Behaviorism
A. Brief and Simple consequences is likely to be
&
B. Clear and definition of course stopped.
Neo Behaviorism
requirements, the dates of exams "Law of Exercise"
Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike,
and deadline of assignments. • The more a behavior follows a
Watson and Skinner.
C. Handouts and visual aids and given stimulus, the more likely it will
What is Behaviorism?
study guides occur again (habit, no reward
• The theory that human and animal
D. Several examples and necessary).
behavior can be explained in terms
demonstrations "Law of Readiness"
of conditioning, without appeal to
E. Consultation Time • This state that, the more
thoughts or feelings, and those
readiness the learner has to
response to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between
them.
John B. Watson
• He was the first American
psychologist to work with Pavlov’s
idea. He too was initially involved in
animal studies, the later become
involved in human behavior
research.
• He considered that human are
born with few reflexes and the
emotional reactions of love and
rage. All other behavior is learned
through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner
• Like Pavlov, Watson and
Thorndike, Skinner believed in the
stimulus-response pattern of
conditional behavior. Skinner's work
differs from that of the three
behaviorists before him, in that he
studied operant behavior (voluntary
behaviors used in operating on the
environment). Thus, is theory came
to be known as operant
conditioning.
• Operant conditioning is based
upon the notion that learning is a
result of change in overt behavior.
• Reinforcement is the key element
in skinner's s-r theory.
Two type of Reinforcer
1. Positive Reinforcer - is any
stimulus that is given or added to
increase the response.
2. Negative Reinforcer - is any
stimulus that result in the increased
frequency of a response when it is
withdraw or removed.
Fixed interval schedules
• The target response is reinforced
after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement.
Variable interval schedules
• Similar to fixed interval schedules,
but the amount of time that must
pass between reinforcement varies.
Fixed ratio schedules
• A fixed number of correct
responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur.
Variable ratio schedules
• The number of correct repetition
of the correct response for
reinforcement varies.
Implication of operant conditioning
This implication is given for
programmed instruction.
• Practice should take the form of
equation (stimulus) - answer
(response) frames which expose
the student to the subject in
gradual steps.
• Require that the learner makes a
response for every frame and
receives immediate feedback.
• Try to arrange the difficulty of the
questions so the response is
always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
• Ensure that good performance in
the lesson is paired with secondary
reinforcement such as vernal praise,
prizes and good grades.
Principle derived from skinner's
operant conditioning
• Behavior that is positively
reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly
effective.
• Information should be presented
in small amounts so that response
can be reinforced (shaping).
• Reinforcement will generalize
across similar stimulus (stimulus
generalization) producing
secondary conditioning.
Neo- Behaviorism
Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and
Bandura Neo behaviorism is a
school of thought that posits that
the study of learning and a focus on
rigorous objective observational
methods form the key to scientific
psychology. Neo behaviorism is the
second phase of behaviorism,
which was closely associated with
B.F. Skinner, Clark Hull and
Edward.C. Tolman.
Tolman's Key Concepts
• Learning is always purposive and
goal-directed- Individuals do more
than merely respond to a stimuli;
they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions and they strive
toward goals.
• Cognitive maps in rats. In his
famous experiments, one group of
rats was placed at random starting
locations in a maze but the food
was always in the same location in
a maze but the food was always in
the same location.
• Latent Learning is a kind of
learning that reminds or stays with
the individual until needed. It is
learning that is not outwardly
manifested at once.
• The concept of intervening
variable- are variables that are not
readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
• Social learning theory focuses on
the learning that occurs within a
social context. It considers that
people learn from one another,
including such concepts as
observational learning.
General principles of social
learning theory
1. People can learn by observing
the behavior of others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a
change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning
4. Social learning theory can be
considered a bridge or a transition
between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning
theories.
Cognitive Factors in Social
Learning
1. Learning without performance.
2. Cognitive Processes during
learning
Expectations
3.Reciprocal causation
4. Modeling
Bandura mentions four conditions
that are necessary before an
individual can successfully model
the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention
• a person must pay attention to the
model first.
2. Retention
• a person must remember what
has been observed.
3.Motor reproduction
• ability to replicate the behavior
that the model demonstrated.
4.Motivation
Effects of modelling on behavior:
• Modelling teaches new behaviors.
• Modelling influences the
frequency of previously learned
behaviors.
• Modelling may encourage
previously forbidden behaviors.
• Modeling increases the frequency
of similar behaviors.
Learning: COGNITIVE
PERSPRECTIVE
GESTALT INSIGHT THEORY
-which means that learning is
concerned with the whole individual
and arises from the interaction of
an individual with his situations or
environment.
Gestalt Psychology
-was at the forefront of cognitive
psychology.
It served as the foundation of the
cognitive perspective to learning.
Gestalt Theory
-was the initial cognitive response
to behaviorism. It emphasized the
importance of sensory wholes and
the dynamic nature of visual
perception.The term gestalt
means“form’ or“configuration”.
Psychologists, Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka
studied perception and concluded
that perceivers (or learners) were
not be passive, butrather active.
Gestalt Principles
• Law of proximity
Elementsthat are closertogether
will be perceived as a coherent
object.
• Law of similarity
Elements that look similar will be
perceived as a part of the same
form.
• Law of closure
We tend to fill the gaps or“close”
the figures we perceive.
• Law of Good Continuation
Individuals have the tendency to
continue contours whenever the
elements of the pattern establish
an implied direction.
• Law of Good Pragnanz
The stimulus will be organized into
as a good a figure as possible.
• Law of Figure/Ground
We tend to pay attention and
perceive thingsin the foreground
first.
Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin,
expounded on gestalt psychology.
His theory focusing on “ life space
adhered to gestalt psychology. He
said that an individual has inner and
outer forces that affect his
perceptions and also hislearning.
Gestalt Principles and the Teachi-
Learning Process
Inner forces include his own
motivation, attitudes and feelings.
Outer forces may include the
attitude and behavior of the teacher
and classmates. All these forces
interact and impact on the person’s
learning.
Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist,
writes about the relevance of
gestalt psychology to education.
Information Processing Theory
Information Processing Theory
uses a computer model to describe
human learning. Information comes
in, it gets processed, and then it
gets stored and retrieved. Of course
this is an oversimplification of
human learning, but it gives us a
good overview and simile by using
the computer model.
Types" of knowledge
General vs. Specific- This involves
whether then knowledge is useful in
many tasks, or only in one.
Declarative- This refers to factual
knowledge. They relate to the
nature of how things are. They may
be in the form of a word or an
image.
Procedural- Thisincludes
knowledge on how to do things.
Episodic- This includes memories
of life event, like your high school
graduation.
Conditional- This about "knowing
when and why" to apply
declarative.Stages in the
Information Processing Theory
These three primary stagesin IPT
are:
1. Encoding- Information issensed,
perceived, and attended to.
2. Storage- The Information is
stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the
processes following.
3. Retrieval- The information is
brought back at the appropriate
time, and reactivated for use on a
current task, the true measure of
effective memory.
Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds
all sensory information for a very
time.
• Capacity: Our mind receives a
great amount of information but it
is more than what our minds can
hold or perceive.
• Duration: The sensory register
only holds the information for an
extremely brief- in the order of 1-3
seconds.
There is a difference in duration
based on modality: auditory
memory is more persistent than
visual.
Short-Term Memory(STM or
Working Memory)
Short-term memory (STM)
encompasses cognitive functions
for the storage, maintenance, and
mental manipulation of information
that is no longer present in the
sensory environment. Selective
attention, on the other hand, relates
to functions that modulate the
processing of sensory events
during encoding.
Duration: Around 18 seconds orless
Long Term Memory(LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent
storage house for memory
information. It holds the stored
information until needed again.
• Capacity: LTM has unlimited
capacity.
• Duration in the LTM is indefinite
Forgetting- This is the inability to
retrieve or access information when
needed.
There are two main ways in which
forgetting likely occurs.
Decay - Information is not attended
to, and eventually 'fades' away. Very
relevant in Working Memory.
Interference - New or old
information 'blocks' access to the
information in question.
Methods for Increasing Retrieval of
Information
Rehearsal- This is repeating
information verbatim, either
mentally or a loud.
Meaningful Learning- This is
making connections between new
information and prior knowledge.
Organization- It is making
connections among various pieces
of information. Info that is
organized efficiently should be
recalled.
Elaboration- This is adding
additional ideas to new information
based on what one already knows.
It is connecting new info with old, to
gain meaning.
Visual Imaginary- This
meansforming a "picture" of the
information.
Generation- Things we 'produce' are
easier to remember than things we
'hear' Context- Remembering the
situation helpsrecoverinformation.
Personalization- It is making the
information relevant to the
individual.
Other Memory Methods
Serial Position Effect (recency and
primacy) - You will remember the
beginning and end of the 'list'
mostreadily.
Part Learning- Break up the 'list' or
"chunk" information to increase
memorization.
Distributed Practice- Break up
learning sessions, rather than
cramming all the info n at once
(Massed Practice)
Mnemonic Aids- These are memory
techniques that learners may
employ to help them retain and
retrieve information more
effectively.
Information isreceived through the
senses and goesto the sensory
memory for a very brief amount of
time. If not relevant, information
may decay. It goes to the STM and
if given attention and is perceived
and found to be relevant, it is sent
to the LTM. If not properly encoded,
forgetting occurs. Different
cognitive processes applied to the
information will then determine if
information can be retrieved when
needed later.