Special & Inclusive Education Learners Characteristics

4 | Foundations of Special & Inclusive Education 1
Education
UNIT 4: LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS
4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Explain the meaning and identification of each learner with additional needs;
b. Differentiate the learning characteristics of learners with additional needs;
c. Discuss the additional needs of learners from one another; and
d. Create an infomercial brochure about learners with additional needs.
4.1 Introduction
Children learn every day. This happens in
various settings and different ways. Learning at
times happens intentionally and with great effort
while there are situations where it happens almost
effortlessly. This chapter focuses on learners with
additional needs, highlighting the definition,
identification, learning characteristics, and general
education adaptations.
4.2 Topics
4.2.1 LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
A. Definition
Learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities than
average and are often referred to as gifted students. This group refers to students
whose talents, abilities, and potentials are developmentally advanced. They require
special provisions to meet their educational needs, thus presenting a unique
challenge to teacher. They often finish tasks ahead and might ask for more creative
tasks or exercises. Exciting and energizing activities should be provided to
continuously keep them motivated.
This group includes students with exceptional abilities from all socio-economic,
ethnic, and cultural populations. What is the difference then between gifted and
talented? The term giftedness refers to
students with extraordinary abilities in
various academic areas. However, talent focus
on students with extraordinary abilities in a
specific area.
There is also another way to look into

giftedness which is conceptualized by
Gardner in 1983. According to him,
intelligence is multifaceted. The following
intelligences are seen in Figure 4.1.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
B. Identification Education
To identify and talented students, one must do the following:
• Located the student’s domain of giftedness
• Describe the student’s level of giftedness
• Describe the student’s fields of talent
C. Learning Characteristics
Not all learners will exhibit the learning characteristics listed below. However,
these are the common manifestations of gifted and talented learners. One might
possess a combination of characteristics in varying degrees and amounts.
• High level of intellectual curiosity
• Reads actively
• High degree of task commitment
• Keen power of observation
• Highly verbal
• Gets bored easily
• Can retain and recall information
• Excited about learning new concepts
• Independence in learning
• Good comprehension of complex contexts
• Strong, well-developed imagination
• Looks for new ways to do things
• Often gives uncommon responses to common questions
D. General Education
Adaptations
Learners who are gifted
and talented usually get bored
since they have mastered the
concepts taught in classes. One
that is common among gifted
students is that they are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their instructional needs may be
a challenging task. These are some suggested strategies for teaching gifted students:
• Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to study the
same topic at a more advanced level.
• Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at their
own pace thus resulting at times to in completing two grade levels in one
school year.
• Open-minded activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided,
emphasizing on divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities
than pre-determined answers.
• Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have shown
that gifted students are often socially immature.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Education
Extensive reading on subjects of their own interest may be coordinated with
the school librarian to further broaden their knowledge
• Long-term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students
an opportunity to be engaged for an extended period of time.
Gifted and talented children should be encouraged, challenged and

inspired if they are to realize their potential. Gifted and talented students
may exhibit positive or negative characteristics.
Two sides of Gifted Behaviors

Positive Aspects Not-so-positive aspects
• Express ideas and feelings • May dominate and lead discussions in
• Can move at a rapid pace and completes ‟off track”
assigned tasks • Maybe impatient to proceed the next
• Works conscientiously level or task
• Want to learn, explore, and seek more • May struggle against rules, regulations
information and standardized procedures
• Makes original and stimulating • May become bored by repetitions and
contributions to discussion lose interest quickly
• Learns materials quickly • May resist a scheduled based on time
• Is able to use reading skills to obtain new and rather than task
information and requires little drill for
learning.
Taken from Tagalog, RM. 2010, Teaching gifted and Talented Students
https://www.slideshare.net/rmtagalog/teaching-gifted-and-talented-students
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Here are the different learning characteristics of gifted and talented students with special needs
Learning Ability Characteristics
1. Intellectual Ability ►Makes logical inferences, draws conclusion based on
I.Q Scales: sound reasoning and uses advanced reasoning skills.
Highly gifted: 145-159 ►Learns new information quickly and has extensive and
detailed memory.
Moderately gifted: 130-144 ►Applies prior knowledge to problem solving and
answer questions in detail
Mildly gifted: 115-129 ►Understands abstract ideas and complex concepts.
Average gifted: 100
2. Academic Ability ►Has intense, sustained interest, has hobbies/collections

related to field and demonstrate knowledge about current
events.
►Completes academic work correctly/unassisted,
contributes to academic discussions, and demonstrate
knowledge of facts in one or more academic areas.
►Has an inquisitive nature, asks relevant questions, and
has hobbies/collections related to field
3. Creative Ability ►Has active imagination and emotionally sensitive.

►Generates ‟what if” questions and brings
inventive/innovative approach to approach to problems.
►Experiments with ideas, a risk taker, nonconformist,
uninhibited in expression and adventurous.
►Constructs jokes, clever plays on words and ironic
observations.
4. Leadership Ability ►Acts responsibly in social situations and has a

cooperative attitude.
►Projects positive image to peers and earns respect and
trust of others.
►Maintains on-task focus, gets others to work together,
take charge in group situations and can make backwards
planning.
►Had self-confidence and view holistically.
5. Artistic Talent ►Produces imaginative/original art and express emotion
in art.
►Communicates effectively via artistic media and
appreciates subtle variations in artistic products or
performance.
►Concentrates for long periods of time on artistic
projects and seems to pick up skills in the arts with little
or no instruction.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
6. Motivation Education
►Shows pride in work, works tenaciously, not easily
discouraged and strives to improve.
► Sets challenging goals and reacts to challenges
enthusiastically.
►Places high value on mastery and wants to perform at
highest possible level.
►Approaches situations expecting to do well and
attempts tasks above current skill level
Here are some examples of people who are gifted with special needs. These famous people
with disabilities share something, besides their professional success, it is their ability of self-
improvement. Their lives have not been easy and precisely because of that, they are an
example and inspiration.
John Nash
An American mathematician whose life, marked by acute paranoid schizophrenia, is
known to us thanks to the film "A Beautiful Mind" Aware of his illness, Nash fought
against it and developed a successful academic career that earned him the Nobel Prize
in Economics in 1994.
Stephen Hawking
A theoretical physicist, astrophysicist, cosmologist, and eminent scientist, Stephen Hawking was
diagnosed with ALS at age 21: he was given 2 more years to live. He lived until he was 76-years- old. He had
been paralyzed from head to toe for over thirty years and used a voice synthesizer to be able to
communicate, and a wheelchair that he operated through slight movements of the head and eyes. None of
this prevented him from developing his activity as an exemplary researcher and professor, and intense
personal life that allowed him to make his illness known to the world.
Taken from Sunrise Medical 2018 Live without Limits blog 8 inspirational people with disabilities
https://www.sunrisemedical.co.uk/blog/famous-people-with-disabilities
Practice
CASE ANALYSIS. Read the situation and provide what strategies can be employed to
the student.
Andrea is a 5 year-old, kindergarten child, full of energy and excitement like most children her age,
except that she is already reading at a fourth-grade level and understands math concepts at a fifth-grade
level.
Strategy/ies:______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ryan, a high school student , is a challenge for his parents and teachers. He performs at a minimal level
in his classes and is not even top 10% of his class. Yet he loves music and plays tuba, cello, and bass
guitar proficiently. Outside of school, he organizes and leads two jazz bands and recorded his 1 st album.
Strategy/ies:______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
4.2.2. LEARNERSEducation
WITH DIFFICULTY HEARING
A. Definition
This refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes with
academics. The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
defines it as “an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not included under the
definition of ‘deafness’.” Deafness is considered when hearing loss is above 90
decibels. A hearing loss below 90 decibels is called hearing impairment.
The main challenge of hearing-impairment students is communication, since

most of them have varying ways of communicating. The factors affecting the development of
communication skills include intelligence, personality, the degree and nature of deafness and
residual hearing, family environment, and the age of onset. The latter plays the most crucial
role in the development of language as those who have hearing loss present at birth are more
functionally disabled than those who lose hearing after language and speech development.
B. Identification
To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a student and see if
he/she does the following items below.
• Speaking loudly
• Positioning ear toward the direction of the one speaking
• Asking for information to be repeated again and again
• Delayed development of speech
• Watching the face of the speaker intently
• Favoring one ear
• Not responding when called
• Has difficulty following directions
• Does not mind loud noises
• Leaning close to the source of sounds
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Since much of learning is acquired through hearing, students
with hearing problems have deficiencies in language and in their
experiences. Since they may miss out on daily conversations,
they may miss crucial information that non-hearing-impaired
students learn incidentally. Students may overcome these
problems by investing time, energy, and combined effort by both
parents and educators.
Most learners with difficulty hearing use various methods of
communication.
The most common is the use of

hearing aids, combined with lip-reading.
These students are referred to as “oral” since
they can communicate thru speech as
opposed to sign language.
They might have delayed

communication skills since the development
of vocabulary is slower. They understand
concepts when the sentence structure is
simpler. Interacting with students can be a
challenge so they prefer to work on their
own.
Some hearing-impaired students use note-takers in class since it is difficult to lip-read

and take notes simultaneously.
D. General Educational Adaptations

There is an assumption that the only adjustment for hearing impaired students is
to make all instructional materials and techniques in written format. These are other
ways to adapt to hearing-impaired students:
• Teachers should help students with difficulty hearing to use the residual
hearing they may have.
• Teachers should help students develop the ability for speech reading or
watching other’s lips, mouth, and expressions.
• Teachers should be mindful to face the class at all times when presenting
information while ensuring that the students with difficulty hearing sit near
them.
• Exaggerating the pronunciation of words should not be done for it just makes
it difficult for the students with difficulty hearing.
• Directions, as well as important parts of the lesson, should always be written on
the board.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Written or pictorial directions instead of verbal
directions may be given.
• Steps to an activity may be physically acted out
instead of verbally given
• A variety of multi-sensory activities should be given
to allow the students to focus on their learning
strengths.
• Teachers should be more patient when waiting to
hear a response from a hearing-impaired student
which may take longer than usual.
Stated below are famous persons who have difficulty

hearing:
Ludwig van Beethoven

One of the most famous composers that ever lived. He was profoundly deaf, but that
didn’t stop him from composing his world-renowned music. After experiencing buzzing
noises when he was 26, Beethoven had lost 60% of his hearing by the age of 31 and
became completely deaf at 46. Beethoven continued to write music even when deaf,
as he’d learnt how instruments and voices sounded. He also continued to perform
publicly in symphonies as a conductor.
Thomas Edison
The greatest inventor of all time. Many of his inventions have improved the quality of our
modern day lives. During his career, Edison’s inventions included the incandescent light bulb,
the phonograph, and the motion picture camera. Thomas Edison was completely deaf in one ear
and hard of hearing in the other. He believed that his deafness was a benefit to his work, as it
would help keep conversations short so that he could have more time for work!
Taken from Article of Rebecca(2020), 8 Famous Deaf People who Changed the world, Deaf
Unity https://deafunity.org/article_interview/8-famous-deaf-people-who-changed-the-world/
Review
1. What do you call a person with very little hearing ability or complete loss of hearing?
2. The main challenge students with hearing loss face in the classroom is _____.
3. What are the useful learning devices for people with a hearing loss? Explain.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
4.2.3. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING
A. Definition
Students in the classroom will exhibit different levels of clarity of eyesight or
visual acuity. There may be some students with hampered or restricted vision.
Learners with difficulty seeing are those with issues regarding sight that
interfere with academics.
The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states
that “an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects the child’s
educational performance, which includes both partial sight and blindness.” These
students may need to have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or other optical
devices.
Maberley et al. (2006) states the vision loss may be largely attributable to
congenital factors, such as heredity, infections contracted by the mother before birth,
or damage to the structure of the eye during the fetal development period, cataracts,
atrophy of the optic nerve, prematurity, and low birth weight.
B. Identification
Learners with difficulty
seeing often have physical signs,
such as crossed eyes, squinting,
and eyes that turn outwards. They
may also be clumsy, usually
bumping into objects which causes
them to fall down. They like to seat
near the instructional materials or
at times would stand up and go
near the visual aids.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hand coordination. This can
be seen in their handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities. Another
indication is poor academic performance as these students might have difficulty
reading as well as writing.
Characteristics of a Visually Impaired Child

Physical Signs ►Crossed eyes, eyes that turn out, eyes that flutter from side to side or up and
down, or eyes that do not seem to focus are physical signs that a child has vision
problems
►A child should have a routine eye exam every year beginning at age 5.
Clumsiness ►A child might have a vision problem if he appears to be overly clumsy. Poor
vision might be the cause when a child is constantly running into things or
falling down. He might have trouble realizing how close or far away objects
really are.
►The eyes provide the information about surroundings and spatial position
that is transmitted to the brain. Consequently, clumsiness can occur when the
eyes misjudge a distance. Sometimes young children who do not walk well
actually have problems with their vision.
Behavior ►Some children who have vision problems appear to have a short attention
span. Other children might blink frequently or squint whenever they read or
watch television.
►Often children are sensitive to bright light or might sit close to the television
or hold books that they are reading close to their face.
►Likewise, younger children with visual impairments might hold toys very
close to their face.
Poor Eye-Hand ►Poor eye and hand coordination can be another sign that a child has a vision
Coordination problem, therefore parents should observe a young child as he plays.
►Older children who go to school might have difficulty with sporting activities
or certain projects in class.
►Signs of poor eye-hand coordination might include difficulty throwing or
catching a ball, tying shoes or copying schoolwork from the blackboard.
►Poor handwriting is often another sign of poor eye-hand coordination.
►Children who suffer from lazy eyes, crossed or wandering eyes can have
problems with coordination, balance and depth perception, primarily because
they learn to use only one eye at a time.
Poor Academic ►Children who have trouble seeing often perform poorly at school.
Performance Frequently, problems with learning are actually related to poor vision and not
to a learning disability.
►A child might not read well, or might use her finger to follow along when she
is reading so that she doesn't lose her place. Some children also have trouble
remembering what they read.
►Children with vision problems can find it difficult to write as well or might
have problems with math and other subjects.
►Schoolwork can be a challenge for a child who cannot keep a clear focus,
deals with double vision or blurred print on pages. Unfortunately, not all vision
problems are easily detectable. For children who have had vision problems
from the start, their vision seems perfectly normal to them, so they don't usually
complain.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most
school lessons are done through blackboard writing,
presentations, or handouts, in most major subjects.
Visual impairments, whether mild, moderate, or
severe, affect the student’s ability to participate in
normal classroom activities. In the past, students who
are visually impaired are placed in special
institutions. Nowadays, most are enrolled with other
children who are not visually impaired.
Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted

ways to learn incidentally from their surroundings since most of them learn through visual
clues. Because of this, the other senses are used to acquire knowledge. Due to the limited
ability to explore the environment, low motivation to discover is present.

Modification in teaching is needed to accommodate students with
difficulty seeing. The following strategies may be considered:
• If the use of books is part of your lesson, students with difficulty seeing
should be informed ahead of time so that they can be ordered in braille or
in an audio recorded format.
• Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded so that
visually impaired students can listen instead of focusing on the visual
presentation.
• All words written on the board should be read clearly.
• Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board so that they
can easily move close to the instructional materials used during the lesson.
• A buddy can be assigned to a student with difficulty seeing as needed. This
can be crucial to assist in the mobility of the student such as going to the
other places in school during the day.
• Student with difficulty seeing might need more time to complete a task or
homework. This might be on a case to case basis.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Teachers should be aware of terminology that would require visual acuity
(such as over there or like this one) which the impaired student may not
possess.
• Teachers should monitor the students closely to know who needs extra
time in completing tasks.
Below are notable persons who have difficulty seeing:
Andrea Boccelli
Tenor, musician, writer and musical producer of Italian origin, Andrea Boccelli has sold
more than 75 million records. He was born with congenital glaucoma that left him
partially blind, something that did not prevent him from taking piano lessons until the
age of six. However, at age 12 he suffered a blow during a football game that left him
completely blind. Endowed with a spirit of innate improvement, he decided to focus
entirely on music, specifically on singing. He also studied Law. Received numerous
awards of international prestige and even has a beach named after him on the Adriatic.
Ronel Del Rio

A radio journalist for almost a decade now, first became known in 1996 because of his radio
program, "Good Morning Southern Luzon." A voice of reason and awareness, he
discussed national issues as well as issues that the community of PWDs in the Philippines
faced. Striving to be a voice for the unheard PWDs in the Philippines, he pushed for accessible
services not only in his area but in the rest of the country.
Taken from Sunrise Medical 2018 Live without Limits blog 8 inspirational people with
disabilities https://www.sunrisemedical.co.uk/blog/famous-people-with-disabilities
Review
Read the following statements. Choose whether it is a MYTH or a FACT. Explain your
answer.
1. It is easy to identify a person with a vision loss.
2. A student with vision loss cannot get the full benefit from a classroom setting for learning.
3. A blind or partially sighted student will need assistance in navigating the classroom.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
4.2.4 Education
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING
‟To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in

the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our
communication with others.” – Tony Robbins
Some learners are observed to have difficulty

communicating, either verbally expressing their
ideas and needs and/ or in understanding what
others are saying, some many have had a clinical
diagnosis of disability while others display
developmental delays and difficulty in the speech
and language domain.
To have a clearer understanding of students to have difficulty communicating,

we will begin with a definition of communication and its accompanying concepts; how
learners with communications difficulties are identified, their learning characteristics, and
ways how to help them manage and become successful in an inclusive setting.
A. Definition: Types of Communication Impairments and Disorders
Communication is the interactive exchange of information, ideas, feelings, needs, and desires
between and among people (Heward, 2013). Communication is used to serve several
functions, particularly to narrate, explain, inform, request (mand), and express feelings and
opinions.
How is speech different from language?
Speech is the expression of language with sounds, or oral production. Speech is produced
through precise physiological and neuromuscular coordination:
(1) respiration (act of breathing), (2) phonation (production of sound by the larynx and vocal
folds), and (3) articulation (use of lips, tongue, teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak).
Language is used for communication, a

formalized code used by a group of people to
communicate with one another, that is primarily
arbitrary (Heward, 2013). People decide on
symbols, their corresponding meaning, and rules
that make up a language.
There are five dimensions of language that describe

its form (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax,
content, and use (pragmatics). Table below
provides a description for each dimension
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Components of Language
Components Description
Phonology Phonology refers to the sound system of a language. A phoneme
is the smallest unit of sound within a language. For instance, the
word dog is made up of three phonemes, namely /d/-/o/-/g/
while beans has four phonemes, /b/-/ea/-/n/-/s/.
Morphology Morphology of a language refers to the smallest unit of
language that has meaning and which are used to combine
words. Sounds, syllables, or whole words are examples of
morphemes.
Syntax Syntax is the system of rules governing the meaningful
arrangement of words, which also include grammar rules. For
instance, the sentence, Ready get for the exam does not make sense
until arranged in the right sequence as Get ready for the exam.
Semantics Semantics refers to the meanings associated with words and
combination of words in language. This also includes
vocabulary, concept development, connotative meanings of
words, and categories.
Pragmatics Pragmatics revolve around the social use of language, knowing
what, when, and how to communicate and use language in
specific context. There are three kinds of pragmatic skills: (1)
using language for different purposes (e.g., narrating,
explaining, requesting, etc.), (2) changing language according to
the context (e.g., talking to a peer as compared to speaking to a
well-respected professor), and (3) following rules for
conversations and story-telling (e.g., taking turns, rephrasing
when unclear, how to use facial expressions and eye contact,
etc.) (American Speech-Language Hearing Association, 2011
cited in Heward, 2013).
Knowing these terms is necessary to understand the different disabilities that are
associated with communication disorders, namely Speech Impairments and Language
Disorders.
Speech Impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired

articulation, and language or voice impairment. Such disorders are significant enough that
they can adversely affect a student’s academic performance. There are four basic types of
speech impairments: articulation, phonological, fluency, and voice disorder (see Table).
Types of Speech Impairments

Speech Impairments Description Examples
Articulation A child is unable to produce a “I want a blue lollipop”
Disorder given sound physically. Severe
articulation disorder may render “I want a boo wowipop”
a child’s speech unintelligible.
Examples are substitutions, “Can I get three bananas?”
omissions, distortions, and
addition of speech sounds “An I et tee nanas?”
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Phonological Education
A child produces multiple “That pie is good.”
Disorder patterns of sound errors with
obvious impairment of “Cat bye is tood.”
intelligibility. There is also noted
inconsistent misarticulation of
sounds (i.e., sometimes a child is
able to articulate it but not in
other words).
Fluency Disorder Difficulties with the rhythm and Blocks:
timing of speech. Stuttering is an “I want a… banana.”
example marked by rapid-fire (blocks)
repetitions of consonant or vowel
sounds especially at the Prolongations
beginning of words,
prolongations, hesitations, “I waaaant a bbanana”
interjections, and complete verbal
blocks (Ramig & Shames, 2006 Repetitions
cited in Gargiulo 2012). “I want a ba-ba-ba-banana”
Voice Disorder Problems with the quality or use Phonation disorder
of one’s voice resulting from (breathiness, hoarseness)
disorders of the larynx. Voice
may be excessively hoarse, Hypernasality
breathy, or too high-pitched.
Hyponasality
Language Disorders involve problems in one or more of the five components of language
and are often classified as expressive or receptive.
Language disorders are characterized by persistent difficulties in acquiring use of
language that result from deficits in comprehension that include reduced vocabulary, limited
sentence structure, and impairments in discourse, that limit in a child’s functioning (American
Psychiatric Association 2013). To receive a diagnosis of language disorder, the difficulties must
not be due to an accompanying medical or neurological condition and other developmental
disability (i.e., intellectual disability of global developmental delay).
There are different types of language disorder-expressive, receptive, and a combination
of the two.
• An expressive language disorder interferes with the production of
language. A child may have very limited vocabulary that impacts
communication skills or misuses words and phrases in sentences.
• On the other hand, a receptive language disorder interferes with the
understanding of language. A child may have difficulty understanding
spoken sentences or following directions a teacher gives.
• Some children may be found to have a combination of receptive and
expressive language disorder.
At this point, it is also essential to mention that students with Autism Spectrum
Disorder (ASD) also display speech and language difficulties. ASD is an umbrella term for
related disorders that affect social development and communication (Kirk et al. 2015).
Students with ASD display a triad of impairments in social relationships, social
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
communication, and social Education

understanding. Other disorders that are subsumed under ASD are
Rett Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder, and Asperger’s Syndrome. Oftentimes,
students with ASD display deficits in the pragmatic use of language that impact their social
relationships.
B. Identification
Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of the most common red flags observed
by family members, daycare workers, and early childhood teachers. Noted absence, delays,
and difficulties in speech and/or language often prompt family members to consult their
general pediatrician who then makes referrals to developmental pediatricians and other
specialist.
To screen children with communication
difficulties, early childhood professionals use a
questionnaires and developmental checklists to
determine the severity of the delay as compared
with typical language development. Upon
screening, a child may receive educational
supports and accommodations to help address the
delay. If the difficulty is pronounced, referrals can
already be made to developmental pediatrician
and a speech and language pathologist. At times,
referrals are also made to an occupational therapist if speech difficulty is resulting from motor
problems.
How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem? A

comprehensive speech and language evaluation to determine the presence of
a communication disorder involves several components (Heward 2013).
• Case history and physical examination. Assessment always begins with
the case history that provides the specialists the necessary background about
the child’s birth and developmental history, health record, achievement test
scores, and adjustment in school. The specialist examines the child’s Oral-
Peripheral Mechanism which includes mouth, noting irregularities in the tongue, lips,
teeth, palate, or other structures that may affect speech production.
• Hearing. Hearing is tested to determine whether an organic hearing problem is the cause
of the suspected communication disorder, as discussed in the previous section. Thus,
hearing impairment needs to be treated to develop speech and language skills.
• Articulation. A child’s articulation skills are assessed, which includes identifying speech
errors (see Table 6.2)
• Phonological awareness and processing. Phonological awareness and processing skills
provide the foundation for beginning to read in young children (Adams 2013). Children
with difficulties in processing sounds in language as well as in hearing, segmenting, and
identifying phonemes in words may experience problems with expressive and receptive
spoken language as well as in learning how to read.
• Overall language development and vocabulary. Formal tests may be used to measure a
child’s overall language development and vocabulary as these affect how well a child is
able to understand and use language in spontaneous speech and in academic settings.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Education
Assessment of language function. Language is used to serve several functions such as to
request name, imitate, ask, and converse among others. B.F. Skinner (Sundberg 2007 cited
in Heward 2013), emphasized how language is used rather than the structure and form
of language.
• Language samples and observations in natural settings. Language difficulties may also
be identified through play-based, authentic assessment where a specialist plays with a
child during which spontaneous speech and verbalizations can be elicited. Observations
in natural settings, such as a child’s home or school, allows the specialist to sample the
child interaction and communication as part of holistic assessment. These are used to
supplement assessment information gathered in clinical settings.
Categories of learners with communication difficulties
1. Children with speech, language, and communication needs (SLCN)

►described in terms of a developmental delay or disorder
►a language disorder is suspected when there is a discrepancy between verbal and non-
verbal cognitive ability. In much of the research literature, children with SLCN are referred
to as having specific speech and or language impairments (SSLI), or as children with specific
speech and or language difficulties (SSLD).
2. Children with communication and interaction difficulties associated with severe

and profound learning difficulties
►this group of children tend to communicate at an early intentional or pre-intentional level.
They may adopt atypical, idiosyncratic, non-verbal, or augmentative (assisted) methods of
interacting with the world around them (Coupe-O’Kane and Goldbart, 1998).
3. Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

►this term covers a range of pervasive developmental disorders which include ‘classic’
autism (often in association with additional learning difficulties), for instance:
• Asperger syndrome which is sometimes referred to as ‘high functioning autism’;
• Heller’s and Rett’s syndromes (these two being degenerative conditions that may exhibit
autistic features (e.g. see Dempsey and Foreman, 2001); and pervasive developmental disorder
(PDD-NOS). Children in this group are seen as displaying deficits in three key areas, atypical
communication and social development, adherence to ritualistic behavior, plus a resistance to
change (Howlin, 1998), with variable age of onset.
Children with communication dis orders frequently struggle across social settings,
whether at home, school, or in other places in the community.
Language difficulties
Expressive Language Difficulties Receptive Language Difficulties

Limited vocabulary Following oral directions
Incorrect grammar or syntax Understanding humor or figurative
Expressive repetition of information language
Difficulty in formulating questions Comprehending compound and complex
Difficulty constructing sentences sentences
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education Responding to questions appropriately
Children with communication disorders may also experience behavioral difficulties.

Because they struggle in expressing their needs and ideas, some children resort to appropriate
behaviors out of frustration or to get the attention of significant others.
For instance, a five-year old child with expressive language disorder may resort to
grabbing toys and hitting his peers who try to take the toy he was playing with the day before.
While typically developing children will be

able to say, “May I please borrow?” or “It’s my
turn now,” a child with communication
difficulties may not be able to utter these
accurately and instead resort to using actions
resulting to physical aggression. Thus, it is
essential that teachers and professionals take this
into consideration when working with children
with communication disorders and difficulties.
Such feelings of frustration may even become
worse when peers or adults are unable to
understand them (Gregg 2016).
D. General Education Adaptations

Different strategies and accommodations may be used to provide a level playing field
for children with communication difficulties or disorders. This section discusses the use of
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and practical tips to be used in the classroom.
1. Universal Design for Learning

Use of UDL in the classroom allows children to learn information, demonstrate
understanding, and stay engaged in multiple ways (i.e., multiple means of
presentation, expression, and engagement).
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Because of weaknesses resulting from communication difficulties or disorders,
teaching and learning practices as well as assessment should be presented in different
modalities, such as visual, auditory and kinesthetic-motor or tactile.
This means that lessons are presented through various means, such as using
pictures and/or videos and hands on experiential learning, and not solely by passive
approaches such as reading from textbooks, lectures, and teacher-directed
discussions. Presenting learning activities in this manner gives children with
communication difficulties or disorders the opportunity to use their strengths and
stronger modalities to compensate for their weaknesses and a chance to be successful
in an inclusive classroom.
2. Practical Tips for the Classroom

In addition to using UDL, there are practical tips and techniques that teachers
can use to provide students with communication difficulties the support they need in
order to be successful. The following list provides practical suggestions that teachers
can use in the classroom. These suggestions are best implemented in a classroom that
promotes a supportive and respectful culture, one that acknowledges and accepts
diversity, and allows accommodations for learners with difficulties.
1. Allow the child to sit near the teacher and the blackboard, away from auditory
and visual distractions such as the window and the door.
2. Get the child's attention before giving directions. Call the child's name or use a
pre-arranged signal (e.g., tap on the table or hand on the shoulder) to help the
child focus and listen to the directions.
3. Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids when explaining content to supplement
auditory information.
4. Speak slowly and clearly without exaggerating speech.
5. Simplify directions into short steps. Break down multi-step directions and give
each one at a time instead of just repeating each one.
6. Provide a written copy of directions for a task so the child can refer back to it at
his/her own pace.
7. Use gestures to clarify information.
8. Use peer-mediated instruction so that peers without difficulties can serve as
language models and learning buddies.
9. Provide extra time to prepare for oral language activities. Do not call children with
communication difficulties/disorders to recite first in class. Call other typically
developing children first to serve as language models.
10. Model correct language forms and use appropriate wait times (3-5 seconds or
more) to give the child time to think and respond.
11. Explicitly teach vocabulary that is needed in the learning context to promote better
comprehension.
Universal Design for Learning, alongside different accommodations (.e,
presentation, response, setting, and timing) that are appropriate to the child, and
collaboration between the general education teacher and the special education
professional, will all help ensure that children with communication
difficulties/disorders have a chance to be successful in an inclusive classroom.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
These are well-known people with communication difficulties:
Tiger Woods: Stuttering

The most accomplished golfer in history revealed in a 60 Minutes interview that he
struggled with stuttering throughout hist life he had this to say about his struggles
while he was growing up. “You’re always called upon in elementary school to give
speeches, or to answer a question,” Woods said. “A simple question was the most
frightening thing you could possibly have happen if you can’t speak. I could certainly
think it, and it was there, but the connection – the words got lost somewhere between
the brain and the mouth, and it was very difficult. But I fought through it. I went
to school to try and get over that, and I would just work my tail off.”
Michael Phelps: Lisp

The most decorated Olympian of all time won 28 medals and holds the record for most
gold medals with 23. Phelps opened up in his book Beneath the Surface: My Story
“When I talked fast, I’d drop my Ls and add Ss to words, and if I tried to tell people I
didn’t have a lisp, I’d usually lisp the word lips.” Phelps said swimming was a great
escape from the struggles and bullying he received.
Taken from Marshalla, P.(2017) 8 Celebrities with speech disorders. SpeechTheraphypd.com

https://www.speechtherapypd.com/single-post/2017/08/09/8-Celebrities-With-Speech-Disorders
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
4.2.5 Education
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY MOVING/ WALKING
A. Definition
When a child has difficulty moving and/or walking, the

physical domain of development is affected. Examples of
physical disability are developmental coordination disorder or
dyspraxia, stereotypic movement disorder, tics and cerebral
palsy. Each one is defined in the succeeding sections.
Developmental coordination disorder as described in
the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association 2013), refers to
significant and persistent deficits in coordinated motor skills
that are significantly below expected typical development.
Difficulties are manifested as clumsiness (e.g., dropping or bumping into objects),

slowness, and inaccuracy of motor skills (e.g., catching a using scissors or cutlery,
handwriting, riding a bike, or participating in sports). These observed deficits impact
academic performance and other activities of daily living, which do not result from intellectual
disability, visual impairment, or any neurological condition affected movement (e.g., cerebral
Dyspraxia, used synonymously with developmental coordination disorder, is a term often
used by occupational therapists.
Another type of motor problem, Stereotypic movement disorder, is characterized by

repetitive, seemingly driven, and nonfunctional motor behavior (e.g., hand shaking or waving,
body rocking, head banging, self- biting, hitting own body). These behaviors interfere with
social, academic, or other activities and may result in self-harm or injury (American Psychiatric
Association 2013). Such motor behaviors do not result from any other neurodevelopmental or
mental disorder.
Cerebral Palsy refers to a disorder of movement and posture that results from damage
to the areas of the brain that control motor movement (Kirk et al. 2015). This damage to the
brain can occur before, during, or after birth due to an accident or injury. Muscle tone (tension
in the muscles) affects voluntary movement and full control of the muscles that results in
delays in the child's gross and fine motor development. There are different classifications of
cerebral palsy, depending on which parts of the body are affected and the nature of the effects
on muscle tone and movement.
The term plegia, from the Greek word meaning "to strike," is used with a prefix that
indicate the location of limb movement
Classifications of cerebral palsy
Classification Description
Monoplegia Only one limb is affected (upper or lower)
Hemiplegia Two limbs on the same side of the body affected
Triplegia Three limbs are affected
Quadriplegia All four limbs, both arms and legs, are affected;
movement of the trunk and face may also be impaired.
Diplegia Legs are affected, less severe involvement of the arms
Double hemiplegia Impairment primarily involves the arms, less severe
involvement of the legs.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
According to the New Brunswick Human Rights Commission (2011), physical

disability is defined as:
Any degree of disability, infirmity, malformation or disfigurement of a physical nature
caused by bodily injury, illness or birth defect and includes, but is not limited to, a disability
resulting from any degree of paralysis or from diabetes mellitus, epilepsy, amputation, lack of
physical coordination, blindness or visual impediment, deafness or hearing impediment,
muteness or speech impediment, or physical reliance on a guide dog or on a wheelchair, cane,
crutch or other remedial device or appliance.
Physical disability varies according to the type and intensity of loss of mobility.
People with a physical disability have a loss that reduces the body’s motor skills. Motor
skills are based on a complex body structure, which includes the nervous system, spinal cord,
muscles, nerves, and joints. The disability affects one or more of these elements (e.g., muscular,
neurological, or skeletal systems) rather than a certain part of the body.
There are a wide range of problems grouped together under the term physical
disability. They may be directly linked to the disability or may be problems associated with
some of the following conditions:
• Amputation • head injury
• cerebral palsy (cerebral motor • juvenile rheumatoid arthritis
disorder) • multiple sclerosis
• congenital conditions • muscular dystrophy
• epilepsy • paraplegia/quadriplegia
• Friedreich’s ataxia • Scoliosis or spina bifida
Some disabilities involve the use of mobility devices such as prostheses, orthoses, a cane, a
wheelchair, crutches, or a walker.
B. Identification
Developmental Coordination Disorder.
Identifying children with motor difficulties begins with family members and
early childhood practitioners. Upon noticing that their child is showing difficulties and delays
in fine and/or gross motor movements, parents oftentimes consult their general pediatrician
who in turn may refer them to other specialists such as a developmental pediatrician, a
physical therapist, or an occupational therapist. Some signs that a child may have
developmental coordination disorder that is more than just typical difficulty in moving or
walking (Nordqvist 2017).
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Signs of developmental coordination disorder
Developmental Stage Signs
Early Childhood Difficulty in tying shoelaces, buttoning, using spoon
and fork, and getting dressed; problems in jumping,
skipping, catching, and kicking a ball; a higher
tendency to bump into things, to fall over, or to drop
things
School-Age The difficulties in early childhood become more
pronounced; tries to avoid sports; works on writing
tasks for a longer period of the time in comparison
to typically developing peers
Stereotypic Movement Disorder. Similar steps are followed in the identification of the
presence of Stereotypic Movement Disorder (SMD) among children. Typically developing
children may display stereotypic movements, or behaviors, often referred to as stereotypies,
between ages two and five as well as children with other neurological conditions such as
Autism Spectrum Disorder and other developmental disabilities. Because of this, specialists
classify SMD as "primary" when it occurs in an otherwise typically developing child, or
"secondary" if it exists alongside other neurological disorders (Valente et al. 2019).
Common Characteristics of a Student with Physical Disabilities

1. Has unique needs in terms of physical
space or has difficulty using
chairs/tables in the classroom/lab.
2. Students needs specialized
transportation
3. Is often physically unable to hold a pen
and write for extended periods of time
or may experience challenges with
input, output, and information
processing when working on assignments,
tests, and/or exams.
4. Student has difficulty finishing assignments
and/or tests in allotted time.
5. Experiences fatigue and limited mobility when
speaking to a person for a long period of time.
6. Requires extra time to obtain formats
compatible with assistive technology.
7. Feels excluded during group exercises or has
difficulty moving around the classroom.
8. Expends a great deal of energy to complete
daily tasks.
9. Experiences challenges with daily living activities and mobility.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Motor difficulties and disabilities are known to significantly affect a child's ability to
perform daily activities, which include memory, perception and processing, planning,
carrying out coordinated movements. Speech may also be affected as motor control is needed
in articulation and production. Moreover, developmental coordination disorder also affects
psychosocial functioning as children report to have lower levels of self-efficacy and
competence in physical and social domains, experience more symptoms of being depressed
and anxious, as well as display externalizing behaviors (Harris et al. 2015). Children with
stereotypic movement disorder also tend to have low self-esteem and have been reported to
be withdrawn (Valente et al. 2019).
Implications for Learning

1. Students with physical disabilities may have problems related to movement, posture (e.g.,
sitting, standing), grasping or manipulating objects, communication, eating, perception,
reflex movements, and/or automatic motricity (e.g., sphincter, intestinal muscles).
2. Students with physical disabilities is physically accessing the learning environment itself.
For many students with physical disabilities the inaccessibility of buildings and surrounding
areas is a problem.
3. Students with physical disabilities and neurological conditions may also have perceptual
difficulties that can take various forms. Some students have difficulty receiving information
by hearing or sight, while others can see or hear, but cannot process the information they
receive.
4. Students with a neurological condition, and who may also have a physical disability, may
have speech and language difficulties, along with students who are deaf, or who have partial
hearing, may have difficulty communicating through speech.
On the other hand, a "range of strengths"

needs to be acknowledged in every child with a
disability (Armstrong 2012). Students with motor
movement disorders may excel in other areas of
intelligences that are not controlled by motor
functions. They may have adequate intelligence.
Creativity, and language skills depending on the
severity of the disorder and the presence of a
supportive adult.
In fact, some children and adults who are physically handicapped or have cerebral
palsy have learned to paint with their mouths or feet to compensate for their rigid limbs and
have done so successfully. Some children may do well in logical thinking and comprehension
and even in writing using assistive technology. Hence, for children with motor difficulties and
disabilities, support systems are needed to ensure that they are given equal opportunities to
access learning experiences in school alongside their typically developing peers.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
First and foremost, children with motor difficulties and disabilities need primary
intervention with specialists such as physical and occupational therapists. These professionals
are responsible for setting goals in motor development, planning, and mobility as well as in
providing teachers and others with information about the child's physical conditions,
limitations, and abilities (Kirk et al. 2015).
Physical accessibility of a school and classrooms to children with motor
difficulty/disability is essential. Ramps and elevators for schools with multiple levels of
buildings is necessary, as well as the provision of wheelchairs. Providing such structures
and supports ensure that children with motor difficulty/disability would be able to access
as well as move around the classroom safely.
The type of accommodations given will always be relative to the strengths, abilities,
and difficulties of the child. For a child with developmental coordination or stereotypic
movement disorder who struggles or is unable to write but has adequate articulation and
language skills, he/she may benefit from being given accommodations in the way
understanding is demonstrated (i.e., response).
Some of the recommendations for a child with such a profile may include the following:
(1) assigning an adult or a peer to be a scribe when accomplishing written tasks may be an
option; and
(2) being given a pencil or pen grip and different size/ diameter for a pencil for those with
poor fine-motor control.
Classroom accommodations for children DCD/SMD

Type of Accommodations Description
• Assign a peer/adult as scribe for notetaking
• Use different sizes of paper and graph paper to align
numbers
Response • Try different writing tools and pencil grips
• Use a word processor/computer
• Use text-to-speech programs
• Allow for oral recitation/test-taking to supplement
written tests
• Provide alternate assessment methods
• Allow for preferential seating near the teacher
• Adjust chair and/or desk height to maximize posture
Setting and stability
• Place a non-skid mat on the chair
• Provide opportunities for movement breaks
• Allow for extra time to complete tests and writing
Schedule assignments
• Provide extra time to change for physical education
classes
• Photocopy notes and homework reminders for the child
Others • Allow to take photos of notes and homework reminders
• Give advance organizers before a lesson/lecture to
lesson/remove writing task
• Send lecture handouts via email
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Education
Here are extraordinary people who have difficulty walking/moving:
Gracia Cielo "Grace" Magno Padaca

a Filipino politician and former broadcaster who has been the governor of the
northern Luzon province of Isabela, Philippines from 2004 until 2010. She is also
the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Public Service in 2008. During her
childhood, she survived polio; she has walked with crutches for most of her
life.
Jessica Cox
(born 1983 in Arizona) is the world's first licensed armless pilot, as well as the first armless black-
belt in the American Taekwondo Association. She was born without arms due to a rare birth
defect. My right foot is on the yoke, and my left foot is on the throttle. I use both feet, and I
don’t have special equipment. I just fly the plane,” she said.
She describes the experience of flying as freeing. Despite her disability, Jessica enjoys gymnastics
and swimming, and holds a double black belt in taekwondo. Cox also drives her own car and is a
certified scuba diver. She later learned to surf and also an accomplished motivational speaker. “If
I was born with those two arms, I don’t think I wouldn’t have been able to accomplish as much as
I have as well as meet and go all over the world as much as I have,” she said.
Taken from Tan, R.(2011) Jessica Cox: ARMLESS Filipino-American pilot and Guinness
World record holder When in Manila https://www.wheninmanila.com/jessica-cox-armless-
filipino-american-pilot-and-guinness-world-record-holder/
Reflect
How can you strengthen the accessibility in education for learners with physical disabilities?
Propose strategies to strengthen the accessibility in education.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
4 Foundations of Special and Inclusive Education 45
4.2.6. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING/FOCUSING

When a child is needing to use too much energy to
attend to his/her work, then that is the area that is a learning
block to him/her. This child often has a body chemistry that
is upset and can be changed with simple methods at home.
Other times a parent finds that working with a professional
in this area is most helpful. Often a parent will say of such
a child: “He/she can focus on movies, video games, or
Legos for hours, but can’t focus on his/her schoolwork for
more than five minutes.”
It is important to realize what is going on, so we
don’t become frustrated with this type of child. Movies, video games, or Legos require little energy
because children find them interesting and undemanding. On the other hand, a history or math
lesson requires much more effort on the child’s part. If the child has an “energy leak” in a certain
area, then he/she will have to work much harder to remain focused.
Therefore, it is important to distinguish whether a child is struggling

with an academic task because of an actual learning block, which causes task
avoidance because of its difficulty, or a focusing problem.
Many times, these children are struggling with sensory integration issues that make them
look unfocused. We’ll look at the characteristics of a child struggling with a focus issue, and a
child struggling with sensory integration issues separately, even though they often overlap.
In this section, we will learn about students who find it difficult to remember lessons,
concepts, and even instructions as well as those who find it a challenge to sustain their focus.
A. Definition
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health of the World
Health Organization (2001) provides definitions of specific mental functions and focusing.
Memory functions include short-term memory, long- term memory, and retrieval,
while attention functions include sustaining. Understanding these concepts is necessary to
have a clearer picture of how to enable learners with such difficulties to succeed and how
to provide support in an inclusive setting.
Definition of Memory and Attention Functions

Memory Functions
involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information over time
Mental resources that allow for storing information temporarily, for
only approximately 30 seconds, after which is lost if strategies are
Short-term memory not used to integrate them into long-term memory (e.g.,
remembering a 7-digit landline number for a moment to be able to
write it down).
Long term memory Mental resources that allow for storing information for long period
of time.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Retrieval Mental resources used to recall information stored in long-term

memory
Attention Functions
involves focusing of mental resources on a stimulus for a required time period
Mental resources used to maintain attention for an extended period
also called vigilance (e.g., staying focused while reading a chapter in
Sustained attention a classical novel without any interruptions until it is finished).
Mental resources that allow for focusing on a specific stimulus that is
important while ignoring others (e.g., focusing on the voice of a
Selective attention lecturer amidst the noise of a group of used to refocus concentration
frim one stimulus to another).
Mental resources that involve focusing on ore more activities or
Dividing attention tasks simultaneously (e.g., listening to music while driving).
B. Identification
Identifying students with LD and ADHD begins with the parents and teachers. The
presence of difficulties in mental functions and the behaviors enumerated, as well as meeting the
provided criteria for persistence and consistency in more than one setting, may create the impetus
for parents to consult specialists and for teachers to apply pre-referral strategies before referring
the student for special education testing.
Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) are characterized by having difficulties with memory and attention functions. The
subsequent sections present the definition, identification, and learning characteristics for each
disability.
1. LD
It was Samuel Kirk who coined the term, "learning disability" in 1962 when he met with
parents and families as they discussed about students who encountered pronounced difficulties
in school despite having average to above-average intelligence. He further described students with
learning disabilities 4 heterogeneous mix of learners who all had neurologically based problems
the affected their learning in different ways (Kirk et al., 2015).
To better understand learning disabilities, Gargiulo (2012) provided components on the
definitions of a LD:
• Intellectual functioning within normal range
• Significant gap or discrepancy between a student's assumed potent and actual
achievement
• Inference that LD is not primarily caused by other disabilities a extrinsic factors
• Difficulty in learning in one or more academic areas
• Presumption of CNS dysfunction.
These components are also found in the definition provided by the National Joint Commission
on Learning Disabilities (1990):
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
"Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders

manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and us of listening, speaking, reading,
writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities these disorders are intrinsic to the individual,
presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span.
Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with
learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability Although learning
disabilities may occur concomitantly with other disabilities (for example, sensory impairment,
Intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural or
linguistic differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those
conditions or influences.”
The term Learning Disability is differentiated from Specific Learning Disability which focuses
on difficulties in "one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using
language, spoken, or written. which may manifest as difficulties in the ability to listen, think,
spark, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations" (Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act, 1997 in Hallahan, 2014). Thus, the term Learning Disability is a general term under which
other difficulties are subsumed.
There are different types of specific learning disabilities for each type of difficulty namely,
Dyslexia for difficulties with reading, spelling, and oral reading fluency: Dyscalculia for
difficulties in math computation, problem- solving, and analysis; and Dysgraphia for difficulties
with handwriting and written expression.
Specific learning disabilities

Type Definition
Dyslexia Characterized by difficulty with accurate and or fluent word recognition
and by poor spelling and word reading abilities that result from deficit in
phonological processing abilities. The difficulties are often unexpected in
relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective
classroom instruction (IDA 2002). Limited vocabulary and background
knowledge as well as problems in reading comprehension may result as
secondary consequences (Shaywitz 2003).
Dyscalculia A specific learning disability that affects how students acquire and
develop their arithmetic skills despite average intelligence (Shalev 2011)
and may manifest as difficulty in retrieval of math facts and
understanding number concepts or using symbols or functions.
Dysgraphia A specific learning disability that affects the development of writing
abilities which may display as spelling, hand writing and expressive
writing difficulties resulting from problem in organizing and putting
thoughts on paper (NCLD 2007 cited in LD online, 2019).
2. ADHD
DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association 2013) provides the diagnostic criteria for
ADHD, which include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, and a combination of the
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
two. For a child to be diagnosed with ADHD, the observed behaviors should meet the following
criteria:
• Display a persistent pattern for at least 6 months that significantly interferes with
functioning or development
• Observed in two or more settings (e.g., at home, school, work; with friends or relatives;
and in other activities)
• Several of the symptoms were present before the age of 12 years.
• The behaviors are not resulting from other disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, anxiety
disorder, personality disorder, etc.)
More behavioral manifestations are presented below:
Signs of ADHD
Inattention
• Does not pay attention to details and works in a haphazard manner resulting in
careless mistakes (e.g., school tasks, at work, in other activities)
• Finds it difficult to sustain attention tasks.
• Easily distracted and sidetracked by extraneous stimuli
• Often does not follow through on instruction and fails to finish school works,
chores, or duties in the workplace.
• Appears not to listen or distracted when spoken to directly
• Has difficulty following instructions resulting in unfinished work.
• Shows a tendency to be forgetful in daily tasks and routines.
• Has problems in organizing task and activities.
• Tends to lose things that are needed for schoolwork’s and other activities.
Hyperactivity and impulsivity
• Often restless and fidgety and cannot seem stay still while sitting down.
• Often stands from seat to roam around the room
• Often runs around or climbs in situations when sitting is required.
• Often rather talkative, interrupts in conversations, and blurts responses.
• Finds it difficult to wait for ones turn in tasks and activities.
• Impulsive with words and actions
• May struggle in following instructions and rushes through tasks.
Oftentimes, learning characteristics refer to the
difficulties and challenges experienced by students
with LD and ADHD. While these are also essential to
determine possible accommodations and
interventions, it is equally important to present their
strengths and abilities alongside their challenges as
these can be used to help create a positive niche for
students (Armstrong 2012).
Students with LD are known to have challenges
in language, literacy, and memory (Kirk et al. 2015) as
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
well as in math, writing, and focusing/attending skills. Nonetheless, it is important to note that
these are merely general characteristics as there are individual differences in terms of abilities and
difficulties among children with LD and ADHD.
In language development, they often display delays in learning how to speak, have
difficulties in naming objects and retrieving words from memory, and have limited vocabulary in
comparison to typically developing peers. Students with LD oftentimes struggle with having to
organize their thoughts that they are unable to use precise words to express their ideas. On the
other hand, there are students with LD who are better at oral expression in relation to their reading
and writing skills. Such students are better at expressing themselves, at times rather fluently, but
are unable to transfer their thoughts to writing.
In terms of reading skills, students with dyslexia display delays and difficulties in
phonological processing, word reading/decoding, spelling, and oral reading fluency.
Fundamental to reading is phonological awareness, or the knowledge that all words can be
segmented into phonemes (sounds) and that the letters in a written word correspond to these
sounds. Individuals with dyslexia have poor phonological awareness that subsequently impedes
word reading ability, fluency, and accuracy. This basic weakness, then, blocks access to higher-
order language processes and to gaining meaning from text. Thus, problems with comprehension
may be attributed to inaccurate decoding and lack of oral reading fluency, but they can use higher-
level skills of vocabulary, reasoning, problem-solving, concept formation, and general intelligence
(Shaywitz 2003).
To a certain extent, their reading skills

may be compared with younger children who are
at the beginning reading level. Oral reading
fluency tends to be slow and laborious, others
reading in a word-by-word fashion, at times
substituting words, and lacking in proper
intonation/expression due to poor decoding
skills and sight word vocabulary.
Table below shows a sample oral reading

of a nine-year-old student with dyslexia. It is
expected that the student will not be able to understand the passage well because of all the
substitution errors unless he/she uses his/her prior knowledge and experience revolving around
the story.
Sample oral reading and spelling of a student with dyslexia
Original Text Student’s Oral Reading
A man got out of the car. He had a pretty In a man got out of the car he had a pet pate on his
box under his arm. arm.
A little girl ran from the house to meet A let girl run form…. Farm the house to meet him
the man. “Hello, Father,” she said
“Hello, father” she said. Father said, “I have some
“Do you have a surprise for me?” “Do you have a sharp for me?” thing for you got
girl.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Father said, “I have something for a good The girl let her. “I have given good.”
girl.”
The girl laughed, “I am very good.”
Words Student’s Spelling
Will Wel
Arm Urm
Dress Bres
Train Tram
Shout Saot
Watch Wuch
Grown Gom
In terms of written language, students with LD have tendencies to letters or words, have
poor spelling skills and display difficulties in the quality organization, sentence fluency, and
application of writing conventions, including handwriting, spelling, and grammar, as well as
motivation to write (Grahan 2017).
As for math skills, the difficulties manifest

in relation to students age and grade (Shalev
2004). For instance, students in the first-grade
level have problems in the retrieval of basic math
facts and in computing exercises, while older
children display severe difficulties in learning the
multiplication table and understanding
algorithms of the four basic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division).
Moreover, they are known to have or inadequate
procedural knowledge of algorithms, which are
reflected in the way they misuse or substitute
arithmetic sign, forgetting to regroup, misplacing digits, not following the proper alignment of
digits when solving, or solving from left to right. As a result, students with LD struggle with more
complex math equations and problems as they lack the foundational arithmetic skills.
Moreover, students with LD also display problems with short-term and working memory
(i.e., mental resources used to retain information while simultaneously engaged in another
activity), deficits in metacognition, display attention problems, and hyperactivity. As a result, they
often have trouble focusing on tasks, exhibit excess movement, restlessness, and fidgety behaviors
that are characteristic of students with ADHD.
Because of difficulties in executive functioning, students with LD and ADHD are known to
be forgetful of daily activities and routines, can be disorganized with their personal belongings
and even schedules, and have problems monitoring comprehension. Parents complain about
having to buy a new set of pens and pencils every week because their children tend to lose them
easily. Adults tend to be frustrated because such learners seem to be forgetful and/or absent-
minded and they need to be constantly reminded of chores and other daily routines, which
typically developing learners would have already remembered easily. Moreover, due to their
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
impulsivity, students with ADHD exhibit academic underachievement as well as disruptive

behavior that impact on family and peer relationships (DuPaul and Stoner 2003 cited in DuPaul et
al. 2012).
Anchoring on neurodiversity, children with LD and ADHD also have their strengths and
abilities amidst such difficulties and limitations. Students with LD are known to have strong
artistic abilities and visual-spatial skills. As a result. They oftentimes display unusual skills in
drawing, doing mechanical puzzles, as well as in building models. Moreover, they are known to
be creative, divergent thinkers, imaginative, and highly curious.
For instance, a famous person with dyslexia is

Charles Schwab, founder of Charles Schwab
Corporation, who attributes his success to his dyslexia.
He only learned he had dyslexia when he was 40 years
old after his son was diagnosed with the same
condition. Despite being excellent in economics and
business, he narrated that he would sound out words to
understand them when he was younger and that he
would still struggle in understanding books about
topics unfamiliar to him. But because of his dyslexia. He
was able to think of out-of-the-box solutions.

The use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles, such as providing multiple
means of representation, expression, and engagement are effective for all types of learners
and provide a level playing field for students with LD, SLD, and ADHD through a variety
of approaches. Students with difficulty remembering and focusing are given opportunities
to compensate for their weaknesses and use their strengths to learn as much as their
typically developing peers.
Application of UDL in an inclusive classroom.
UDL Principle Examples
• Audio books alongside real books
• Multimedia presentations and videos to
supplement textbooks
• Math-manipulative materials and
Multiple means of representation illustrations to reinforce lesson
• Hands-on experiences, use of
multisensorial activities in addition to
teacher-talk
• Use reading materials that include rich
visual representation in the form of
photos, graphic organizers, diagrams, etc.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
In addition to traditional measures of

assessment, provide variety of ways to
demonstrate understanding of concepts/lessons:
• Debates
Multiple means of expression • build models
• experimentation
• digital audio presentations
• writing activities
• portfolio assessment
• photographs/pictures
• blogs
• draw pictures/use graphic organizers to
illustrate concepts or content
Provide varied activities to support student
engagement through:
• hands-on, kinesthetic activities
• plays/drama/dance
• simulation games
Multiple means of engagement • role playing
• COM-9 Vaccination City
• discussion and debates
• give opportunity for student choice (e.g.,
range of reading materials, activities)
• use inquiry-based learning and project-
based approach
In addition to UDL, an approach that has been proven to be effective for students with
memory and focusing difficulties is the use of explicit instruction of literacy skills, comprehension,
and writing strategies. Such approach uses a step-by-step instruction that includes modeling,
providing guided practice, as well as independent practice, while giving immediate corrective
feedback so students will understand what and how to improve. Part of this approach is the use
of think-aloud to model concrete steps in problem-solving, such as how to attack an unfamiliar
word, how to begin a writing task through brainstorming, and how to begin answering a math
word problem.
For instance, students with dyslexia and struggling readers benefit from the direct/explicit
approach in phonological processing, phonics instructions, and spelling rules. Because of their
reading and spelling difficulties, learning through mere visual approach will not be effective. They
may remember the words now, as they are processed in their short-term memory, but forget them
by tomorrow, because the words were not stored in their long-term memory, along with other
accompanying difficulties. Gough (1993 in Magpuri-Lavell et al. 2014) demonstrated that explicit
instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics was essential to develop a firm understanding of
the alphabetic principles. Another meta-analysis conducted by Galuschka et al. (2014) found that
phonics instruction is the most intensively investigated treatment approach and the only one that
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
has been found to be effective and statistically confirmed in improving the reading and spelling
performance of children and adolescents with reading disabilities. And finally, the provision of
different types of accommodations in terms of presentation, response, setting, and scheduling is
beneficial for students with difficulty remembering and focusing.
Types of accommodations to provide support for students

with difficulty remembering and focusing.
Type of Accommodation Accommodation/supports
Presentation Provide the following:
• Audio files to supplement a slide
presentation.
• Bigger font sizes in reading materials and
worksheets
• Levelled books that match students
reading level
• Audio books and/or have a peer read
aloud the selection.
• Digital text that provides word meanings.
• Advance organizers to serve as guide
during lectures.
• Preview of vocabulary or key points to
provide the big picture
• Active involvement in class
• Use graphic organizers and mind
mapping techniques for note-taking
during class
• Explain and write directions step-by-step
while making sure student is attentive
and listening.
Responsive Allow students to use the following:

• Use text-to- speech software to facilitate
writing
• Use word processor with spelling and
grammar check.
• Waive incorrect spelling in specific
subjects (do not mark misspellings as
incorrect provided content is accurate)
• Graphic organizers as pre-writing task.
• Math supports:
- Calculation devices (calculator)
- Concrete materials and manipulatives.
- Chart of math facts and formula
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
- Special paper with grids for

computation.
Setting • Preferential seating (away from sources
of distraction)
• Play appropriate background music
through individual earphones while
studying.
• Allow students to move or run around a
few times before class in between classes.
Scheduling • Provide extended time
• Break task into sections
• Time limits for assignment and
countdown.
• Allow for quick brain breaks to move
around and stretch in between activities.
Behavior Management • Teach self-talk skills
• Teach physical relaxation techniques such
as mindful breathing.
• Use squeeze balls to release tensions.
• Allow students to doodle while listening
to lecture (Andrade 2010 in Armstrong
2012)
Here are example of influential celebrities who have difficulty remembering/focusing:
Jim Carrey
Comedian and actor was always a restless child. He tells JimCarreyWorld.com that in
school he would finish his assignments quickly and then start disrupting the other kids.
Carrey has been open about his ADHD and uses his celebrity status to bring attention
to the problem. While there is no cure for ADHD, treatments do help control the
symptoms. Carrey has undergone treatment since childhood. As an adult, he has also
used some of his ADHD symptoms to his advantage — becoming famous, in part,
through his creativity and high energy level as a comedian.
Justin Timberlake
This Grammy-winning singer, songwriter, and celebrity said in an interview with
Collider.com that he has adult ADHD mixed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
symptoms. Having the two disorders together has presented a challenge, but this
hasn’t stopped his success. Like Timberlake, people with ADHD may also have other
mental health disorders, such as OCD, anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder.
Taken from Iliades, C. (2010) Famous People Get ADHD, Too, Everyday Health https://www.everydayhealth.com/add-adhd-
pictures/celebrities-with-adhd.aspx
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Below are recognized persons who have learning disabilities:
Whoopi Goldberg (Dyslexia)

Actress, writer, and producer Whoopi Goldberg was actually called “dumb” while
growing up due to her dyslexia. “I knew I wasn’t stupid, and I knew I wasn’t dumb.
My mother told me that,” she said in a 2004 interview. With leading roles in movies like
Sister Act, The Color Purple, and Jumping Jack Flash, and being one of the only ten
people to win an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar, and a Tony Award; she has certainly
proven her critics wrong.
Daniel Radcliffe (Dyspraxia)

Most notable for his role as Harry Potter, Daniel Radcliffe has lived with a mild case of dyspraxia
for his entire life. Dyspraxia is a common neurological disorder that affects motor skill
development, meaning that at 25 years old and the star of one of the largest franchises in
movie history, Radcliffe still has trouble tying his shoelaces.
Taken from Sunrise Medical 2018 Live without Limits blog 25 famous people with learning disorder
https://www.special-education-degree.net/25-famous-people-with-learning-disorders/
Reflect
Look for or read about a person with specific learning disability who has successfully
triumphed over his/her disability. Write a short article about the person, highlighting how s/he
persisted to achieve his/her goals.
Place your article here.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
4.2.7. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-CARE
In the special needs world, the most basic skills are called adaptive living skills, or ADLs.
More advanced skills, such as doing laundry, catching a bus, or following a daily schedule, are
sometimes called "life skills" or "skills of daily living”. While these skills aren't critical for survival,
they are extremely important for anyone who plans to work and recreate in a modern community
Everyone needs certain skills to simply get through the
day. Skills related to eating, dressing, and personal hygiene are
absolute requirements for anyone wishing to live even a semi-
independent life. In addition to these very basic skills are the
many skills we use each day to navigate life at home and in the
community.
Image source: https://i.ytimg.com Most people learn ADLs and many of the skills of daily
living at a young age. They learn through a combination of
instruction, imitation, and trial and error. For example, a child may learn to bathe himself by
remembering the experience of being bathed, by imitating a parent's actions, and by discovering
for herself that if you run very hot water for too long the water will be too hot for comfort.
This section presents another set of learners with specific difficulties in self-care, or caring for
oneself.
A. Definition
Self-care often refers to a person's capacity to
perform daily living activities or specific to body care
such as the following skills: washing oneself, brushing
teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting, dressing,
eating. Drinking, and looking after one's health.
Self-care skills are gradually learned by very young

typically developing children through adult modeling
and direct instruction within developmental
expectations. On the other hand, children with
additional needs may struggle with the basic activities
of daily living. Oftentimes, such students are those
with moderate to severe cognitive deficits, including
individuals with Intellectual Disability or Intellectual
Developmental Disorder (ID or IDD).
Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder that includes deficits in intellectual and

adaptive functioning across domains of conceptual, social, and practical that occur during the
developmental period. To be diagnosed with ID/IDI, a student must have deficits in both the
cognitive and adaptive domains (Kirk, 2015). Children with Down's syndrome with moderate to
severe disability may also have problems with self-care.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
B. Identification
Young children suspected to have cognitive deficits which manifest as difficulties with self-
care can be identified at a very young age. The traditional approach to measuring levels of severity
of ID was determined through the use of intellectual tests:
• Mild level IQ10 50-70

• Moderate IQ 35-50
• Severe IQ 20-35
• Profound IQ below 20
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
However, based on the definition provided by the American Psychiatric Association (2013),
using measures of intelligence is only one aspect as adaptive functioning also needs to be assessed
to identify if a child has an Intellectual disability. In place of IQ levels, the support needed by a
person with ID is used to determine the level or degree of severity of the disability.
The presence of ID or IDD is measured by direct observation, structured Interviews, and

standardized scales such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale (Lambert et al.1993 in Heward
2013) and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et al. 2016). Some of the domains measured
by the AAM Adaptive Behavior Scale include personal self-sufficiency, community with
sufficiency, and social adjustment. On the other hand, the Vineland Adapt Behavior Scales cover
communication, daily living skills, socialization, and motor skills.
Students who have difficulty with self-care oftentimes reach developmental milestones at a
later age compared to typically developing peers. They learn to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later
than other children and may have trouble remembering and understanding consequences of
actions. Due to cognitive difficulties, children with ID may also have deficits in the areas of
reasoning, planning, judgment, and abstract thinking
On the other hand, depending on the level of support needed, a student with ID learns adaptive
skills at a slower pace, resulting in delay, and compared to same aged typically developing
students. They benefit from modeling and can imitate well. Moreover, adults with mild intellectual
disability eventually learn to be functional and independent in society.
With intellectual disabilities are known to be friendly, sociable and are reported to have
positive coping skills. A study conducted by Carter et al. (2015) investigated the strengths and
positive traits of transition age youth with intellectual disability and/or autism, as reported by
their parents. Using quantitative and qualitative measures, the study yielded the following
positive traits of the youths:
(1) they have a positive outlook in life
(2) shows positive relations with others
(3) have active coping skills
(4) have acceptance coping skills.
In this study, they found that the youths were rated highest in items pertaining to the positive
outlook factor. These results suggest the importance of having to find the strengths in children
with additional needs, make them aware of these strengths, and use them to their advantage.
Specific approaches have been found to be effective in teaching students with difficulty with
self-care, namely the use of direct/explicit instruction, task analysis, forward and backward
chaining, as well as the use of video modeling. It is essential that the instructions given are simple
and straight forward and that hands-on, experiential activities are used.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Task analysis is a behavioral approach that breaks down a complex behavior or task ima step-
by-step procedures, thereby providing modeling and ample practice for the student with
difficulties.
Gargiulo (2012) provided working guidelines on how to do task analysis.

• Define the target behavior or task
• Identify the required skills needed to successfully complete the task.
• Identify the necessary materials to perform the task.
• Observe an able and competent person perform the task.
• List the needed steps in sequential order to complete the task.
In an inclusive classroom, self-care skills such as washing

hands and brushing teeth can be tasks analyzed into the simplest
steps and presented in a poster accompanied by pictures Using
direct instructions, the teacher models how each step is done then
allows the student to try the steps with guidance and prompts
until he she is able to do the task independently. Hence, direct
instruction and support from the environment in the form of
prompts and as well as routines that are simplified are essential
for students to eventually become independent in using self-care
skills (Heward, 2013).
Forward and backward chaining is used alongside task

analysis. In forward chaining, the program begins with the first
step in the sequence, such as getting the toothbrush and
toothpaste, then providing the needed hand-over-hand assistance,
and then gradually fading verbal and then gestural prompts. The
goal is to allow the student to master the first step first and then
followed by the next step in the sequence until the entire task has
been performed.
On the other hand, in backward chaining, the teacher

models all the steps from the beginning and then allows the child
to do the last step of the behavior chain with assistance and
prompts.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
The use of video-based intervention including video modeling

and video prompting for teaching daily living skills, such as brushing
teeth, setting a table. Washing dishes, etc. has been found effective for
learners with intellectual and learning difficulties (Rayner 2011,
Bellini & Akullian 20017 cited in Heward 2013). With video modeling,
a student watches a brief video of an able person performing a target
skill or task and then imitates the behavior. In video self-modeling,
the student watches a video of himself/herself performing a task. In
video prompting. Each step is shown in a video, which the student
imitates before the next step is shown. This is helpful as the student
can access the video anytime, replay it as often as needed to develop
independence.
What are the building blocks necessary to develop self-care skills?

1. Hand and finger strength: An ability to exert force against resistance using the hands and
fingers for utensil use.
2. Hand control: The ability to move and use the hands in a controlled manner such as cutlery
use for eating.
3. Sensory processing: Accurate registration, interpretation and response to sensory
stimulation in the environment and one’s own body.
4. Object manipulation: The ability to skillfully manipulate tools, including the ability to hold
and move pencils and scissors with control, controlled use of everyday tools such as a
toothbrush, hairbrush, and cutlery.
5. Expressive language (using language): The use of language through speech, sign or
alternative forms of communication to communicate wants, needs, thoughts and ideas.
6. Planning and sequencing: The sequential multi-step task/activity performance to achieve
a well-defined result (e.g. dressing and teeth cleaning).
7. Receptive language (understanding): Comprehension of language.
8. Compliance: Ability to follow simple adult-directed routines (i.e. doesn’t demonstrate
avoidance behaviors where the child simply doesn’t want to do it because an adult is telling
them to do it and interrupting what they were doing).
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Child difficulties in self-care

1. Be unable to feed themselves independently. Struggle to use cutlery.
2. Require more help than others of their age to get dressed or undressed.
3. Find it difficult to tolerate wearing certain clothes.
4. Need adults to open food packaging in their lunch box.
5. Refuse to eat certain foods.
6. Be unable to coordinate movements to brush teeth.
7. Require extensive help to fall asleep.
8. Choose to toilet only at home where there is adult support.
9. Be late to develop independent day time toileting.
10. Show limited motivation for independence in self-care, so they wait for adults to do it for
them instead.
What can be done to improve self-care skills?
1. Visual schedule of the steps involved.
2. Reward chart for independent completion of tasks (or attempt at, in the early stages).
3. Small steps: Breaking down self-care skills into smaller steps and supporting the child
through each step so that, in time, they can do more for themselves.
4. Routine: Use the same routine or strategy each time you complete the same task to help
them learn it faster.
5. Consistency: Be consistent with the words and signs used to assist the child and keep
instructions short and simple.
6. Allow enough time: Ensure that there is enough time available for the child to participate
in self-care activities without feeling rushed (e.g. practice dressing on the weekend to start
with before then doing it before rushing to preschool or school).
In summary, this chapter has presented important

definitions, identification, and assessment, learning
characteristics, and general educational adaptations for
learners with additional needs namely: (1) the gifted and
talented students with difficulties in (2) Hearing (3) Seeing
(4) Communicating. (5) Walking and moving. (6)
Remembering and focusing, and (7) self-care.
You have learned the different disability labels that are associated with the difficulties, their
challenges in learning. Their strengths, and educational adaptations in the form of
accommodation. While awareness and understanding of their disability and needs are essential,
as educators supportive of inclusive education, it is of utmost importance that we see learners with
additional needs beyond their difficulties, to enable them to explore and use their range of
strengths and abilities as well as provide opportunities for them to succeed and flourish in their
own positive niches.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
Term Requirement:
1. Role Playing on differentiating the learning characteristics of
learners with additional needs
2. Infomercial brochure
3. Video Documentary featuring teachers handling learners with
additional needs or students with additional needs.
Review
1. Enumerate and define the different learners with additional needs.

2. Compare and contrast the learners with additional needs based identification and learning
characteristics
3. What challenges do learners with speech and language difficulties encounter in the areas of
communication and socialization?
4. What accommodations can be given to learners with communication difficulties?
5. What are the similarities and differences between learners with Developmental
Coordination Disorder and Stereotypic Movement Disorder?
6. How can a classroom be arranged to help learners with difficulty in moving walking?
7. How is Learning Disability (LD) different from Specific Learning Disability (SLDI? What
are the different types of SLD?
8. How can lessons and concepts be presented to maximize learning among students with
memory and focusing dimculties?
9. What educational approaches can be used to teach learners how to care for themselves?
10. Choose a self-care skill and apply task analysis to help a child the skill Identify the steps
and the materials you will use.
Reflect
1. How does a strengths-based approach empower learners with additional needs? How can
such an approach he used to promote disability awareness and a culture that respects
diversity?
2. Think of a person you know or a famous person who has difficulty in any of the domains
mentioned in this chapter. On a sheet of paper, use any graphic organizer to create a profile
of this person, his/her strengths, interests, accomplishments, difficulties, needs, and other
information you have. How does seeing the "whole person" affect your view of this person
and not just his/her difficulties? How is such a perspective important in teaching and
learning in an inclusive classroom?
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
4.3 References
Booth, T. and Ainscow, M. (2002). Index for Inclusion: Developing learning and participation in
schools. Bristol: Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education.
Buttfield, J.(2017) Self Care Skills Kids Sense https://childdevelopment.com.au/areas-of-

concern/self-care/self-care-skills/
Del Corro-Tiangco. (2014). “General and special education teachers.” Education

Quareterly. Retrieved, from
http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/edq/article/viewFile/4471/4048.
Friend, M. & Bursuck, W.D. (2009). Including Students With Special Needs: A Practical Guide
for Classroom Teacher. Pearson Education Inc. (ISSN)
Goldberg, M. M. (1941). “A qualification of the marginal man theory.” American

Sociological Review, 6(1):52-58.
Petkovska, V. (2015). “Coping with Marginalized Students Inclusion in EL Teacher

Training.” Journal of Education and Practice 6(18): 216-219.
UN General Assembly. (2015). “Transforming Our World: the 2030 agenda for Sustainable
Development,” A/RES/70/1. Retrieved from
https://www.sustainabledevelopment.org
4.4 Acknowledgment
The images, tables, figures, and information contained in this module were taken from
the references cited above.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay

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4 | Foundations of Special & Inclusive Education 1

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

There is also another way to look into

Gifted and talented children should be encouraged, challenged and

Two sides of Gifted Behaviors

Average gifted: 100

2. Academic Ability ►Has intense, sustained interest, has hobbies/collections

3. Creative Ability ►Has active imagination and emotionally sensitive.

4. Leadership Ability ►Acts responsibly in social situations and has a

The main challenge of hearing-impairment students is communication, since

The most common is the use of

They might have delayed

Some hearing-impaired students use note-takers in class since it is difficult to lip-read

D. General Educational Adaptations

Stated below are famous persons who have difficulty

Ludwig van Beethoven

Characteristics of a Visually Impaired Child

Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted

D. General Educational Adaptations

Below are notable persons who have difficulty seeing:

Ronel Del Rio

‟To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in

Some learners are observed to have difficulty

To have a clearer understanding of students to have difficulty communicating,

A. Definition: Types of Communication Impairments and Disorders

Language is used for communication, a

There are five dimensions of language that describe

Speech Impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired

Types of Speech Impairments

communication, and social Education

How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem? A

Categories of learners with communication difficulties

1. Children with speech, language, and communication needs (SLCN)

2. Children with communication and interaction difficulties associated with severe

3. Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Expressive Language Difficulties Receptive Language Difficulties

Education Responding to questions appropriately

Children with communication disorders may also experience behavioral difficulties.

While typically developing children will be

D. General Education Adaptations

1. Universal Design for Learning

2. Practical Tips for the Classroom

Tiger Woods: Stuttering

Michael Phelps: Lisp

Taken from Marshalla, P.(2017) 8 Celebrities with speech disorders. SpeechTheraphypd.com

When a child has difficulty moving and/or walking, the

Difficulties are manifested as clumsiness (e.g., dropping or bumping into objects),

Another type of motor problem, Stereotypic movement disorder, is characterized by

According to the New Brunswick Human Rights Commission (2011), physical

Common Characteristics of a Student with Physical Disabilities

Implications for Learning

On the other hand, a "range of strengths"

Classroom accommodations for children DCD/SMD

Gracia Cielo "Grace" Magno Padaca

4.2.6. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING/FOCUSING

Therefore, it is important to distinguish whether a child is struggling

Definition of Memory and Attention Functions

Retrieval Mental resources used to recall information stored in long-term

"Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders

Specific learning disabilities

To a certain extent, their reading skills

Table below shows a sample oral reading