CHAPTER 5
Intelligence
Types of Learning and Learning Styles
1. Integrate common concepts of cognitive
theories
• Learning
• Intelligence
• Metacognition
• Memory
• Transfer
2. Differentiate pedagogy from andragogy
3. Identify types of learners.
4. Cite Learning Styles Models
5. Appreciate the types of Learning and
Learning Styles.
Common Concepts of Cognitive Theories
1. Learning
2. Intelligence
3. Metacognition
4. Memory
5. Transfer
1. Learning
▪ The acquisition of knowledge and skills that
change a person’s behavior (behaviorist)
▪ Acquisition of knowledge than on the
resulting behavior change (cognitive theory)
▪ “The process whereby novices become
more expert” (Breur, 1993)
✔Has led to the belief that learning does not
follow the same principles and path in every
circumstance
✔The amount of knowledge and
understanding you already possess on a
subject will have a tremendous influence on
what and how you learn (domain-specific
learning)
2. Metacognition
▪ Thinking about one’s thinking
▪ A process learners use to gauge their
thinking while reading, studying, trying to
learn, or problem-solving
▪ Metacognitive skills:
✔Analysis of what the learning task involves
✔Planning an approach to the task
✔Reflecting on the material learned
✔Monitoring learning progress
▪ Some people are intelligent novices
3.
▪ An innate ability that predicts success in
learning
▪ Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1992)
1. Linguistic – sensitivity to and mastery of
words and language
2. Logical-Mathematical – reasoning
deductively and recognizing abstract
patterns
3. Spatial – creating and manipulating mental
images
4. Aural-auditory/Musical – understanding
and creating music
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic – skilled coordination of
movement and awareness of the body
6. Interpersonal – understanding
relationships and communication
7. Intrapersonal – understanding one’s own
feelings and emotions]
Visual Learners
• They tend to see positive educational
outcomes when they are presented with
summarizing charts and diagrams rather than
sequential slides of information
Auditory Learners
• Often find success in group activities where
they are asked to discuss course materials
vocally with their classmates, and they may
benefit from reading their written work
aloud to themselves to help them think it
through.
Reading/Writing Learners
• Reading/writing-oriented students should
be encouraged to take copious notes during
classroom lectures to help them both
process information and have an easier time
recalling it later.
Kinesthetic Learners
• Because of their active nature, kinesthetic
learners often have the most difficult time
succeeding in conventional classroom
settings.
• Some educators have found success
encouraging kinesthetic learners to utilize
flashcards for subjects like math and English
to make note memorization into an
interactive experience.
• These students also often thrive in ACTIVITY
scientific subjects with lab components, as The following is a list of 10 words. Read and
the skills-based, instructional training that study them for a minute, then recite them
occurs in these settings engages them in for 10 seconds.
productive ways. Tree Battery
Closet Lake
▪ Theory of Successful Intelligence Food Book
(Sternberg, 2003) Road Chicken
⮚The ability to be successful in life within the Boy Chair
person’s own culture and based on the
person’s goals • Chunking
⮚Subsets: ❖ Chunks – formed when information is
✔Analytical Intelligence clustered into patterns
✔Creative intelligence ❖ If you were to form chunks by grouping
✔Practical intelligence the words in some meaningful way, you
remember even more.
❑ Summary of the Relationship between E.g. Boy, Chicken, Tree (living things), Closet,
Intelligence and Metacognition as Predictors Chair (elements of a house), Food, Book
of Learning (things you desperately need) Battery,
❖ Metacognition is part of intelligence, Road, Lake (you need a battery in your car to
therefore, state that intelligence alone is the ride the road that takes you to the lake)
best predictor of learning • Forgetting
❖Intellectual ability and metacognitive ▪ Reasons:
ability are not related and are separate ✔Weakening of networks in the brain
predictors of learning ✔New memories interfere with old ones
❖There is a mixed model in which ✔Not having the right stimulus or cue
metacognitive ability is related to ✔Intent to learn partly
intelligence to some degree.
5. Transfer
4. Memory ▪ The ability to take the information learned
▪ There is a consolidation function in the in one situation and apply it to another ▪
memory process. Factors to successful transfer:
 Items are stationed in memory 1. The extent to which the material was
Typical Retention/ Forgetting Curve originally learned
2. The ability to retrieve information from
memory
3. The way in which the material was taught
and learned
4. The setting in which the material was
taught and learned
5. The similarity of the new situation to the
original

• The more we connect new information to A Model of Adult Learning

old, the more we ruminate over new • Malcolm Knowles (1984)
information. • Adopted the term andragogy to
• The more frequently we recall and think differentiate the teaching of adults from
about it, the more long-lasting it will be. pedagogy, the teaching of Children

Learning Prepositions with Which Most
Psychologists will Agree
1. “Behaviors which are rewarded
(reinforced) are more likely to occur.”
2. “Sheer repetition without indications of
improvement or any kind of reinforcement is
a poor way to attempt to learn.”
3. “Threat and punishment have variable and
uncertain effects upon learning; they may
make the punished response more likely or
less likely to recur; they may set up
avoidance tendencies which prevent further
learning.”
4. Reward (reinforcement) to be most
effective in learning, must follow almost
immediately after the desired behavior and
be clearly connected with that behavior in
the mind of the learner.”
5. “Learners progress in any area of learning
only as far as they need to in order to
achieve their purposes. Often they do well
enough to ‘get by’; with increased
motivation, they improve.”
6. “Forgetting proceeds rapidly at first– then
more and more slowly; recall shortly after
learning reduces the amount forgotten.”
7. “Learning from reading is facilitated more
by time spent recalling what has been read
than by rereading.”
8. The best way to help pupils form a general
concept is to present the concept in
numerous ways and varied
situations, contrasting experiences, with and
without the concept, then to encourage
precise formulations of the general idea and
its application in situations different from
those in which the concept was learned.”
9. “When children and adults experience too
much frustration, their behavior ceases to be
integrated, purposeful, and rational.
➢ Blindly they act out their rage,
discouragement, or withdrawal.
➢ The threshold of what is ‘too much
‘varies;
➢ it is lowered by previous failures.”
10.“No school subjects are markedly superior
to others for ‘strengthening mental powers.”
➢ General improvement as a result of a
study in any subject depends on instruction
designed to build up generalizations about
principles, concept formation, and
improvements of techniques of study,
thinking, and communication.”
11. “What is learned is most likely to be
available for use if it is learned in a situation
much like that in which it is to be used and
immediately preceding the time when it is
needed.”
12. “Children (and adults even more)…
remember new information which confirms
their previous attitudes better than they
remember new information which runs
counter to their previous attitudes.”
13. “Adults need to know the need to learn
something before undertaking to learn it.”
TYPES OF LEARNING
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning (1970)
1. Signal Learning (conditioned response)
▪ The person develops a general diffuse
reaction to a stimulus
2. Stimulus-Response Learning
▪ Involves developing a voluntary response
to a specific stimulus or a combination of
stimuli
3. Chaining ▪ The acquisition of a series of
related conditioned responses or stimulus-
response connections
4. Verbal Association
▪ A type of chaining that is easily recognized
in the process of learning medical
terminology.
5. Discrimination Learning
▪ The process wherein the person has to be
able to discriminate large numbers of
stimulus-response or verbal chains
6. Concept Learning
▪ Learning how to classify stimuli into groups
represented by a common concept
7. Rule Learning
▪ Rule – considered a chain of concepts or a
relationship between concepts
8. Problem Solving
▪ To solve problems, the learner must have a
clear idea of the problem or goal being
sought and must be able to recall and apply
previously learned rules that relate to the
situation
▪ A process of formulating and testing
hypotheses
LEARNING STYLES
Learning Style – a habitual manner in
which learners receive and perceive new
information, process it, understand it, value
it, store it, and recall it.
Learning Style Models
Holistic (Global) Thinkers
▪ Want to get the whole picture quickly or
get the gist of things
▪ Want to see broad categories before the
details
▪ Process information simultaneously rather
than in a step-by-step manner
▪ Need to see how new information connects
to what they already know and value
▪ Retain an overall or global view of
information
Analytic Thinkers
▪ Process the details of a picture, outlining
the component parts in a logical progression
Perceive information in an objective manner
and do not need to connect it to their
personal values or experiences.
Verbal Approach
▪ Represent, in their brains, the information
they read, see, or hear in terms of words or
verbal associations
Visual Approach
▪ Experience information they read, see, or
hear in terms of mental pictures or images.
Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning
▪ 4 abilities for learning effectively:
1. Abstract Conceptualization (AC) abilities:
Creating theories to explain what is seen
2. Concrete Experience (CE) abilities:
Learning from actual experience
3. Active Experimentation (AE) abilities:
Using theories to solve problems
4. Reflective Observation (RO) abilities:
Learning by observing others.
Kolb’s Learning Style
Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning
4 Learning Styles
1. Converger
▪ learns by Abstract Conceptualization(AC)
and Active Experimentation (AE)
▪ Is good at decision-making and problem-
solving and likes dealing with technical work
rather than interpersonal relationships
2. Diverger
▪ Stresses Concrete Experience(CE) and
Reflective Observation(RO)
▪ Excels in imagination and awareness of
meaning ▪ Is feeling-oriented and people-
oriented and likes working in groups
3. Accommodator
▪ Relies heavily on Concrete Experience (CE)
and Active Experimentation (AE)
▪ Likes to actively accomplish things, often
using trial-and-error methods to solve
problems
▪ May be impatient with other people
▪ Acts on intuition and is a risk taker
4. Assimilator
▪ Emphasizes Abstract Conceptualization (AC)
and Reflective Observation (RO) ▪ Strengths
are in inductive reasoning, creating
theoretical models, and integrating ideas
▪ Prefers playing with ideas to actively
applying them
▪ More concerned with ideas than with
people
Gregorc’s Cognitive Styles Model
▪ The mind has the mediation abilities of
perception and order: that is, the perception
and ordering of knowledge affect how the
person learns
❖ Perception ability – the way you grasp
incoming stimuli; on a continuum ranging
from abstractness to concreteness
❖Ordering ability – the way you arrange
and systematize incoming stimuli; on a
continuum from sequence to randomness
Gregorc’s Cognitive Styles Model
4 Mediation Channels
1. Concrete Sequential (CS)
2. Concrete Random (CR)
3. Abstract Sequential (AS)
4. Abstract Random (AR)
Gregorc’s Cognitive Styles Model
Concrete Sequential Learners
▪ Like highly structured, quiet learning
environments, and do not like being
interrupted
▪ Often focus on details
▪ Like concrete learning materials, especially
those that are visual
▪ May interpret words literally
Concrete Random
▪ Intuitive, use trial-and-error methods and
look for alternatives
▪ Tend to order new information mentally
into a three-dimensional pattern
Abstract Sequential
▪ Holistic thinkers who seek understanding of
incoming information
▪ Need consistency in the learning
environment and do not like interruptions ▪
Have good verbal skills and are logical and
rational
Abstract Random
▪ Think holistically and benefit greatly from
visual stimuli
▪ Like busy, unstructured learning
environments and are often focused on
personal relationships.
Field-Independent/ Dependent Model
▪ A cognitive style model associated primarily
with Herman Witkin (1976)
✔ identified a continuum of perception that
ranges from field-independent style in which
items are perceived
relatively independent of their surrounding
field, and a field-dependent style in which a
person has difficulty
perceiving items aside from their
surrounding field
❖Field-Dependent Style- more global
❖Field-Independent Style – more analytical
Differences Between Field-Independent and
Field-Dependent Learning Styles
Matching Learning Styles to Instruction
❖ Some students have shown increased
levels of student achievement when learners
with a strong preference for a certain
style were matched with a similar teaching
or testing style
❖ More student satisfaction when the
teacher matches the student’s learning style,
but some have not.
How Useful is Learning Style
Many are still skeptical about the usefulness
of learning style theory at this point in its
development.
CHAPTER 6
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING
CLASSES
The Planning Sequence Before entering a
classroom, the teacher needs to:
1. Formulate objectives.
2. Select and organize content.
3. Choose teaching methods.
4. Design assignments.
5. Evaluate learning.
Course Outline or Syllabus
► Should include the following:
1. The name of the course,
2. The name of the instructor,
3. A one-paragraph course description
4. A list of course objectives
5. Teaching methods to be used
6. Textbook or other readings
7. Methods of evaluation
• Helps the learners to gauge what is to be
learned and what is expected of them.
Course Outline or Syllabus
►Is considered a learning contract between
teacher and learners
►It should be followed
►If there are changes in the course outline,
the learners should be notified.
Formulating Objectives
►Should be written in such a way that it has
meaning for the learners
►It should reflect what the learner is
supposed to do with what is taught.
Value of Objectives
► Guides the selection and handling of
course materials
► Helps determine whether the learners in
class have learned what is taught
► Essential from the learner’s perspectives
since they need to know more about a
course.
Taxonomy of Objectives
► Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives was born in 1956
► It was the brainchild of several
measurement specialists under the
leadership of Benjamin Bloom
► It was conceived as a means of facilitating
the exchange of test items among faculty at
various universities in order to create bank
of items, each measuring the same
educational objectives (Krathwohl, 2002)
►Educational objectives suggested by Bloom
(1984) are divided into 3 domains:
►Cognitive (Knowing)
►Psychomotor (Doing)
►Affective (Feeling, Valuing)
Cognitive Domain
► Original subcategories: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation
• Revised subcategories (by Krathwohl):
remember, understand, apply, analyze,
evaluate, and create
➢ factual knowledge, conceptual
knowledge, procedural knowledge,
metacognitive knowledge
• Measures knowledge by using oral and
written tests.
Psychomotor Domain
► The teacher can observe what the
learners are actually doing when they
perform a skills
► Learners can demonstrate what they have
learned
► Example: The learner will correctly mix
two types of insulin in one syringe.
Affective Domain
► Not so easy to write and measure since it
is related to beliefs, attitudes, and values
► Example: Asking the student to defend in
writing the refusal of the nurse to divulge
confidential information given by the
patient. Demonstrates positive attitudes
towards the elderly while giving care
Wording of Objectives
►Course Objectives are broadly stated
Example: Recognize the parameters of
effective hemodialysis.
• Class Objectives are usually few; they may
be written and distributed to the learners on
a weekly basis.
► General objective:
►Statement of the trend of the learning
activity. The general objective defines the
outcome of the learning activity (learning
outcomes) and represents the general
orientation of the lesson.
►The general objective is the first level of
specification of the lesson.
►General objectives are sometimes referred
to as Terminal Course Objectives (TCO), and
“for every unit of instruction that has a goal,
there is a terminal objective” (Dick et al.,
2005, pp 131).
► Specific objective:
► Sometimes referred to as enabling
objectives, performance objectives,
instructional objectives, or behavioral
objectives, an “...objective is a detailed
description of what students will be able to
do when they complete a unit of instruction”
(Dick et al., 2005. pp125).
► It is expressed in terms of the student and
formulated in terms of observable behavior
and the special conditions in which the
behavior is manifested.
► The specific objective is the second level
of specification of the lesson.
► The objectives characteristics
► S = SPECIFIC
► M = Measurable
► A = Achievable
► R = Realistic
► T = Time Bounded
► The essential components of instructional
sound learning objectives can be organized
into a mnemonic: ABCD, which represents:
► audience,
►behavior,
►condition, and
►degree.
► The condition.
► The condition part of an objective
specifies the circumstances, commands,
directions, etc., that the student is given to
initiate the behavior.
► For example, a condition could be stated
as given a case study, given a diagram, given
a map, after a lecture or demonstration,
after completing the reading, etc.
►The behavior.
►The behavior verb denotes an overt,
observable action (behavior), such as
identify, name, list, describe, etc.
►The degree.
►The degree, or criteria, is a set of
descriptions that describe how well the
behavior must be performed to satisfy the
intent of the behavioral verb.
► The criterion
►describes the acceptable performance by
describing how well the learner must
perform in order to be considered
competent. The criterion answers the
question, what do you expect the learner to
be able to do in achieving an acceptable
performance?
► For example:
►within a given period of time, such as
within 20 minutes; or, according to the
information given in the text, lab manual, or
lecture; or, in accordance with
recommendations of some external source.
Example:
• Goal:
• " Recognize the parameters of effective
hemodialysis“
• Objectives:
• “The nurse will list and explain, with 95%
accuracy, the parameters by which effective
hemodialysis is measured"
Cognitive Domain VERBS
Knowledg Define, delineates,
describe, identify, list, name, state
Comprehension Classify, discuss,
estimate, explain, rephrase, summarize
Application Adjust, apply,
compute, demonstrate, generate, prove
Analysis Analyze, compare,
contrast, critique, defend, differentiate
Synthesis Create, develop,
propose, suggest, write
Evaluation Assess, choose,
conclude, defend, evaluate, judge
Psychomotor Domain
Arrange, assemble, calibrate, combine, copy,
correct, create, demonstrate, execute,
handle, manipulate, operate, organize,
position, produce, remove, revise, show,
solve
Affective Domain Accept, agree, choose,
comply, commit, defend, explain, influence,
integrate, recommend, resolve, volunteer
► After two(2) hours of lecture-discussion,
the level 3 students will be able to:
1. discuss the evolution of the teaching role
of nurses.
2. recognize trends affecting the healthcare
system in general and nursing practice in
particular.
3. identify the purpose, benefits, and goals of
patient and staff education.
4. Compare and contrast the education
process to the nursing process.
5. Define the terms teaching and learning. 6.
Discuss barriers to education and obstacles
to learning.
7. Formulate questions that nurses in the
role of educator should ask about the
teaching–learning process.
By the end of 54 hrs., the students should be
able to:
1. Integrate knowledge of the anatomy and
physiology of the female reproductive
system as they assess a pregnant client.
2. Assess with the client (individual, family,
population group, and/or community), one’s
health status.
3. Formulate with the client a plan of care to
address the health conditions needs, and
problems.
4. Provide health education using selected
planning models to targeted clientele.
Organizing Content, Headings, and
Subheadings
►Should follow a logical sequence (moving
from general to specific) or (from Simple to
complex) Selecting the Teaching Method
► It depends on the following factors:
1. Objective and type of learning one is trying
to achieve
2. Abilities of the teacher
3. Compatibility of the teacher and the
teaching method
4. Compatibility of the learner and the
teaching method
5. Capabilities and the background level of
the learners
6. Number of students
7. Resources of the institution/school
Choosing teaching Method
► The Effectiveness of teaching methods
depend on the outcome criterion.
►If the criterion is the acquisition of
knowledge lecture would be useful.
►While acquisition of doing objectives it is
useful to use training sessions. Objective and
Type of Learning One is Trying to Achieve
► Presentation of facts or rules
► lecture with handouts
► Molding attitude
► case studies, discussion, role-playing
► Motivating learners
► Gaming Choosing A Textbook
► Courses are built around the content and
approach of the textbook
► Evaluate the content, scope, and quality
of the book, the credibility of authorship,
and format
► Format includes the following:
1. table of contents
2. Index
3. Organization
4. graphical presentation, length, charts
5. Issues like cost, permanency, and quality
of print are also very important in choosing a
book.
Using A Textbook
1. Assign pages for homework, and assume
that they have read and understood the
material.
2. Use information from assigned reading as
a basis of class discussion, make sure that
everyone in the class participates.
3. Do the assigned reading , and make some
notes on matters that will require more
focus.
4. Explain to the class in advance that they
should read the material and tell them how
it will be used in the class.
5. Assign students with short passages to
read before class or distribute questions for
them to study.

Designing / Planning Assignments

1. Writing a term paper (topic, research, or
composition paper)
2. Case analysis
3. Devising assessment forms or patient
materials
4. Nursing care plan

Methods in Evaluating Learning

1. Placement evaluation (pre-assessment)
➢ done before instruction
2. Diagnostic evaluation
►attempts to discover the causes of
students’ learning problems.
3. Formative evaluation
➢ monitors progress during the learning
process.
4. Summative evaluation
➢ takes place at the end of an instructional
unit or course