PROFED 3
NOTES
MODULE 1: METACOGNITION
AND THE LEARNER-CENTERED
PRINCIPLES
BEYOND THE COMFORT ZONE
• Comfort Zone: Here is where we
feel safe and in control.
• Fear Zone: It’s a challenging and
unfamiliar zone. There are two
options: retreat or move forward.
• Learning Zone: This is where we
acquire new skills and learn to
handle new challenges. We
discover our potential for change
and redefine ourselves.
• Growth Zone: This is the zone
where we achieve and surpass our
goals.
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
METACOGNITION LEARNING
• is active: Learners build
knowledge as they explore the
world by observation,
engagement, and creating ideas
from their own understanding.
• builds on prior knowledge:
enhancing and challenging
previous knowledge to evolve
one’s learning.
• occurs in a complex social
environment: should not be
limited in the individual level as
learning is multifaceted.
• is situated in an authentic
context: provides concepts on a
need-to-know or want-to-know
basis.
• requires learners’ motivation
and cognitive engagement:
learner must put considerable
mental effort and persistence. One
must think beyond the box.
WHAT IS METACOGNITION?
• “Thinking about thinking” and
“learning how to learn”.
• John Flavell: metacognition
consisting of both metacognitive
knowledge and metacognitive
experiences or regulation.
• The higher level of thinking which
involves awareness and control of
one self’s thinking process.
• The acquired knowledge about
cognitive process.
3 CATEGORIES OF
METACOGNITION
1. KNOWLEDGE OF PERSON
VARIABLES
• Refers to knowing one’s views of
himself as a learner and thinker.
• Involves knowing one self’s
personal preference or variables in
learning.
• Example: Knowing that you
personally learn best when there is
music playing in the background
than eerie silence or having a
preferred time to study helps you
with your focus and concentration
more.
PROFED 3
NOTES
2. KNOWLEDGE OF TASK
VARIABLES
• Refers to knowing ones’ views of
the nature of task to be done and
the steps needed to accomplish
the task.
• It is about knowing what needs to
be accomplished, difficulty of the
tasks, the effort needed to do the
task.
• Example: Knowing yourself that
creating an artwork would take you
more time and effort than to write
a reflection paper.
3. KNOWLEDGE OF STRATEGY
VARIABLES
• Refers to knowing of one’s
awareness of the strategy he/she
is using to learn and evaluate
whether it is effective.
• Terms like meta-attention and
meta-memory are related
strategy variables
o Meta-attention: awareness of
specific strategies so that you
can keep your attention
focused on the task at hand.
o Meta-memory: awareness of
the memory strategies that is
suitable to you.
METACOGNITION:
APPLICATION TO SELF
• Knowledge is said to be
metacognitive if it is keenly used in
a purposeful manner to ensure
that one’s tasks and goals are met.
• Metacognition could be knowing
oneself and what works for you to
learn and achieve your desired
outcomes.
• Huitt believes that metacognition
includes the ability to ask and
answer the following questions:
o What do I know about this?
o Do I know what I need to
know?
o Do I know where I can get the
information I need?
o What are the strategies that
work best for me?
o Did I understand what I
read/saw/heard?
o How do I revise my approach if
one of the identified strategies
doesn’t work?
1.1 METACOGNITIVE
STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE
LEARNING
The challenge to future teachers is
teaching future students to:
• Build their capacity to reflect on
their own characteristics as
learners.
• The strategies that they can use to
learn.
STRATEGIES TO TEACH
STUDENTS
1. Monitor own learning and thinking
2. Teach student learning strategies
PROFED 3
NOTES
A. TQLR: metacognitive strategy for
younger students before listening
to a presentation.
o Tune-In (T): Important for
the learner to know that
he/she is paying attention
and ready to learn.
o Question (Q): The learner is
given questions or thinks of
questions about the things
he/she will soon learn.
o Listen (L): learner to
intentionally exert effort to
listen.
o Remember (R): The learner
uses ways to strategies to
remember what was learned.
B. PR4R: metacognitive strategy for
older students used to study a unit
or chapter.
o Preview (P): scan the whole
document and look for
outlines to give you an idea
about the important topics.
o Question (Q): read the guide
questions and think of
possible questions that may
be related to the topic.
o Read (R): Read and
understand the content. It is
important to research on the
words that may be unfamiliar
to you.
o Recite (R): work on
answering the questions you
had earlier.
o Review (R): Identify topics
you need to re-read to better
understand concepts that
may be unclear to you.
o Reflect (R): think about what
you read. Did you understand
clearly what you have read?
What are the main points that
you learned? How is this
relevant and useful to you?
3. Make predictions about
information to be presented next
based on what they have read.
4. Relate ideas to existing knowledge
structures.
5. Develop and ask questions.
6. Know when to ask for help.
7. Show how to transfer knowledge,
attitudes, values, skills to other
situations.
1.2 FOURTEEN (14) LEARNER-
CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
• Focus on psychological factors
that are primarily internal to and
under the control of the learner.
• The principles are intended to deal
holistically with learners in the
context of real-world learning
situations thus they must be
viewed as an organized set of
principles.
A. COGNITIVE AND
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
1. NATURE OF LEARNING
PROCESS
• the learning of complex subject
matter is most effective when it is
PROFED 3
NOTES

an intentional process of • The successful learner can create

constructing meaning from
information and experience.
• successful learners are active,
goal directed, self-regulating and
assume personal responsibility for
contributing to own learning.
2. GOALS OF THE LEARNING
PROCESS
and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
• Can be enhanced with assistance
from educators in developing and
applying their strategic learning
skills.
5. THINKING ABOUT THINKING

• To acquire the thinking and • Higher order strategies for

learning strategies necessary for selecting and monitoring mental
continued learning success across operations facilitate creative and
the life span. critical thinking.

• Students must be able to have • Successful learners can reflect on

long term goals through time. how they think and learn, set
reasonable learning or
• Successful learner, over time and performance goals, select
with guidance can create potentially appropriate learning
meaningful, coherent strategies.
representations of knowledge.
• They can generate alternative
3. CONSTRUCTION OF methods to reach their goal when
KNOWLEDGE a problem occurs.

• Acquiring new knowledge and 6. CONTEXT OF LEARNING

integrating it to previous
knowledge to deepen and broaden • Learning is influenced by
one’s knowledge base and environmental factors, including
eventually using this new culture, technology and
knowledge effectively in instructional practices.
performing tasks.
• Teachers, groups and other
• The successful learner can link relevant variables can affect one’s
new information with existing learning.
knowledge in meaningful ways.
• Teaching practice must be
4. STRATEGIC THINKING appropriate for the level of the
learner’s prior knowledge,
• Use of strategic thinking to cognitive abilities and their
learning, reasoning, problem learning strategies.
solving and concept learning.
PROFED 3
NOTES
B. MOTIVATIONAL AND
AFFECTIVE FACTORS
7. MOTIVATIONAL AND
EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON
LEARNING
• Positive emotions such as
curiosity can enhance motivation
to learn while negative emotions
such as anxiety, fear, insecurity
can detract motivation and
interfere with learning.
• Student’s view of themselves can
affect their motivation to learn.
8. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO
LEARN
• Curiosity, flexible, insightful
thinking and creativity are the
indicators of learner’s intrinsic or
natural/ innate motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation can be
associated with the tasks that
learners perceive as interesting
and personally relevant and
meaningful (choice and control).
• Encourage natural curiosity of
learners by attending to individual
differences.
9. EFFECT OF MOTIVATION ON
EFFORT
• Effort as another important factor
in the learner’s motivation;
investment of energy and effort
along with persistence over time.
• Educators need to boost learner
motivation for deep
understanding, as effort without
motivation is unlikely without
coercion.
C. DEVELOPMENTAL AND
SOCIAL FACTORS
10. DEVELOPMENTAL
INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
• Learning is effective when
differential development within
and across physical, intellectual,
emotional and social domains is
taken into account.
• Early parental involvement in
schooling would be beneficial in
creating a 2-way communication.
• Facilitate optimal learning contexts
by being aware and understanding
the developmental differences.
11. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON
LEARNING
• Learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal
relations and communications with
others.
• Learning by interacting and
collaborating on a given task
encourages flexible thinking and
social competence.
• Provides an opportunity for
perspective taking and reflective
thinking.
• Positive climate for learning is
achieved when there is a sense of
belongingness, self-respect and
self-acceptance brought about by
quality personal relationships.
PROFED 3
NOTES
D. INDIVIDUAL AND DIFFERENCE
FACTORS
12. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
LEARNING
• Learners have different
approaches.
• Educators should align teaching
with student preferences and
backgrounds, respecting
individual differences.
• Educators must determine how
much to adapt instructional
methods to accommodate
individual differences in
capabilities, recognizing both
innate and developed abilities.
13. LEARNING AND DIVERSITY
• language, ethnicity, race, beliefs
and socio-economic factors all
influence learning.
• When these factors are respected
and valued, learners’ motivation
and achievement are enhanced.
14. STANDARD AND ASSESSMENT
• Establishing high standards and
evaluating both learners and the
learning process, including
assessment methods, is essential.
• Effective learning takes place
when learners feel challenged to
work towards appropriate
standards.
• Standardized assessments help in
assess the achievement levels
across and within learners.
• Self- assessments also improve
the learner’s appraisal skills and
enhance motivation and self-
directed learning.
SUMMARY OF THE 14
PRINCIPLES
1. KNOWLEDGE BASE
• One’s existing knowledge serves
as foundation of all future
learnings.
2. STRATEGIC PROCESSING AND
CONTROL
• Learners can skills to reflect and
regulate their thoughts and
behaviors in order to learn more
effectively.
3. MOTIVATION AND AFFECT
• Intrinsic motivation all have a
crucial role in the learning process.
4. DEVELOPMENT AND
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
• Learning is a unique to each and
everyone
5. SITUATION OR CONTEXT
• Learning happens in the context of
a society as well as within an
individual.
PROFED 3
NOTES

MODULE 2: STUDENT DIVERSITY III. HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY

ENRICHES THE LEARNING
I. OVERVIEW ON STUDENT ENVIRONMENT
DIVERSITY
1. Student’s self-awareness is
• Diversity is the sum of the ways enhanced by diversity:
that people are both alike and Awareness of personal and
different. interpersonal diversity provides
students with reference points,
• These diversities bring about the enhancing their self-assessment
richness and the challenges within of values, attitudes, and behaviors.
a classroom.
2. Student diversity contributes
• It brings about opportunities for cognitive development:
growth for everyone in the learning Classroom diversity offers
environment. learners access to peers with
different perspectives, enriching
II. FACTORS THAT BRING the depth and breadth of learning.
ABOUT STUDENT DIVERISTY Varied backgrounds and
viewpoints foster critical thinking
• Socioeconomic Status: it is a and cognitive development.
reflection of a social status/
standing of an individual or group 3. Student diversity prepares
and is often measured as a learners for their role as
combination of: responsible members of the
society: Early awakening to
o Education diversity enables learners to
o Income approach real-world problems
o Occupation from multiple perspectives,
fostering inclusivity and
• Thinking / learning Style: It adaptability. With students’
enhances the way and the pace diversity in the classroom, it
they learn. creates a market place/ public
place where community can be
• Exceptionalities: learner’s practiced.
personal difficulties in learning are
important factors that bring about 4. Student diversity can promote
student diversity in the classroom. harmony: Integrated diversity in
the classroom fosters a
o Example: students who have harmonious environment where
migrated into another place differences are embraced.
where the language spoken is Student-centered teaching
one that they are not familiar encourages collaboration,
with. promoting unity while leveraging
diverse backgrounds.
PROFED 3
NOTES

IV. TEACHING TIPS ON STUDENT o Scheduling instructor-student

DIVERSITY conference outside of
classroom.
1. Encourage learners to share
their personal history and o Learn the names of your
experience. students to easily build
rapport and encourage them
2. Integrate learning experiences to participate.
and activities which promotes
students’ multicultural and 5. Use varied instructional
cross-cultural awareness methods to accommodate
student diversity in learning
o Example: World Cultural Day styles.
or United Nations Day
o Student centered (group
3. Aside from highlighting work) or teacher centered
diversity, identify patterns of (lecture)
unity that transcend group
differences. o Structured (step-by-step) or
unstructured (trial and error)
o Grouping students into
homogenous groups and o Independent learning
have them share experiences (individual activities) or
interdependent learning
o Grouping students who are (collaborative activities)
different in terms of
demographic characteristics 6. Vary the examples you use to
but similar with respect to illustrate concepts in order to
another trait provide multiple contexts that
are relevant to students from
o After self-assessment diverse background.
activities, have students line
up according to their results or o Ask students to share
profile. examples from their personal
experiences.

4. Communicate high o At the first day of class, ask

expectations to students from students to create profile
all subgroups: sheets and use information
provided in creating examples
o Assigning the role of reporter during discussions.

o Engage in paired discussions o Situational analysis relevant

wherein they take turns to their lives.
PROFED 3
NOTES
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse
backgrounds and learning
styles by allowing them
personal choice and decision-
making opportunities
concerning what they will learn
and how they will learn it.
o Give the learner more
decision-making opportunity
with respect to learning task
as it promotes positive
attitude, interaction,
independence and lessened
anxiety or stress while
performing tasks.
8. Diversify your methods of
assessing and evaluating
student learning.
o Traditional pen and paper
exam and assignment =
visual presentation, oral
reports, and exhibit.
9. Purposely form small group
discussion group of students
from diverse backgrounds. You
can form groups of students
with different learning styles,
different cultural backgrounds
etc.
o Instructor is removed from
the center stage thereby
reducing the perceived role of
as absolute authority.
V. LEARNING/THINKING STYLES
• This refers to the preferred way an
individual processes information.
• They describe a person’s typical
mode of remembering or problem
solving.
A. SENSORY PREFERENCES
• Individuals tend to gravitate toward
one or two types of sensory input
and maintain dominance in one of
the following types:
1. VISUAL LEARNERS
• students learn more when they
see their teacher’s actions and
expressions and learn best from
visual aid like diagrams, illustrated
text books, flipcharts etc.
o Visual-iconic: learners prefer
visual imagery such as film,
graphic displays or pictures in
order to solidify learning and
they usually have a good
picture memory. They would
like to read a map better than
to read a book.
o Visual-symbolic: learners
prefer this form of input feel
comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as
mathematical formulae or the
written word. They tend to be
abstract thinkers who prefer
reading a book than a map
and would like to read about
things than to hear about
them.
2. AUDITORY LEARNERS
• they learn best from verbal
lectures, discussions and listening
to what others have to say.
• They interpret the underlying
meanings of speech through
listening to the tone of voice, pitch,
speed and other nuances.
PROFED 3
NOTES

• They also benefit from reading text • This makes them see finite
aloud and can attend to details. elements of patterns rather than
the whole.
o Listener: The more common
type between the two. They
remember the things said to 2. GLOBAL THINKERS (RIGHT
them and make the BRAIN)
information their own.
• “Forest seers”: who like to be
o Talker: The ones who prefer given the bigger picture.
to talk and discuss. They tend
to whisper comments to • Tend to learn better by
themselves. They are not approaching new Concepts, skills
trying to be disruptive as they and knowledge from a much larger
sometimes don’t realize that viewpoint.
they need to talk.
• This kind of learner gets bored and
3. TACTILE/KINESTHETIC frustrated with details and long-
LEARNERS winded explanation.

• this kind of learner benefit from

hands-on approach and actively
exploring the world around them.

• Those preferring this type of input

are more on the active,
sensorimotor learning.

• They tend to prefer “learning by

doing” thus they tend to have good
motor memory and motor
coordination.

B. GLOBAL-ANALYTIC VI. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

CONTINUUM
• Developed by psychologist
1. ANALYTIC THINKERS (LEFT Howard Gardner in the late 1970s
BRAIN) and early 1980s.

• “Tree seers”: they learn more o Intelligence: an ability or set

with details and hierarchies of of abilities that allows a
information. person to solve a problem.

• Tends to learn more by the linear o He believes that the different

and step-by-step process of intelligences may be
learning. independent abilities. (One
PROFED 3
NOTES

may be low in one domain but 6. INTRAPERSONAL

high in another and that all of
us possess the intelligences • An ability to recognize and
but in varying degrees of understand one’s own moods,
strength.) desires, motivations and
intentions.
1. SPATIAL
7. INTERPERSONAL
• An ability to recognize and
manipulate large scale and fine- • An ability to recognize and
grained spatial image and to see understand one’s others moods,
things in one’s mind in planning to desires, motivations and
create a product or solve a intentions.
problem.
8. NATURALISTIC
2. LINGUISTIC
• An ability to identify and
distinguish among different types
• An ability to analyze information
of plants, animals, and weather
and create products involving oral formations that are found in the
and written language such as natural world.
speeches, books and memos.
• It picks up on subtle differences in
3. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL meaning and not simply the study
of nature; it can also be all areas of
• An ability to develop equations and study.
proofs, make calculations, and
solve abstract problem. 9. EXISTENTIAL

4. KINESTHETIC • An ability to see the big picture, the

role in the world and seeks to
• An ability to use one’s own body to connect to real world
create products or solve problems. understanding and application of
It promotes understanding through new learning.
concrete experience.
VII. TEACHING STRATEGIES
5. MUSICAL GUIDED BY THINKING/LEARNING
STYLES AND MULTIPLE
• An ability to produce, remember INTELLIGENCE
and make meaning of different
patterns of sound; learning 1. Provide general overview of the
through patterns, rhythms and material to be learned.
music.
2. Use various questions to draw out
responses from learners and
PROFED 3
NOTES
stimulate various level of thinking
from recalling factual information.
3. Allow sufficient time for information
to be processed.
4. Set objectives and learning
outcomes.
5. Warm up before lesson before the
lesson by brainstorming or any
mind exercises.
6. Use multisensory means for both
processing and retrieving
information.
7. Use variety of review and
reflection strategies to bring
closure to learning (write up of
summaries and reflection papers)
8. Use descriptive feedback rather
than simply praising.
VIII. LEARNERS WITH
EXCEPTIONALITIES
• One of the significant factors that
highlight individual differences and
diversity in learning is the
presence of exceptionalities.
• A person is considered to be
exceptional when the child
requires either the modification of
school practices or special
educational services to develop
their unique capabilities.
• Those with physical needs related
to cognitive abilities, behavior,
social functioning, physical and
sensory impairments, emotional
disturbances, and giftedness.
DEFINITION OF RELATED TERMS
• Disability: measurable
impairment or limitation that
interferes with a person’s ability
(e.g to walk, to hear, learn etc.)
• Handicap: a disadvantage that
occurs as a result of a disability
impairment.
o The degree of disadvantage is
often dependent on the
adjustment made by both the
person and the environment.
o two persons may have the
same disability but not the
same degree of being
handicapped.
o Example: Two persons who
move around in a wheelchair,
the one studying in a campus
with wheelchair accessibility
in all areas would be less
handicapped than one in a
school without wheel chair
accessibility.
CATEGORIES OF
EXCEPTIONALITIES (OMROD’S
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY,
2020)
A. SPECIAL COGNITIVE OR
ACEDEMIC DIFFICULTIES
1. LEARNING DISABILITIES
• perception language, memory or
metacognition that are not due to
other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or
PROFED 3
NOTES

behavioral disorders or sensory 2. MENTAL RETARDATION

impairments.
• refers to significant sub-average
o Examples: dyslexia, intelligence and deficits in adaptive
dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. behavior.
2. ATTENTION-DEFICIT
HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER • There is difficulty in managing
activities of daily living and in
• Difficulty in focusing and conducting themselves
maintaining attention. appropriately in social situations.

• Recurrent hyper active and 3. EMOTIONAL/CONDUCT

impulsive behavior DISORDERS

3. SPEECH AND • involves presence of emotional

COMMUNICATION DISORDER
• difficulty in spoken language
including voice disorders, inability
to produce the sounds correctly,
stuttering, difficulty in
comprehension that can
significantly affect performance in
a learning environment.
• Involves physical or medical
B. SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL AND
BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES
states like depression and
aggression over a considerable
amount of time that they notably
disturb learning and performance
in school.
C. PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND
HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS
conditions including one or more of
the following:

1. AUTISM o Limited energy and strength

o Reduced mental alertness
• condition manifested by different o Little muscle control
levels of impaired social
interaction and communication, D. SEVERE AND MULTIPLE
repetitive behaviors and limited DISABILITIES
interests.
• Presence of two or more different
• They usually have intense need for types of disability.
routine and predictable
environment. • The combination of disabilities
makes it necessary to make
specific adaptation and more
specialized educational programs.
PROFED 3
NOTES

E. SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS 3. Avoiding euphemisms such as

physically challenged,
• Visual Impairments inconvenienced and differently
• Hearing impairments abled.

F. GIFTEDNESS 4. Avoiding negative words implying

illness, suffering, unfortunate,
• Involves high level of cognitive prisoner or victim.
development.
5. Recognize that people with
• Gifted people have an unusually disabilities are ordinary people.
high ability or aptitude in one or
more aspects like intellectual 6. Never equate a person with
ability, aptitude in academic disability. These labels are
subject, creativity, visual, medical diagnosis that tells what a
performing arts or even person HAS, not what a person IS.
leadership.
7. Recognize that disability is not a
IX. PEOPLE-FIRST LANGUANGE challenge and don’t say people
succeed in spite of disability.
• The disability community has Ordinary things and
developed preferred terminology accomplishments do not become
which is now called People First extraordinary just because they
Language. are done by a person with a
disability.
• More than a fad or political
correctness, People First 8. Promote, understanding, respect,
Language is an objective way of dignity and positive outlook.
acknowledging, communication
and reporting on disabilities.

• Through the use of people first

language, stereotypes and
assumptions are eliminated by
focusing on the person rather than
the disability.

FEW GUIDELINES ON
APPROPRIATE LANGAUGE

1. Avoid generic labels

2. Emphasize abilities not limitations