FACILITATING LEARNERS

CENTERED
TEACHING
(FLCT)
Amelita P. Santos MAEd, RGC, RPm
VIEWS ABOUT LEARNING
• is a way of knowing things
• is an increase in knowledge
• refers to the method of acquiring information
 • is a way of thinking
• means the process of storing ideas
• is defined as a process of
memorization
• is one way of storing information
that can be reproduced, retrieved,
and used when it is needed.
 VIEWS ABOUT LEARNING
• is a means through which we
make sense out of this world.,
• is a is a way of interpreting
and understanding realities,
and is a change through which
we conceptualize the world
 Is viewed as an experiential
process in a relatively permanent
change in behavior that cannot be
explained by temporary

LEARNING? status, maturation, or innate response

tendencies.
• reorganization of the cognitive structures in the behavior due
to practice.

relatively permanent change in one’s behavior as a results of

his interactions in the
environment. something that
happens as a result of one’s
experience
behavior > PERMANENT >>> LEARNING
experience >
 WAYS OF LEARNING
L isten (others & inner voice )
E volve (change from one form to others)
A dapt (accommodate new bits of information)
R eciprocate (transcend, application)
N etwork (share, downline upline)
I ntegrate (ability to organize, restructure )
N avigate (explore new things/learning )
G row (quibble about how and why things are done)

How Does Learning Occur?

• Learners learn only what they are ready to learn
instruction is matched to development and
readiness
 • Learners construct their own understanding
understanding is created by the learners as
they experience/interact with the world or
information
WAYS TO PROMOTE LEARNING
• Giving productive feedbacks
• Providing concreteness, activity and familiarity
• Explaining examples
• Guiding cognitive processing during learning
• Fostering learning strategies
• Fostering problem solving strategies
• Creating cognitive apprenticeship
• Priming students motivation to learn.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES LEARNING TARGETS

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION FORMAL EDUCATION

WITH 5 LEARNING STRANDS WITH 5 MAJOR SUBJECTS

∙ Communication Skills
∙ Critical Thinking and Problem ∙ English
Solving ∙ Filipino
∙ Sustainable Use of Resources ∙ Science
∙ Development of Self and a Sense
∙ Math
of Commitment/Community
∙ Expanding One’s World Vision ∙ Makabayan
 COMMUNICATION SKILL
• Ability to clearly express one’s ideas and feelings orally and
non-verbally
• Ability to listen
• Ability to read, comprehend and
respond to ideas presented
• Ability to write clearly
• Ability to write and clearly express one’s ideas and feelings
• Ability to accept, process and utilize available basic
multimedia presentation.
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CRITICAL
SKILLS
• Numeracy Skills
• To be open to change
• To be aware of option
• Ability to make critical and informal decision
• Innovativeness and Creativity
• Scientific Thinking
• Future Orientation

SUSTAINABLE USE OF
 RESOURCES/PRODUCTIVITY
• Ability to earn a living
• Sustainable use of resources (including time)
and appropriate technology
• Entrepreneurship
 • Productivity
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF AND A SENSE OF
COMMITMENT
• Self – Development
– Self Awareness
– Self Discipline
– Sense of Responsibility
 – Self-Worth
– Self-Realization
– May Paninindigan
– Pagbabagong Loob
• Pakikipagkapwa
– Pakikilahok
• A Sense of Personal and National Identity
 – Makatao
– Makabayan
– Makakalikasan
– Maka-Diyos
• Knowledge of one’s history, pride in one’s culture and
respect for those of others
• Recognition
EXPANDING ONE’S WORLD
VISION
• Knowledge, accept
• Peace
• Non-violent resolution of conflicts
• Global awareness,
interdependence and
solidarity
 “If you teach a person
what to
learn, you are preparing that
person for the past. If you
teach a person how to learn,
you are
preparing that person for its future.”
Cyril Houle
 “The main goal of education is to
create a person
who are capable of doing new things,
not simply to repeat what other
generations have done ;
Man/Individual who are
active,creative, inventive & discoverer”
Teaching – giving/transferring
Learning – acquiring/accepting

EDUCATIVE PROCESS

Learner – given focus

Teacher – prime mover
Learning Environment – headway
 Learner – embodied spirit

Sentient body - rational soul

Experiencing sensation - self-reflection
- free will
- intellectual abstractions

cognitive & affective faculties

instinct feelings
imagining emotions
intellect free rational
memory volition
 Influences/Different Factors to become
Different to each other:

-environment/home
- biological aspect
-Teacher
-Personal attributes
-Professional attributes

Badge of Profession– sense of service (teacher)

Effective– doing the right thing

Efficiency– time, effort, motivation, method
 Empowered learners are MANAGERS
themselves
(they ‘re able to lead and live their life to
fullest)
7m’s should be P – lanning
Managed: O – rganizing
L – eading
M- oney
C – ontrolling
M- aterials
S – taffing
M- oment
M- anpower
M- achine
M- arket
M- anner
 LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES

The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the

learner and the learning process. They focus on
psychological factors that are primarily internal to and
under the control of the learner rather than conditioned
habits or physiological factors. However, the principles
also attempt to acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
The principles are intended to deal holistically with
learners in the context of real-world learning
situations. Thus, they are best understood as an
organized set of principles; no principle should be
viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into
those referring to 1)cognitive and meta-cognitive,
2)motivational and affective, 3)developmental and
social, and 4)individual difference factors influencing
learners and learning.
14 LEARNERS CENTERED PRINCIPLES

Cognitive and Motivational

Metacognitive and Affective
Factor Factors
(6 principles) (3 principles)

Developmental Individual
and Social Factors Differences
(2 principles) Factors
(3 principles)
 LCCP

•Focus on psychological factors pertain to the learner and

the learning process.
•Principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in
context of real-world learning situation.
•They are best understood as an organized set of principles ;
no principle should be viewed in isolation.
•Principles are intended to apply to all learners- from
children,to teachers, to administrator, to parents, and to
community members involved in our educational system
Cognitive and Meta-cognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process learning of complex subject

matter
2. Goals of the learning process can create
meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.

3. Construction of knowledgecan link new

information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking
 can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about thinking beyond thinking/

deepening of knowledge

6. Context of learning
influenced by environmental factors
Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on

Learning What and how much is learned?

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and
natural curiosity (w/in yourself) stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty
9. Effects of motivation and effort
acquisition of complex knowledge and
skills
Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

different opportunities and constraints for learning
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains.

* appropriateness of material
* intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains
* macro skills – interest and level of the student
* prior or past experiences – from school, home, culture, and
community factors.
* early and continuing parental – language interactions and two-way *
awareness and understanding of development differences among
children – understand differences
11. Social influences on learning
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others.
Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity
 Learning is most effective when differences in
learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards
and assessing the learner as well as learning progress
including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment
are integral parts of the learning process.
 Alexander & Murphy summary of
01 the 14 Principles:
The
knowledge
base 05

Situation or
context
 02 03 04
Motivation
Strategic
processing andDevelopment
affective and
and control
Individual
differences

• Individuals learn when they are ready to learn.

• New impressions are received through the senses
• Learning takes place by doing
• Only one thing is learned at a time
• New learning should be tied to what the student
already knows
• Learning should proceed from simple to complex BASIC
• Skills is developed through practice PRINCIPLES
• Learning varies with each individual
• Learning is more rapid when the results are satisfying
OF LEARNING
• An individual should understand what he learns
• Interest and purpose are essential in learning
• All persons have feeling
• Extreme emotional disturbances seriously affect the learning process
 Review of
the
Developmental
Theories
 Freud
3 Components of Personality Erikson Piaget
5 Psychosexual Stages of 8 Psycho-social Stages of 4 Stages of Cognitive
development Development Development

Theories Related
To The Learner’s
Development

Vygotsky
Kohlberg • On Language
Brofenbrenner
3 Stages and 6 Substances of •Zone of Proximal
Bio-Ecological System
Moral Development Development
 Freud Psycho-Sexual
Theory
•
Freud proposed that there
were 5 stages of development.
Freud believed that few
people successfully
completed all 5 of the stages.
Instead, he felt that most
people tied up their libido at one of
the stages, which prevented them
from using that energy at a later
stage.
 STAGE EROGENOUS ZONE FIXATION

Oral (birth to 18 months) Mouth Drinking , eating, smoking or nail biting

Anal (18-32 months) Anus Anal retentive and anal expulsive

Phallic (3 – 6 years) Genitals Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex

Latency (6- puberty)

Genital (puberty +) Genitals

 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
“The principle goal of education
is to create men who are
capable of doing new things
,not simply to repeating what
other generations have done –
men who are creative, inventive
and discovers”.
JEAN PIAGET
Cognitive development
theory
• Children "construct" their understanding
of the world through their active
involvement and interactions.
• Studied his 3 children to focus not on
what they knew but how they knew it.
 • Described children's understanding as their "schemas” and how they use: –
assimilation
– accommodation.

-- adaptation
• Schema:
– The term “schema” to refer to the cognitive
structures by which individuals intellectually
adapt to and organize their environment.
• Assimilation:
– This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing
or previously created cognitive structure or schema.
• Accommodation:
– This is the process of creating a new schema.
• Adaptation
– An attempt to create an accurate view of the world/info/
stimuli around us. ( assimilation + accommodation )
• Equilibration
– Achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation
– Disequilibrium
•this means there is a discrepancy
between what is perceived and
what is understood. We then exert
effort through assimilation and
 accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages
• Sensori-motor
– Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his senses and motor
abilities to understand the world
• Pre-operation
– Ages 2-7: the child uses metal representations of
objects and is able to use symbolic thought and
language
• Concrete operations
– Ages 7-11; the child uses logical operations or
principles when solving problems
• Formal operations
– Ages 12 up; the use of logical operations in a
systematic fashion and with the ability to use
abstractions
 Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages

• Stage 1 : Sensory Motor

Stage.(birth to infancy)
– This is the stage when child who is
initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking, and reaching becomes
more organized in his movement
and activity.
Erikson's
Stages of
Psychosocial
Development
 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
• Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical
moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning
behind people’s answers
• Proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning:
preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
• Each level is based on the degree to which a person
conforms to conventional standards of society
• Each level has two stages that represent different
degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
 Lev Vygotsky
Socio-Cultural Theory
• Definition
– Sociocultural theory results from the dynamic
interaction between a person and the surrounding
social and cultural forces.
– 3 claims of Vygotsky
– a) Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools
– b) Functioning emerges out of social processes
– c) Developmental methods (Zone of Proximal
Development)
• Strategies to utilize the benefits of ZPD

• a) Scaffolding –requires demonstration, while

controlling the environment so that one can take
things step by step.
• b) Reciprocal teaching – open dialog between
student and teacher which goes beyond simple
question and answer session.
• Vygotsky theorized that human development is not
something that is fixed and eternal. It will change as a
result of historical development.

Cultural Influences
– a) Imitative learning
– b) Instructed learning
– c) Collaborative learning
 Principles

– a) Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given

age.
– b) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.
5 Main Points

• a) Use of Zone of Proximal Development

• b) Interaction with other people is important for
cognitive growth
• c) Culture can make daily living more efficient and
effective.
• d) Advanced mental methods start through social
activities.
• e) Increase of the independent use of language and
thought during a child’s first few years of life.
 Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory or
bioecological theory
• The varied systems of the environment
and the interrelationships among the
systems shape a child's development.
• Both the environment and biology
influence the child's development. •
 The environment affects the child and
the child influences the
environment
Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological
Model
• The microsystem - activities and interactions in the
child's immediate surroundings: parents, school,
friends, etc.
• The mesosystem - relationships among the entities
involved in the child's microsystem: parents'
interactions with teachers, a school's interactions
with the daycare provider
• The exosystem - social institutions which affect
children indirectly: the parents' work settings and
policies, extended family networks, mass media,
community resources
• The macrosystem - broader cultural values, laws
and governmental resources
• The chronosystem - changes which occur during a
child's life, both personally, like the birth of a
sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi war.
 Outline of 20th Century Theories
• Psychoanalytical Theories
– Psychosexual: Sigmund Freud
– Psychosocial: Erik Erikson
• Cognitive Theories
– Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget
– Socio-cultural: Lev Vygotsky
• Systems Theories
 – Ecological Systems: Urie Bronfenbrenner
Students with Exceptionalities
What is Special Education?

Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the

parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a
disability.
Before 1975 and the passage of the first federal
special education law, four million children with
disabilities did not receive the help they needed in school and
another one million were completely excluded from school.
Discrimination and the Beginning of
Change
• Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education
decision clarifying that “separate cannot be equal,”
some professionals began questioning whether
separate classes provided students with disabilities
with an appropriate education
• After decades of research, what had become clear was
that the special education was not just a means of
assisting children with disabilities; it had also become
a means of discriminating against students who
might be perceived by educators as more challenging
to reach
Prevalence of Students with
Disabilities
• Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been
estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the
 school-age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size
classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals
will exhibit one or more exceptionalities
• Students with specific learning disabilities represent approximately
half of all those receiving special education, followed by speech or
language impairments, mental retardation, and emotional
disabilities
Providing an Unwavering Commitment
• At no point in history have we, as a nation, taken such
bold and noble measures to mandate the educational
rights of all children, including those with disabilities
and exceptionalities
• Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and the
guarantee for a free and appropriate public education,
the courts have repeatedly and consistently ruled that
schools simply must provide the necessary resources to
 teach all children, regardless of the physical or mental handicaps
they may manifest.

The Law and Exceptional Children

• PL 94-142🡪 Education for all handicapped children act (1975)
• First law to clearly define the rights of disabled children to free
appropriate public education
• It requires the school systems to include the parents when meeting
about the child or making decisions about his/ her education
• It mandated an individualized education program (IEP)
which must include short and long term goals
• It also requires that the child be placed in the least
restrictive environment

Least Restrictive Environment

• "Least restrictive environment" means that a student who has a
disability should have the opportunity to be educated with non-
disabled peers, to the greatest extent possible.
• They should have access to the general education
curriculum, extracurricular activities, or any other
program that non-disabled peers would be able to
access
• The student should be provided with supplementary
aids and services necessary to achieve educational
goals if placed in a setting with non-disabled peers
 Individualized Education Program
(IEP)
• If team members decide that a student is
eligible for special education, they then prepare
an IEP
• This document summarizes all of the
information gathered concerning the student,
sets the expectations of what the student will
learn over the next year, and it prescribes the
 types and amount of special services the student will
receive.
• Must be received and updated annually
 Required Components of an IEP
• Must address how the student’s disability
affects involvement and progress in the
general education
• Annual goals and short term objectives
• Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who
 do not have disabilities, accommodations for testing,
dates of effectiveness of IEP

The Law and Exceptional Children

• PL 98-199🡪 Education of the Handicapped Act
Amendments (1983)
• Allows for federal funding to create parent training and
information centers so that parents can learn
how to protect the rights of their child
• Also provided financial incentives for
transition services from school to adult living
for students with disabilities
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 101-476🡪 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)(1990)
• Renamed earlier laws and their amendments
• More importantly, it replaced the word
“handicapped” with the word “disabled”,
therefore expanding services for these
students
• It strengthened the law’s commitment to greater
inclusion in community schools
Accomplishments and
Disappointments of
Special Education Law
• The passage of federal special education law
was revolutionary and it had many positive
effects; many students who had been
 completely left out of the public school system were
now guaranteed an education
• However, the passage of the law did not address all the
issues of educating students with disabilities
Confidentiality
• IDEA specifies that information regarding a
student’s disability is highly confidential
 • That information may not be shared with anyone
who is not directly working with the
student
• Once records are not longer needed, a
procedure must be in place so that they
are destroyed
Who Receives Special Education?
 disabilities
• Specific learning • Hearing impairments •
Orthopedic impairments
• Speech or language • Other health
impairments impairments
• Autism
• Mental retardation
• Traumatic brain injury
• Emotional disturbance
• Multiple disabilities
• Deaf/ blindness (both)
• Developmental delays • Visual impairments
Educational Practices
• Inclusive Practices…lots of debates!

• Inclusion is a belief system shared by every member of a

school as a learning community about the responsibility of
educating all students so that they can reach their potential.
• Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted and talented, those who are
at risk for failure because of their life circumstances, those with disabilities,
and those who are average learners.

• Accommodations…mark in book, separate setting, extended

time, read alouds, reduced number of items per page,
alternate test

Inclusion
• In today’s schools, what is considered
inclusive practice varies widely depending on
 state and local policies related to inclusion, the resources
available, teacher and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community support
• It may look like an EC teacher who is in your room every
day for the entire class period or a few times a week for ½
a class period

Implications
• Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina are reporting all too
often the hardships they face due to the lack of available resources
• The state must do all within its means to secure the necessary funding of
exceptional children so that no child has to use materials that are worn,
out of date, or even worse, contain information that is no
longer current
• It is painfully obvious that state funds are insufficient to
meet the needs of North Carolina’s exceptional children by
providing them the resources that are required for a sound
education

What EC teachers are Saying

• Success must never be based on single test
scores
• No other issue has raised more
concern with EC teachers than that
of paperwork
• HUGE SHORTAGE!!
 What about Gifted and Talented Students?

• IDEA does not provide for special

education for these students
• Only 30 states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented
• Important to note that sometimes students with
disabilities are also gifted and talented

What is Giftedness?
• Gifted and talented students are those identified by
professionally qualified persons who by virtue of
outstanding abilities are capable of high performance
• Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across
intellectual areas, within a specific academic or arts-
 related area, or unusual organizational power to bring about desired
results
• These children may require differentiated educational programs and
services beyond those normally provided by the regular school
program in order to realize their contribution to self and society

Prevalence
• Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
• On average, school districts serve 12% of
students under the “gifted” label
• Depending on the state, the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22%
of students being served
 Characteristics
• Students who are gifted usually display curiosity,
a strong need to know and to understand how
the world works
• A student who is gifted may understand
language and mathematics at an earlier age than
is typical and become known to parents and
teachers by these skills
• They may bring high energy levels to school tasks, may
display characteristics of perfectionism

Educational Practices
• Ability Grouping
• Full time or part time separate classes
• Specialized schools
• Cluster Grouping
• Inclusive practices
• Acceleration
• Enrichment
• Differentiation
 Individual Differences
(Student Diversity)
Individual Benefits of Diversity in Differences
Factors the Classroom
 Classroom Strategies
for Student Diversity

Individual Differences
Factors
✔Socioeconomic Status
✔Thinking/Learning Style
✔Exceptionalities

Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
✔Students' self-awareness is enhanced b
diversity
✔Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development
 Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
✔ Student diversity prepares learners for
their role as responsible members of the
society
✔ Student diversity can promote harmony
 Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
✔ Student diversity prepares learners
for their role as responsible members
of the society
✔ Student diversity can promote harmony
Classroom Strategies for
Student Diversity
✔ Encourage learners to share their personal
history and experiences
✔ Integrate learning experiences and activities which
promote students' multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.

Classroom Strategies for

Student Diversity
✔ Aside from highlighting diversity, identify
patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.
✔ Communicate high expectations to students
from all sub-groups.
✔ Use varied instructional methods to accommodate
student diversity in learning styles.

✔ Vary the examples you use to illustrate

concepts in order to provide multiple
contexts that are relevant to students
from diverse backgrounds.
✔ Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles
by allowing them personal choice and decision-making
opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they
will learn it.

✔ Diversify your methods of assessing and

evaluating student learning.
✔ Purposely, form small-discussion groups of
students from diverse backgrounds. You can form
groups of students with different
learning styles, different cultural
backgrounds, etc.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- is an educational theory, first developed by Howard Gardner, that
describes an array of different kinds of intelligences exhibited by
human beings.

Howard Gardner
- he believes that different intelligences may be independent
abilities and all of us possess the intelligences but in varying
degrees of strength and skill.
- the theory was first laid out in Gardner’s
1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences and has been
further refined in subsequent years.
 Learning/Thinking
styles and multiple

intelligences
LEARNING/THINKING STYLEs
● refer to the preferred way an individual processes
information.
● they describe a person’s typical mode of thinking,
remembering or problem solving.

SENSORY PREFERENCES
Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of
sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the
following types :

● Visual Learn
● Auditory Learner
● Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learners
 Visual Learners
tend to learn better when a variety of visual aids are
used.
● Visual- iconic
一 refers to those who are more interested
in visual imagery such as film, graphic
displays, picture
● Visual- symbolic
一 refers to those who feel comfortable
with abstract symbolism such as
mathematical formula or the written
word.
AUDITORY LEARNERS
● receive information best by
listening
 ○ Listeners- they remember things said to
them and make the information their own
○ Talkers- they are the one who prefer to talk
and discuss. ( auditory- verbal processors)

Tactile/ kinesthetic learners

they tend to prefer learning by
doing/ experiencing things.
Characteristics of Tactile Learners
● Is good at sports ● Can’t
sit still for long ● Is not
great at spelling. ● Does not
have great handwriting ● Like
science lab.
● Studies with loud music on.
● Like adventure
books, movies.
● Likes role playing.
● Takes breaks when studying.
● Builds models.
● Is involved in martial arts, dance ● Is fidgety
during lectures.
Global-analytic Continuum
● Analytic- they tend toward
the linear, step- by- step
processes of learning. (tree
seers)
● Global- they lean towards non- linear
thought and tend to see the whole
pattern rather than particle elements.
(forest seers)

● Left- brain/right-
brain continuum
● left- brained PERSON- is
portrayed as the linear.
(analytic)
● right- brained person- is
viewed as non- linear.

(global)
● Successive processor (left
brain)
○ details leading to a

conceptual understanding.
Simultaneous processor (Right
 Brain) general concept going on to
specifics.
LEFT BRAIN( ANALYTIC) Right brain(global)
5. RESPONDS TO LOGIC
6. PLANS AHEAD
Successive Hemispheric Style
7. RECALLS PEOPLE’S NAME
1. VERBAL
8. SPEAKS WITH FEW GESTURES
2. RESPONDS TO WORD MEANING
9. PUNCTUAL
3. SEQUENTIAL
10. PREFERS FORMAL STUDY
4. PROSESSES INFORMATION
DESIGN
LINEARLY
11. PREFERS BRIGHT LIGHTS WHILE 5. RESPONDS TO EMOTION
STUDYING. 6. IMPULSIVE
7. RECALLS PEOPLE FACES
Simultaneous Hemispheric Style 8. GESTURES WHEN SPEAKING
1. VISUAL 9. LESS PUNCTUAL
2. RESPONDS TO TONE OF VOICE 10. PREFERS SOUND/ MUSIC
3. RANDOM BACKGROUND WHILE STUDYING
4. PROCESSES INFORMATION 11. PREFERS FREQUENT MOBILITY
IN VARIED ORDER WHILE STUDYING
 Intelligences
An ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or
fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures.

9 DISTINCT FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE

1. VISUAL/ SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (PICTURE SMART)
learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
2. VERBAL/ LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART)
learning through the spoken and written
word.
3. MATHEMATICAL/ LOGICAL ( NUMBER SMART/ LOGIC SMART)
learning through reasoning and problem solving.
Intelligences
4. BODILY/ KINESTHETIc ( BODY SMART)
learning through interaction with one’s
environment.
5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART) learning through patterns,
rhythms and music.
6. INTRAPERSONAl (SELF SMART) learning through
feelings, values and attitudes.
7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART)
learning through interaction with others.
8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART)
learning through classification,categories and hierarchies.
9. EXISTENTIAL (SPIRIT SMART) learning by seeing the
“big picture”
 Students with Exceptionalities
What is Special Education?
• Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the
parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a
disability
• Before 1975 and the passage of the first federal
special education law, four million children with
disabilities did not receive the help they needed in
 school and another one million were
completely excluded from school
Discrimination and the
Beginning of Change
• Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision
clarifying that “separate cannot be equal,” some professionals
began questioning whether separate classes provided students
with disabilities with an appropriate education
• After decades of research, what had become clear was
that the special education was not just a means of
assisting children with disabilities; it had also become a means
of discriminating against students who might be perceived by
educators as more challenging to reach
Prevalence of Students with
Disabilities
• Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been
estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-
 age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an
average-size classroom of 25 students, it is
conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more
exceptionalities
• Students with specific learning disabilities represent
approximately half of all those receiving special education,
followed by speech or language impairments, mental
retardation, and emotional disabilities
Providing an Unwavering
 Commitment
• At no point in history have we, as a nation, taken such bold
and noble measures to mandate the educational rights of all
children, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities
• Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and the guarantee
for a free and appropriate public education, the courts have
repeatedly and consistently ruled that schools simply must
provide the necessary resources to teach all children,
regardless of the physical or mental handicaps they
may manifest.
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 94-142🡪 Education for all handicapped children act (1975)
• First law to clearly define the rights of disabled children to free
appropriate public education
• It requires the school systems to include the parents when
meeting about the child or making decisions about his/ her
education
• It mandated an individualized education program (IEP) which
must include short and long term goals
• It also requires that the child be placed in the least restrictive
environment

Least Restrictive Environment

• "Least restrictive environment" means that a student who
has a disability should have the opportunity to be educated
with non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent possible.
• They should have access to the general education curriculum,
extracurricular activities, or any other program that non-
disabled peers would be able to access
• The student should be provided with supplementary aids and
services necessary to achieve educational goals if placed in a
setting with non-disabled peers
Individualized Education Program
(IEP)
• If team members decide that a student is eligible for
special education, they then prepare an IEP
• This document summarizes all of the information
gathered concerning the student, sets the expectations
of what the student will learn over the next year, and it
prescribes the types and amount of special services the
student will receive.
• Must be received and updated annually
 Required Components of an IEP

• Must address how the student’s disability affects

involvement and progress in the general education
• Annual goals and short term objectives
• Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who do not
 have disabilities, accommodations for testing, dates
of effectiveness of IEP
The Law and Exceptional Children

• PL 98-199🡪 Education of the Handicapped Act

Amendments (1983)
• Allows for federal funding to create parent training and
information centers so that parents can learn how to
protect the rights of their child
• Also provided financial incentives for transition services
from school to adult living for students with disabilities

The Law and Exceptional Children

• PL 101-476🡪 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA)(1990)
• Renamed earlier laws and their amendments
• More importantly, it replaced the word “handicapped”
with the word “disabled”, therefore expanding services for
these students
• It strengthened the law’s commitment to greater inclusion
in community schools
 Accomplishments and Disappointments of
Special Education Law
• The passage of federal special education law was
revolutionary and it had many positive effects; many
students who had been completely left out of the
public school system were now guaranteed an
education
• However, the passage of the law did not address all
the issues of educating students with disabilities
Confidentiality
• IDEA specifies that information regarding a
student’s disability is highly confidential
• That information may not be shared with anyone
who is not directly working with the student
• Once records are not longer needed, a procedure
must be in place so that they are destroyed
Confidentiality
• IDEA specifies that information regarding a
student’s disability is highly confidential
• That information may not be shared with
anyone who is not directly working with the
student
• Once records are not longer needed, a
procedure must be in place so that they are
destroyed
 Inclusion
• In today’s schools, what is considered inclusive
practice varies widely depending on state and
local policies related to inclusion, the resources
available, teacher and administrator understanding
and commitment, and parent and community support
• It may look like an EC teacher who is in your room
every day for the entire class period or a few times a
week for ½ a class period

Implications
• Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina are
reporting all too often the hardships they face due to the
lack of available resources
• The state must do all within its means to secure the necessary
funding of exceptional children so that no child has to use
materials that are worn, out of date, or even worse, contain
information that is no longer current
• It is painfully obvious that state funds are insufficient to meet
the needs of North Carolina’s exceptional children by providing
them the resources that are required for a sound education
 What EC teachers are Saying

• Success must never be based on single test

scores
• No other issue has raised more concern with
EC teachers than that of paperwork
• HUGE SHORTAGE!!
What about Gifted and Talented

Students?
• IDEA does not provide for special education
for these students
• Only 30 states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented
• Important to note that sometimes students
with disabilities are also gifted and talented
 What is Giftedness?
• Gifted and talented students are those identified by
professionally qualified persons who by virtue of
outstanding abilities are capable of high performance
• Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across
intellectual areas, within a specific academic or arts-
related area, or unusual organizational power to bring
about desired results
• These children may require differentiated educational
programs and services beyond those normally provided by
the regular school program in order to realize their
contribution to self and society

Prevalence
• Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
• On average, school districts serve 12% of
students under the “gifted” label
• Depending on the state, the prevalence may
range from 2 to 22% of students being
served
 Characteristics
• Students who are gifted usually display curiosity, a
strong need to know and to understand how the
world works
• A student who is gifted may understand language and
mathematics at an earlier age than is typical and
become known to parents and teachers by these
skills
• They may bring high energy levels to school
tasks, may display characteristics of perfectionism
 Educational Practices
• Ability Grouping
• Full time or part time separate classes
• Specialized schools
• Cluster Grouping
• Inclusive practices
• Acceleration
• Enrichment
• Differentiation
 MODULE 10

Edward Chace Tolman

(1886-1959)
• Born in Newton, Massachusetts
• Received academic degrees in
Electrochemistry and Psychology
(M.A. 1912, Ph.D. 1915)
• He was released from
Northwestern University for “lack of
teaching success”, but more likely it
was because of his pacifism during wartime
• His theory of learning can be looked on as a
blend of Gestalt theory and behaviorism

• He saw little value in the introspective

approach
• He agreed on molar behavior rather than
molecular behavior

Molar Behavior
• Purposive
• Tolman’s major work was entitled
Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men
 • Related to the Gestalt theory
• Tolman felt that whole behavior patterns had a meaning
that would be lost if studied from an elementistic
viewpoint
• It is in contrast with the idea of molecular behavior
Purposive Behaviorism
Explains goal-directed behavior
• behavior is PURPOSIVE, COGNITIVE & MOLAR
Example: the searching behavior of a
rat in a maze will persist until food
is found
• Goal or Purpose of Rat: To find
the food
• The purposive behavior is the fact
that the rat still keeps up with the
maze
 Major Theoretical Concepts
• According to Tolman, taking his lead from the
Gestalt theorists, learning is essentially a
process of discovering what leads to what in
the environment.
• Emphasizer – an organism’s drive state
determines which aspect of the environment
will be emphasized in its perceptual field.

• Principle of Least Effort – when an organism

chooses the one that will require the shortest
 route/shortcuts or anything that will only
require minimum amount of energy.

• Cognitive map – a picture of something that an

organism usually is encountering when it do
something.
Example: when a person walks on the same street
everyday, he will know that when he looks/turns
to his left, he will see this and when he looks/turns
to the right, he will see that.
 Vicarious Trial and Error
• Vicarious Trial and Error - characteristic of rats wherein
they consistently stop or pause at choice points.
• Tests in this type of trial and error are
tested cognitively rather than
behaviorally.
Learning vs. Performance
 • Latent Learning – learning that is not
translated into performance
⦿ Tolman and Honzik (1930) ran an experiment involving
3 groups of rats learning to solve a maze. ⦿
The first group was regularly reinforced. The
second one had to wait until the 11th day.
The third one was Tolman’s interest.
⦿ After the experiment, he concluded that the
performance of those who were reinforced after the
11th day, compared to the one which was reinforced
continually, was much better if not equally better.
• 3 things that Tolman observed:

(1)There is a slight improvement in the performance

of the group that was never really reinforced.
 (2)The reinforced group showed steady
improvement throughout the duration.
(3)When the reinforcement was introduced,
performance vastly improved.
• The results from the experiment proved Tolman’s
statement that reinforcements are performance
variable not a learning variable.
• Latent Extinction – occurs simply because the
organism was presented in a situation where a
reinforcer is no longer present. Such extinction does
not depend on the performance of non-reinforced
response.
Response Learning vs. Place Learning
• Response Learning – learning of
specific responses that are effective in
solving a problem and thereby
providing reinforcement.

• Place learning – learning where an

object is located. For Tolman, once
 the location of an object is known, it can be reached
by any number of alternate routes.
Reinforcement Expectancy
• Tolman predicted that if reinforcers were changed,
behavior would be disrupted because in
Reinforcement Expectancy, a particular reinforcer
becomes a part of what is expected.
• Cognitive dissonance – negative drive state and the
person experiencing it seeks ways to reduce it, just as
the person experiencing hunger seeks to reduce
hunger drive.
Individual Difference
Variables
• As per suggested by Tolman,
• H = heredity
• A = age
• T = previous training
• E = special endocrine, drug, or vitamin
conditions
 Intervening Variables
• Created by the theorist to aid in explaining the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables

• In-between behavior and environmental and individual

difference variables
• Examples: Demand, Appetite, Differentiation, Motor Skill,
Hypotheses, Biases

Behaviorist Perspective

Pavlov,Thorndike,Watson,Ski nner
 Behaviorism:

Behaviorism
 • focuses on the study of observable and measurable
behavior.
It • emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through
conditioning and reinforcement ( rewards and
punishment )
•It does not give much attention to the mind , and the
possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
•Contributions in the development of the behaviorist
theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike
and Skinner.
•a Russian psychologist is well
known for his work in
classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution.
Ivan Pavlov
•Most renowned experiment involved meat, a
dog and a bell. Measuring the dog’s salivation
in order to study digestion.
Classical Conditioning
•Stimulus generalization- once the dog has learned to
salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at
other similar sound.
•Extinction- if you stop pairing the bell with the food,
salivation will eventually cease in response to the
bell.
•Spontaneous recovery- extinguished responses can
be recovered after an elapsed time, but will soon
extinguish again if the dog is not presented with
food.
•Discrimination- the dog could learn to discriminate
between similar bells and discern which bell would
result in the presentation of food and which would
not.
•Higher-order conditioning- once the dog has been
conditioned to associate the bell with the food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light
may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of
the light without the sound of the bell.
•He explained that learning is the
result of associations forming
between stimuli and responses.
Such association or habits become
 strengthened or weakened by nature and frequency
of the S-R pairings.
•The main principle of connectionism was that learning
could be adequately Edward explained without
considering any Thorndike unobservable internal
states.
Theory of connectionism
 - stated that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed.

Three primary law

1. Law of effect- S-R is strengthened when the consequence is
positive and weakened when the consequence is negative.
2. Law of exercise- when S-R bond is practice the stronger it
will become.
3. Law of readiness- the more readiness the learner has to
respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond
between them.
Principles derived from theory of connectionism:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (law of
effect/exercise).
2. A series of S-R connection can be chained together
if they belong to the same action sequence (law of
readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because previously
encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned.
• work with Pavlov's ideas
•Considered that humans are born with a few
reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and
rage.
•Experiment on Albert and a white rat
John •His work did clearly show the role of
 Watson conditioning in the development of
emotional responses
certain
stimuli.
 • operant conditioning

•Reinforcement
+R-any stimulus given or added
to increase the response.
-R- any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of a Burrhus
response when it is withdrawn or Frederick
removed.
Skinner
Albert Bandura:
Social / Observational Learning
• Basic Premise
• We learn behavior through observation
• Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through observing
consequences of behaviors of others
• Modelling
• Observe behavior of others and repeat the behavior
• Bobo doll studies (1963)
• Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through exposure
to a model
Factors Influencing Modeling: Impact
Tendency to Imitate
• Characteristics of the models: similarity, age, sex,
status, prestige, simple vs. complex behavior
• Characteristics of observers: Low self-confidence,
low self-esteem, reinforcement for imitation
• Reward consequences of behavior: Directly
witnessing associated rewards
 The Observational Learning Process: 4

Steps
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Production processes
• Incentive and motivational processes
Step 1: Attentional Processes

• Developing cognitive processes to pay attention to

a model- more developed processes allow for
better attention
• Must observe the model accurately enough to
imitate behavior
Step 2: Retention Processes

• To later imitate behavior, must remember aspects of

the behavior
• Retain information in 2 ways:
 – Imaginal internal representation: Visual image Ex: Forming
a mental picture
– Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior Ex: Silently
rehearsing steps in behavior
Step 3: Production Processes

• Taking imaginal and verbal representations and

translating into overt behavior- practice behaviors
• Receive feedback on accuracy of behavior- how
well have you imitated the modeled behavior?
• Important in mastering difficult skills
– Ex: Driving a car

Step 4: Incentive and Motivational

Processes
• With incentives, observation more quickly
becomes action, pay more attention, retain more
information
• Incentive to learn influenced by anticipated
reinforcements
Aspects of the Self: Self-reinforcement and
Self-efficacy
• Self-reinforcement: Rewards or punishments given to oneself
for reaching, exceeding or falling short of personal
expectations
– Ex: Pride, shame, guilt
• Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to cope with life
– Meeting standards: Enhances self-efficacy
– Failure to meet standards: Reduces self-efficacy
 Self-Efficacy

• High self-efficacy
– Believe can deal effectively with life events
– Confident in abilities
– Expect to overcome obstacles effectively

• Low self-efficacy
– Feel unable to exercise control over life
 – Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile

Sources of Information in Determining

Self-efficacy
• Performance attainment
– Most influential
– Role of feedback
 – More we achieve, more we believe we can achieve
– Leads to feelings of competency and control
Sources of Information in Determining
Self-efficacy
• Vicarious experience
– Seeing others perform successfully
– If they can, I can too
• Verbal persuasion
 – Verbal reminders of abilities
• Physiological and emotional arousal
– Related to perceived ability to cope
– Calm, composed feelings: Higher self-efficacy
– Nervous, agitated feelings: Lower self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling and

Self-efficacy
• Childhood
– Infancy: Direct modeling immediately following
observation, develop self-efficacy with control over
environment
– By age 2: Developed attentional, retention and
production processes to model behavior some time
after observation, not immediately
Developmental Stages of Modeling and
 Self-efficacy
• Adolescence
– Involves coping with new demands
– Success depends on level of self-efficacy
established during childhood
Developmental Stages of Modeling and
 Self-efficacy
• Adulthood: 2 Periods
– Young adulthood:
• Adjustments: Career, marriage, parenthood
• High self-efficacy to adjust successfully
– Middle adulthood:
• Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life
• Need to find opportunities to continue to enhance self-efficacy
Developmental Stages of Modeling and

Self-efficacy
• Old age:
– Decline in mental/physical function, retirement
– Requires reappraisal of abilities
 – Belief in ability to perform a task is key throughout
the lifespan
Application of Social Learning Theory:

Behavior Modification
• Fears and phobias
– Guided participation: Observe and imitate
– Covert modeling: Imaginal
• Anxiety
– Fear of medical treatment
– Test anxiety
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory: Self-efficacy

• Age and gender differences

• Physical appearance
• Academic performance
• Career choice and job performance
• Physical health
• Mental health
• Coping with stress

Assessment of Bandura’s Theory:

Television and Aggressive Behaviors
• Relationship between watching violence and
imitating violence
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory
• Strengths:
– Focus on observable behavior- research support
– Practical application to real-world problems
– Large-scale changes
 "In psychology ... we have wholes
which, instead of being the sum of
parts existing independently, give
their parts specific functions or
properties that can only be defined
in relation to the whole in question."

Wolfgang Köhler: Human

Perception. (La perception
humaine, 1930)
 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

The term “gestalt” means “form” or

“configuration”.

Proponents are Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang

Kohler and Kurt Kofka

They studied perception and concluded that

perceivers (or learners) were not passiv e, but
rather active.
 GESTALT PRINCIPLES

✔ Law of Proximity
✔ Law of Similarity
✔ Law of Closure
✔ Law of Good Continuation
✔ Law of Good Pragnanz
✔ Law of Figure / Ground
 ✔ Law of
Proximity
❑ Elements that are
closer together will
be perceived as a
coherent object.
 ✔ Law of
Similarity
❑ Elements that
look similar will
be perceived as
part of the same
form.
 ✔ Law of
Closure
❑ We tend to fill the
gaps or “close” the
figures we perceive.
✔ Law of Good
Continuation
❑ Individuals have the
tendency to continue
contours whenever the
elements of the
pattern establish an
implied direction.
✔ Law of Good
Pragnanz

❑ The stimulus will be

organized into as
good a figure as
possible.
✔ Law of Figure
/ Ground
❑ We tend to pay
attention and
perceive things in
the foreground first.
 Gestalt Principles and the
Teaching-Learning Process

“An individual hasinner and

outer forcesthat affect his
perceptions and also his
learning.”

Kurt Lewin
Inner Forces
▪ Motivation
▪ Attitudes
▪ Feelings
Outer forces
▪ Attitude
▪ Behavior
 MODULE 13
INFORMATION PROCESSING
 Jerome Bruner
Born in New York City, October 1, 1915. He received his
A.B. degree from Duke University in 1937 and his Ph.D in
1947 from Harvard.

He was on the faculty in the Department of

Psychology at Harvard University from 1952-1972.
Next, he was at Oxford from 1972-1980. Later, he joined
the New York University of Law.

Jerome Bruner
In 1960, he published The Process of Education; a
landmark book which led to much experimentation and a broad
range of educational programs in 1960’s.
 Howard Gardner and other young researchers worked
under Bruner and were much-influenced by his work.
In the early 70’s, he left Harvard to teach in University
of Oxford for several years. He returned to Harvard in 1979.
 BRUNER'S MAIN CONCEPTS
✔ Three ways to represent knowledge
✔ Spiral Curriculum
✔ Principles of instruction by Bruner
✔ Discovering Learning
✔ Four major aspects that should address in theory of
instruction
✔ Four things about object
✔ Several Kinds of Categories
 Three Ways to Represent Knowledge
1. Enactive Representation
At the earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions on physical objects and the
outcomes of these actions.
2. Iconic Representation
This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures.
 3. Symbolic Representation
In this third stage, the learner has developed the
ability to think in abstract terms.

Spiral Curriculum
Teachers must revisit the curriculum
by teaching the same content in
different ways depending on students’
developmental levels.
 Readiness
Instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn.
 Spiral Organization
Instruction must be structured so that it
can be easily grasped by the student.
Going Beyond the
Information Given
 Instruction should be designed to
facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the
gaps.
Discovering Learning
Refers to obtaining knowledge for
oneself.
Predisposition to Learn
He introduced the ideas of “readiness
for learning.”
Structure of Knowledge
The ways in which a body of
knowledge can be structured so that it
can be most readily grasped by the
learner.
Effective Sequencing
 No one sequencing will fit every
learner, but in general, the lesson can be
presented in increasing difficulty.
 Reinforcement
Rewards and punishment should be
selected and paced appropriately.
 Criterial Attributes
Required characteristics for
inclusion of an object in a category.
 How the criterial attributes
are combined
The second rule prescribes how the
criterial attributes are combined.
Weight to various
properties
 The third rule assigns weight to
various properties.
 Sets acceptance limits on
the attributes
The fourth rule sets acceptance
limits on attributes.
 Identity Categories
Categories include objects based on
their attributes or features.
 Equivalent Categories
Equivalence can be determined by
affective criteria, which render objects
equivalent by emotional reactions,
functional criteria, based on related
functions.
 Coding Systems
Categories that serve to recognize
sensory input.
 The principles of Bruner launched the
notion that people interpret world mostly
in terms of similarities in differences. This
is a valuable contribution to how individuals
construct their own models or view of the
world.
David Ausubel : Meaningful Verbal
Learning & Subsumption Theory
• David P. Ausubel was born in 1918

• Grew up in Brooklyn, NY

• Attended the University of Pennsylvania, taking the pre-

medical course and majoring in Psychology
• In 1973 he retired from academic life to devote full time to his psychiatric
practice

• His principal interests in psychiatry have been general psychopathology, ego

development, drug addiction, and forensic psychiatry

• In 1976 he received the Thorndike Award from the American Psychological

Association for "Distinguished Psychological Contributions to Education".

Introduction
-Supported the theory that pupils form &
organise knowledge by themselves
-Emphasized the importance of verbal
learning / language-related learning which
he consider to be very effective for pupils of
the age 11 or 12 & above
-Pupils gradually learn to associate new
knowledge with existing concepts in their
mental structures
-To ensure meaningful teaching, necessary to
avoid rote memorization of facts. Pupils need
to manipulate ideas actively
Advance Organizer
-Presents an overview of the information to
be covered in detail during the exposition
that follows
-Can be classified : exposition or comparison
type
Advance Organizer of the
 Exposition Type
-While presenting new material
-Use beginning of lesson
-Presents several encompassing
generalisations where detailed contents will
be added later
Advance Organizer of the Comparison Type
-Useful when the knowledge to be presented is new
to pupils
-Compares new material with knowledge already
known by emphasising the similarities between 2
types of material & showing the information that
is to be learnt
-Ausubel’s teaching approach is deductive in nature
SPECIFIC
ADVANCE ORGANIZER
 Step 4:The pupils study specific
examples

Step 3:The teacher presents

examples
Step 2:The teacher explains
important terms
Step 1:The teacher presents general statement or abstraction of lesson

GENERAL
 Deductive Teaching Model: Advance Organizer as the basis of the
lesson
A concerned with how students learn large representational, superordinate and
amounts of meaningful material from combinatorial processes that occur
verbal/textual presentations in a learning during the reception of
information.

Meaningful Reception Learning

Theory

activities Learning is based on the

Meaningful learning results when new in learning is subsumption in which new
information is acquired by linking the material is related to relevant ideas in
new information in the learner's own the existing cognitive structure on a non-
cognitive structure A primary process verbatim basis (previous knowledge)

Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning

The processes of meaningful learning
• Ausubel proposed four processes by which
meaningful learning can occur :
• Derivative subsumption
• Correlative subsumption
• Superordinate learning
• Combinatorial learning
Derivative subsumption
• Describes the situation in which the new information pupils
learn is an instance or example of a concept that pupils have
already learned Example (Stage 1) :
• PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE : Let's suppose Ali have acquired a
basic concept such as "tree” – have green leave, branch, fruits
• Ali learn about a kind of tree that he have never seen before
“persimmon tree” - conforms to his previous understanding of
“tree’’
• His new knowledge of persimmon trees is attached to the
concept of tree, without substantially altering that concept in
any way
 Correlative subsumption
• more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption,
since it enriches the higher-level concept

Example (Stage 2) :
•Now, let's suppose Ali encounter a new kind of tree that has
red leaves, rather than green

• Accommodate this new information Ali have to alter or extend

your concept of “tree’’ to include the possibility
 of red leaves

Superordinate learning
Example (Stage 3) :
•Ali was well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees etc., but
pupils still did not know, until they were taught that these were all
examples of deciduous trees

•In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but
you did not know the concept itself until it was taught to pupils.
 Combinatorial learning
Example (Stage 3) :
•Ali learn about modification on the plants part, Ali might relate
it to previously acquired knowledge of how papyrus tree used
to produce paper
• It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea
that is comes from his previous knowledge (in a different, but related,
"branch")
• Students could think of this as learning by analogy
Principles of Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Learning
Theory within a classroom setting

• General ideas of a subject (general statement):

– Must be presented first
 – then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and
specificity.

• Instructional materials :
– should attempt to integrate new material with previously
presented information
– Using comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.
Principles of Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Learning
Theory within a classroom setting

• Advance organizers :
 – Instructors should incorporate advance organizers when
teaching a new concept

• Examples :
– Instructors should use a number
of examples and focus on both
similarities and differences.
The most important
single factor influencing
learning is what the
learner already knows..
 Gagné’s Conditions of
Learning
What is learning?
• Gagné believed that an external observer could recognize
learning by noting behavioral changes that remains persistent
over time (Gagné, 1974)
• He also stated that maturation is not learning because the
individual does not receive stimulation from the outside
environment (Gagné, 1974).
• Learning has two parts, one that is external to the learner and
one that is internal (Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1992).

Gagnè’s Conditions of Learning

Conditions of Learning
• Learning is an important causal factor in development
• Human learning is cumulative
 Learning of certain skills contributes to the
learning of more complex skills
• Human learning is both complex and diverse
• Learning is set of cognitive processes that transforms
the stimulation from the environment into capabilities
 Gagne’s Principle
•1) Different instruction is required for different
learning outcomes.
•(The 5 varieties of Learning)
•2) Learning hierarchies define what intellectual
skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.
•3) Events of learning operate on the learner in
ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
•(9 constructional events)

Five Varieties of Learning

•Verbal Information
•Intellectual Skills
•Motor Skills
 •Attitudes
•Cognitive Strategies

The five varieties of Learning

•The capability to declare or
Verbal Information state previously learned
material.
 •Discrimination.
Intellectual Skills •Concrete Concepts.
•Defined Concepts.
•Rules
•Higher-order rules
The five varieties of Learning
•Employing personal ways to
Cognitive Strategies guide learning, thinking, acting
and feeling. Organizing
thoughts.
 •Developing smoothness of
Motor Skills action, precision and timing.
The five varieties of Learning

•Capabilities that influence an

Attitudes individual’s choice about the
kinds of actions to take.
•E.g. Human model behavior.

Nine Instructional Events

1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objectives (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
CONSTRUCTIVISM:
KNOWLEDGE CONTRUCTION/
CONCEPT LEARNING
 Constructivism
- is a theory of learning based on the idea
that learner’s construct knowledge for
themselves.
 TWO VIEWS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
INDIVIDUAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
(COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM)
- it emphasizes individual, internal construction of
knowledge.
 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
- it emphasizes that knowledge exists in a social context and
is initially shared with others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. Learners construct understanding.
2. New learning depends on current understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning
tasks.
ORGANIZING
 KNOWLEDGE
People store knowledge in many
different ways.
 CONCEPTS
- is a way of grouping or categorizing
objects or events in our mind.
 Concepts as feature lists
- involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the
concept.
DEFINING FEATURE- characteristics present in
all instances.
 CORRELATIONAL FEATURE- is one that is
present in many positive instances but not
essential for concept membership.

Concepts as prototypes
prototype- is an idea or a visual image
of a “typical example”.
Concepts as exemplars
exemplars- represent a variety of
examples.
SCHEMA
- is an organized body of knowledge about
something.

SCRIPT
- is a schema that includes a series of
predictable events about a specific activity
 .
What is transfer of learning?
• “Transfer of learning is about how teachers want their
students to apply the knowledge and the skills they
learn in class to other situation.”

Transfer of learning is about….

• When one recognizes a situation as something similar
in a way to what he has learned before, his tendency is
to use the knowledge and skills he has learned to this
situation
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
 CONDITIONS AND
TYPES OF PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING LEARNING

• Happens when learning in one context or

with one set of materials affects
performance in another context or with
other related materials.
• It is applying to another situation what was
previously learned.
• The circumstance of learning differs
significantly from situations when what is
learned is to be applied.
• The educational goals are not met until
transfer occurs. that's why transfer of
learning is a very important aspect of
instruction..
• Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context
improves performance
in some other context.
• Negative transfer
Refers to transfer between very similar contexts. Also referred
to as specific transfer.

• Far transfer

• Refers to transfer between context that on appearance seem

remote and alien to one another. Also called as general
transfer
 These principles are based on the factors that
affect transfer of learning.
Conditions/ factors affecting
transfer of learning Principle of transfer Implication

The more similar the two situations Involve students in learning

Similarity between two learning
situations
Degree of meaningfulness/
relevance of learning
Length of instructional time
are, the greater the chances that
learning from one situation will be
transferred to other situation
Meaningful learning leads to
greater transfer than rote learning
The longer the time spent in
situations and tasks that are similar
as possible to the situations where
they would apply the task
Remember to provide
opportunities for learners to link
new material to what they learned
in the past
To ensure transfer, teach a few

Conditions/ factors affecting transfer
of learning
Variety of learning experiences
Context for learner’s experiences
Focus on principles rather than task
instruction, the greater the
probability of transfer
Principle of transfer
Exposure to many examples and
opportunities for practice to
encourage transfer
Transfer of learning is most likely to
happen when learners discover that
what they learned is applicable to
various contexts
Principles transfer easier that facts.
topics in depth rather than many
topics tackled in a shallow manner
Implication
Illustrate new concepts and principles
with a variety of examples. Plan
activities that allow your learners to
practice their newly learned skills
Relate topic in one subject in one
subject to topics in other subjects or
disciplines. Relate it also to real life
situation
Zero in on principles related to each
topic together with strategies based
 on those principle s.
Emphasis on metacognition Student reflection improves transfer Encourage students to take
of learning responsibility for their own learning
and to reflect on what they learned.
 MODULE 19
Facilitating Learning and
Bloom’s Taxonomy’s of
Objectives
Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Knowledge
• remembering
•Memorizing
•Recognizing
•Recalling identification and
•Recall of information

Comprehension
• Interpreting
• Translating from one medium to another
• Describing in ones own words
• Organization and selection of facts and ideas
 Application
• Problem solving
• Applying information to produce some result
• Use of facts, rules and principles
 Analysis
• Subdividing something to show how it is put
together
• Finding the underlying structure of a
communication
• Identifying motives
• Separation of a whole into component parts
Synthesis
• Creating a unique, original product that may
be in verbal form or may be a physical object
• Combination of ideas to form a new whole
 Evaluation
• Making value decisions about issues
• Resolving controversies or differences of
opinion
• Development of opinions, judgements or
decisions
 Effective Questioning Techniques

• Pose the question first, before asking a

student to respond.
• Allow plenty of “think time” by waiting at
least 7-10 seconds before expecting students
to respond.
• Make sure you give all students the
opportunity to respond rather than relying on
volunteers.
• Hold students accountable by expecting,
requiring, and facilitating their participation
and contributions.
 from their
mistakes
• Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by
guiding students in the process of learning
Torrance’s Creativity Framework

• “father of Creativity”
• “professor of emeritus” of educational
psychology
• The “Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking”
• Many responses within a category For
example… … typing
styles
…typing styles
 …typing
styles

…typing styles
…typing styles

• Stretching or shifting the mind to

generate a variety of categories
For example…

…typing
cases …typing
styles …typing
sizes
• Adding details for interest or clarity
For example…
What specific idea will make the
idea easier to understand or
more
• Unique ideas that are relevant, but not
obvious For example…
Beginning of “the greatest” tea = ?
Design a new ______ that is better than the one you have
 Creative Problem Solving
Osborn’s Checklist the origin of Classical
Brainstorming is the root of creative
problem solving (CPS).
• A basic rule of Brainstorming is build onto
ideas already suggested. Alex Osborn, the
originator of classical brainstorming, first
communicated this. A checklist was
formulated as a means of transforming an
existing idea into a new one. The checklist
is designed to have a flexible, trial and
error type of approach.
The Checklist:
• Adapt? Is there anything else like this? What does this
tell you? Is the past comparable?
• Modify? Give it a new angle? Alter the colour, sound,
odour, meaning, motion, and shape?
• Magnify? Can anything be added, time, frequency,
height, length, strength? Can it be duplicated,
multiplied or exaggerated?
• Minify? Can anything be taken away? Made smaller?
 Lowered? Shortened? Lightened? Omitted? Broken up?
• Substitute? Different ingredients used? Other
material? Other processes? Other place? Other
approach? Other tone of voice? Someone else?
• Rearrange? Swap components? Alter the pattern,
sequence or layout? Change the pace or
schedule? Transpose cause and effect?
• Reverse? Opposites? Backwards? Reverse roles?
 Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek?
Transpose ‘+/-‘?
• Combine? Combine units, purposes, appeals or
ideas? A blend, alloy, or an ensemble?
Classical Brainstorming
• Avoid criticising ideas / suspend judgement. All ideas are as valid as
each other
• Listen to other ideas, and try to piggy back on them to other ideas.
• Free-wheeling. Don't censor any ideas, keep the meeting flow going.
• Avoid any discussion of ideas or questions, as these stop the flow of
ideas.
• Generate ideas - either in an unstructured way (anyone can say an idea
at any time) or structure (going round the table, allowing people to
pass if they have no new ideas).
• Clarify and conclude the session. Ideas that are identical can be
combined, all others should be kept. It is useful to get a consensus of
which ideas should be looked at further or what the next action and
timescale is.
 The following, based on Van
Gundy (1988’s) description, is a
very brief skeleton of a very rich
process, showing it in its full ‘6 x
2 stages’ form
 Stage 1
• : Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for
issues (concerns, challenges, opportunities, etc.) that
need to be tackled.
– Divergent techniques include ‘Wouldn’t It Be Nice If…’
(WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t It Be Awful If…’ (WIBAI) –
BRAINSTORMING to identify desirable outcomes, and
obstacles to be overcome.
– Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots
• Stage 2
( Highlighting ), expressed as a list of IWWMs (‘In What Ways
Might…’), and selection in terms of ownership criteria (e.g.
problem-owner’s motivation and ability to influence it) and
outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).
: Data finding: Gather information about the
problem.
– Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why,
What, When, Where and How) and listing of wants,
sources and data: List all your information ‘wants’ as a
• Stage 3
series of question; for each, list possible sources of
answers; then follow these up and for each source, list
what you found.
– Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots
(Highlighting); Mind-mapping to sort and classify the
information gathered; and also restating the problem in
the light of your richer understanding of it.
• Stage 4
: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement
of the problem into a broad statement more
suitable for idea finding.
– Divergent techniques include asking ‘Why?’ etc. – the
repeatable questions and Five W's and H.
– Convergent techniques include Highlighting again,
reformulation of problem-statements to meet the criteria
that they contain only one problem and no criteria, and
• Stage 5
selection of the most promising statement (but NB that
the mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the
participants can be as important as the actual statement
chosen).
•
Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as
possible
– Divergence using any of a very wide range of idea-generating
techniques. The general rules of Classic Brainstorming (such as
deferring judgement) are likely to under-pin all of these.
– Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the
combining of different ideas, and the short-listing of the most
 promising handful, perhaps with some thought for the more
obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.
• Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious
evaluation criteria (using an expansion/contraction cycle)
and develop (which may include combining) the short-
listed ideas from Idea Finding as much as you can in the
light of these criteria. Then opt for the best of these
improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).
• Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you
have just selected be made up to standard and put into
practice? Shun negativity, and continue to apply deferred
judgement – problems are exposed to be solved, not to
dishearten progress. Action plans are better developed in
small groups of 2 – 3 rather than in a large group (unless
you particularly want commitment by the whole group).
 Particularly for ‘people’ problems it is often worth
developing several alternative action plans.
• Branford’s IDEAL model
– Identify the Problem
– Define the problem
– Explore solutions
 – Act on the strategies
– Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity

Motivation
– is an inner drive that causes you to:
• do something
• persevere at something
• energizes you to do something
• initiate
• direct
• become intense
• persistence of behavior
 “Indicator’s of a High Level of
Motivation”
❑ She/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks,
assignments and projects without being pushed by his/her
teachers and parents.

❑ She/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize.

❑ She/he is convinced that accomplishing the things she/he
asked is to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals
she/he has set for herself/himself and their dream in life.

Indicator’s of a High Level of

Motivation”
❑ She/he willing to give up the satisfaction of
immediate goals for the sake of more important
remote goals. An example is she/he is willing to
 give up joining her/his barkada to watch a
movie in order to prepare thoroughly for final
examinations.

❑ She/he persists and perseveres in her/his

studies even when things turn out to be
difficult.
In contrast, an unmotivated student:
• does not enjoy learning
• does not study unless pushed
• easily gives up
• lacks of perseverance
 “Types of Motivation”
• Intrinsic Motivation – the source of
motivation is from within the person
herself/himself or the activity itself.
• Example: A student reads pocketbooks
because it is enjoyable.
• Extrinsic Motivation – the source of
motivation is something outside
herself/himself or the rewards and
incentives.
• Example: A student studies because she/he
was told by her/his teacher or because
she/he is afraid to fail and her/his parents
makes her/him stop schooling.
 “Type of Motivation which is
More Beneficial”
It is obviously that intrinsic motivation is more
beneficial because it comes from within the
person and it is not after the incentives or
rewards. It is shown in the enjoyment of the
activity itself and the inner conviction of the
 learner that such things are the right things to
do in order to realize a personal goal or a life
dream.
“The Role of Extrinsic Motivation”
• Extrinsic Motivation factors include:
• Rewards
• Incentives
• Praises or words of encouragements
• Approval of significant others like
teachers, parents, peer group
Opposites:
•Punishment
•Withdrawal
•Privileges
•Censure
•Ostracism We may begin
employing
extrinsic motivation at the start
but this should fade away as the
students get intrinsically
motivated themselves. It plays a
significant role in the
development of motivated
 students
.
“Theories on Factors
Affecting Motivation”
Factors Affecting Motivation
 – these are the elements that
contributes to a particular result
that affects motivation.
Attribution Theory
- explains that we attribute our successes or failures or
other events to several factors. For instance, you
attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to
your own sterling academic performance. Or you
attribute the poor economic condition you are in to the
Land Reform of the Phil. Gov’t. (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your father.
These attributions differ from one another in three ways
– locus, stability, and controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).
Locus (“place”): Internal vs. external.
If your student traces his good grade to his
ability and to his work, he attributes his good
grade to internal factors. If your student,
however, claims that his good grade is due to
the effective teaching of his teacher or to the
adequate library facilities, he attributes his
good grades to factors external to himself.
 Stability Stable vs. unstable.
If you attribute your poor eyesight to what you
have inherited from your parents, then you are
attributing the cause of your sickness to
something stable, something that cannot change
because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to
excessive watching of tv, then you are claiming
that your poor eyesight is caused by an unstable
factor, something that can change. (You can
prolong or shorten your period of watching tv).
Controllability: Controllable
vs. uncontrollable.
If your student claims his poor academic
performance is due to his teacher’s in-effective
teaching strategy, he attributes his poor
performance to a factor beyond his control. If,
however, your student admits that his poor class
performance is due to his poor study habits and
low motivation, he attributes the event to factors
which are very much within his control.
 Theories on Factors Affecting
Motivation
Attribution Theory
• Explains that we attribute our successes or
failures or other events to several factors.
3 Ways of Attribution from One Another
1) Locus “place”: Internal vs. external 2)
Stability: Stable vs. unstable
3) Controllability: Controllable vs. uncontrollable

How does attribution affect motivation?

Self-efficacy Theory
• Is the belief that one has the necessary
capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role
expectations,or meet a challenging situation
successfully.
Self-efficacy enhancing strategies:
• Make sure students master the basic skills
• Help them make noticeable progress on
difficult tasks
• Communicate confidence in students’ abilities
through both words and actions
• Expose them to successful peers
Self-determination and regulation
theories
• Students are more likely to be intrinsically
motivated when they believe they can
determine their learning goals and regulate
their learning.
How to enhance students’ sense of self-
determination about school activities?
Self Regulation
Applic
ation
Attenti of Self-m Self-ev
Goal Planni
on Learni onitori aluatio
setting ng control ng ng n
strateg
ies
Choice Theory
• It is a biological theory that suggests we are
born with specific needs that we are
genetically instructed to satisfy.
Four Basic Psychological Needs

•Self
•Belonging or connecting
•Freedom
•Power or competence
 •Fun
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
•Self-actualization
•Self esteem
•Love & Belonging
•Safety needs
•Basic needs
Goal Theory
Learning Goal vs. Performance Goal
LEARNING GOAL
• A “desire to acquire additional knowledge or
master new skills.”
PERFORMANCE GOAL
• A “desire to look good and receive favorable
judgments from others or else look bad and
receive unfavorable judgments.
 Self-determined Goals
• When the lesson objectives are relevant to the
life of students, then students turn out to be
more motivated to learn.
Goal Setting
Major Elements:
1. Goal acceptance
2. Specificity
3. Challenge
4. Performance monitoring
5. Performance feedback
Lesson Objectives must be:
S - smart
M - measurable
A - attainable
R - result-oriented
 T - time-bound
• Students are more likely to be intrinsically
motivated when they are motivated towards
deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-
learning performance to get good grades.
 Students’ diversity
in motivation
What are the factors that influences
students motivation?
 Students who, by themselves are
already as diverse, also differ in
motivation.
These diversity in motivation may be
traced to differences in age,
developmental stage, gender, socio-
economic and cultural background.
 How these factors influences
student’s motivation?
Our class is a conglomerate of students
with varying ages, and gender and cultural and
socioeconomic background.
Their motivational drives reflect the
element of the culture in which they grow up –
 family, their friends, school, books and even
church.
To motivate all of them for learning, it is
best to employ differentiated approaches.
As the adage goes . . .
“Different folks, different strokes”
meaning . . .
What is medicine for one may be poison
to others.
There are two principles to consider
regarding social and cultural influences on
motivation.
1.Students are most likely to model the behaviors
they believe are relevant to their situation.
2.Students develop greater efficacy for a task
when they see others like themselves
performing the task successfully.(Ormrod,
2004)
1.Students need models who are similar to
themselves in terms of race, cultural
background, socioeconomic status, gender,
and ( if applicable) disability.(Ormrod,2004.)
2.It must be good to expose our students to
models of their age and to models who come
from similar cultural, socioeconomic
backgrounds.
Do we have to limit ourselves to live
models?

Not necessarily. We can make our

students read biographies and
autobiographies of successful individuals
who were in situations similar to them.
MODULE 24
Human Environmental Factors
Affecting Motivation
The Classroom climate
Points to Ponder . . .
1.What is a classroom climate that facilitates
learning?
2. What takes place in a classroom where a
business-like and a non-threatening
atmosphere prevail?
What is a classroom?
It is a physical space where learning is
facilitated. It is a place where classes meet.
 What is climate?
It is the prevailing influence or environmental
conditions characterizing a group or period. It is
synonymous to atmosphere.
What is a classroom climate?
The classroom climate is more a product of
the interaction between and among teacher and
 students than that of the physical condition of the
classroom.

The physical condition of the classroom may exert an

influence on the social interaction among the
personalities in class but it may not contribute as
much as the classroom social interaction does.
Going back to question number 1:
 What then is the classroom climate
that is conducive for learning?

- is one that is non-threatening yet business-

like.
In answering question number 2:
 What takes place in a classroom
where a business-like and a non-
threatening atmosphere prevail?
It is a classroom where:

• rules and procedure are discussed on the first

day of class;
• students are involved in the design of rules and
procedures;
• techniques to acknowledge and reinforce
acceptable behavior and provide negative
consequences are employed;
• clear limits for unacceptable behavior are
established;
• there is a healthy balance between dominance and
cooperation;
• the teacher is aware of the needs of different types
of students;
• the teacher is fully aware of the happenings in class;
and
• students’ responsibility for their own behavior is
enhanced.
To summarize . . .
1. The classroom climate is a by-product of
the social interaction between and among
teacher and students.
2. The conducive classroom climate is one that
is business-like yet non-threatening.
3. It is a kind of classroom where:
a. expectations, rules and procedures,
limits on behavior are made from the very
first day of school;
b. the teacher, who is the leader, is fully
aware of what is happening and is in
control of the classroom and proceedings
and yet conveys the message that he/she is
interested in the concerns of the students
as an individual and the class as a whole;
c. students are responsible for their own
behavior.
The Physical Learning
Environment
A conducive physical learning
environment is one that:
❖ Allows maximum interaction
between teacher and student and
among students.
❖ Allows student movement without
unnecessary distraction.
❖ Allows teacher to survey the whole
class.
❖ It is safe, clean, orderly
❖ It is well-ventilated, spacious,
and adequately lighted
❖ It makes possible
re-arrangement of chairs as
the need arises.
 Assessment for Learning
ASSESSMENT is basically the process of
gathering information about the students’ learning;
then analyzing and interpreting them for the purpose
of making decision.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
1. Diagnosis
2. Placement
3. Effectiveness of the Program
4. Student Feedback
5. Research

Researched-Based Principle of
Assessment for Learning
Assessment for learning:
Assessment for learning should be part of effective
planning and learning
Focuses on how students learn.
Assessment for learning should focus on how student
learn.
Is central to classroom practice.
 Assessment of learning should be considered central
to classroom practice.
Is a key professional skill.
Assessment of learning should be
considered as a key professional
skill for teachers.
Is sensitive and constructive.
 Assessment of learning must be
sensitive and constructive because
assessment has an emotional impact.
FOSTER MOTIVATION.
Assessment of learning should
consider the importance of learner
 motivation. Promotes understanding of
goals and criteria.
Assessment of learning should promote
commitment to learning goals and a shared
understanding of the criteria by which
they are assessed.
Helps learners to know to improve.
 Assessment of learning should include
constructive guidance on how learners can
improve. Develops the capacity for self-
assessment.
Assessment of learning develops learners’ skills on
self-assessment.
Recognizes all educational achievement.
 Assessment of learning should recognize the full
range of achievement of all learners.
Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

PREAMBLE
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possess
dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as
technical and professional competence. In the practice of
their noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe,
and practice this set of ethical and moral principles,
standard, and values.

Assessment for learning is more in line with

Authentic Assessment. Sometimes referred
to as alternative assessment, authentic
assessment seeks to directly assess student
performance through real-life tasks or
products.

Example: tasks and rubrics, and portfolios

ARTICLE 1
 Scope and Limitations

Section 2: This Code covers all public and private school

teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool,
primary, elementary, and secondary levels whether
academic, vocational, special, technical or non-formal.
The term “teacher” shall include industrial art or
vocational teachers and all other persons performing
supervisory and / or administrative functions in all
school at the aforesaid levels, whether on full-time or
part-time basis.
Purposes of Assessment
Diagnosis – used to determine any special learning need that a
learner may have

Placement – the learner can be placed in the best learning

environment where he can better learn ands develop.

Effectiveness of the Program – can also provide data about how a

particular curriculum or program is effective in meeting its goals

Student Feedback – used to communicate to the learner his

current level of performance, specifically his strong and weak
points.

Research – can also be used as a source of very useful data in a

wide range topics in the field of educational research.
Researched-Based Principles of Assessment for
Learning
The group proposed 10 principles.
According to them, assessment for
learning:
1. Is part of effective planning. There should be an
opportunity for both the learner and the teacher to use the
assessment of progress in looking at the learning goals.

2. Focuses on how students learn. The teacher should

understand the nature of learning.

3. Is central to classroom practice. Teachers would come

to realize that a lot of what they do inside the classroom can be
seen as a form of assessment. 4. Is a key professional skill.
It is vital that teachers acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and
values about the entire assessment process.
 5. Is sensitive and constructive. As future teacher, bear in
mind that your comments, marks and
grades, as well as the manner you communicate them to students can
affect their self-confidence.

6. Fosters motivation. Assessment should focus on progress

and achievement rather than failure.
criteria.
7. Promotes understanding of goals and
Assessment of learning should promote commitment to learning
goals and a shared
understanding of the criteria by which they are assessed.
8. Helps learners know how to improve.
Assessment of learning should include constructive guidance on
how learners can improve.

9. Develops the capacity for self-assessment.

Assessment should allow
learners to apply metacognitive skills. In this way,
assessment empowers the student to take a more active role in his
own learning process.

10. Recognizes all educational achievement.

Assessment should be able to integrate the totality of the learner’s
achievement.