LESSON 1-3

Vowels (A, E, I, O U) – voice (as vocal cords vibrate when uttering vowels)
Consonants (the rest of the alphabets) – non-voice (more likely to be tongue and the mouth)
*Try saying A, your vocal cords vibrate
*Try saying T, your tongue does the work
Linguistics is science. In science, we need evidence—in linguistics, we do not accept things without
proof.
Studying a language has a pattern (Dr. Bonn mentioned the use of suffixes and prefixes, also the structure
of a sentence— how it changes from singular to plural)
Example: A dog is barking
The dogs are barking.
Some dogs are barking.
He also mentioned an example “the dead lies in the coffin” and explained that the subject dead is
dead. It cannot do an action but it’s the subject (I’m not paying much attention to this since I think it is
irrelevant but I’m still putting this for the reader to know some details of the lecture) however since it is
the subject, it has its verb. Subject controls the number of the verb; singular or plural *with the s/es to y
changed to i.
Linguistics is also philosophical since it is searching for meaning—how they relate and make
human existence meaningful.
Examples: The statement “thank you” is not always a form of gratitude.
An anchor uses thank you—an indicator that it is the end of the conversation.
“Good morning”
A cashier tells you “good morning” and you are the next customer—it is the
polite way of saying “please prepare your money and pay.” And “thank you, ma’am” as “please give way
to the next customer, my job here is done”.
“Good morning” may also indicate a conversation may begin.
He mentioned how you can use language personally and other terms with “ly” by the end. (I
wasn’t able to scribble it down)
He also stated about studying language for academics, economics and other fields where we can
make use of it.
Language is a set of vocal symbol, primarily speech and not writing. Language can be made into
speaking only, as children learn language in the beginning through oral. A language remains the same
even if you change it.
Example: Yes spoken in different tones (nuance)
*nuance is the distinction of what the word may be expressed into
Linguistics is arbitrary because it is related.
“Communication is the way of negotiating”—in communication, it is not simply just sending and
receiving messages, it is negotiating because the message is not readily made to be understood quickly.
Breaking it down is necessary to know its actual meaning.
Ferdinand de Saussure’s students compiled all his [de Saussure’s] lectures when he died.
His work is considered to be the mother of linguistics books.
Semiotics – the study of sign process.
Ex. Green for Go, yellow for Ready, red for Stop
Linguists are language scientists and language philosophers.
Polyglot is a person who speaks several languages, and a linguist is a person who studies THE language.
Some languages are specific enunciation and tones—all languages have vowels but very specific.
Example: How Filipinos say diabetes (ʒAˈbɛ:ti:s) and how Americans say diabetes (daɪəˈbiːtiːz)
There are terms that are specific and there are also words that have equivalent translation in another
language.
Example: English Filipino
Rice Palay
Bigas Kanin
Bahaw
Sapatusin kita. – I’m going to shoe you. (x)
I’m going to hit you with a shoe. (/)
Walisan mo. – Broom it. (x)
Sweep it, (/)
Language is productive.
*I got dc’ed from interrogative pronouns questions until discreteness, and he did not explain all
features of human language that is literally the definition no need to further widen.
A discreteness can be divided into a book to pages, a page to chapters, a chapter to paragraphs, a
paragraph to words, and a word to syllables. A whole can be divided into smaller units.
Language is biological. We born with it. All human beings have languages. We have THE
language. We just differ with cultural transmission therefore a different language there is a pattern that
every language has.
Patterning is a regularity in language. Rules? Laws?
Prevarication is the trueness or falseness of the message. (i.e. Declaration is not always factual,
it’s either true or false.)
Reflexive – we can express what we think and what we feel. We can talk about dreams, goals,
etc.
Language can be learned and acquired. You can learn more language but there will be problems
in doing so.
One of the problems with learning another language is that not all rules are applicable or similar
with language you know of. Not all rules are the same.
Example: failure to recognize vowels (there are languages that do not make use of the
vowel “A” similarly to English)
Language with similarities in rules of the Filipino language: French, Portuguese, Spanish (*Pro
drop)
*Pro drop – it is acceptable to drop the subject of the sentence.
Example: “Yo te quiero or ”Yo te amo” to simply “Te quiero” or “Te amo”—Yo
is the subject.
*The fields of linguistics were discussed but not thoroughly explained.
Diachronic language – i.e Shakespearian English vs. Modern English
 Synchronic language – Filipino English vs. American English

LESSON 4-5
Lesson 4: The Human Speech Apparatus
Voice and Voiceless Sounds

*All vowel sounds are voiced

Phonology is the study of the physical attributes of the speech sounds are produced.
Phonemes are the specific sounds of same functions (It’s the [k] and the others, the sound)
Phonological Behavior/Conditioning – when a letter changes its sound when put in a different
placement in a word—in a phonological environment
IPA transcription - International Phonetic Alphabet transcription
Phonemic – how you use or study on phonemes
 Phonemic transcription –
representing speech using just a
unique symbol for each phoneme of
the language. It uses slash;
Example:

‘strewn’ /strun/
‘tenth’ /tɛnθ/
‘clean’ /klin/
Phonetic transcription – representing more details about the contextual variations in pronunciation that
occur in normal speech. It uses bracket;
Example:
‘strewn’ [stru:n]
‘tenth’ [tʰɛñ ̪ θ]
‘clean’ [kl̥ i:n]
Subfields of Phonetics:
Acoustic Phonetics – the study of the quality of the sounds humans produce; physical properties
like frequency, amplification, and duration.
Articulatory Phonetics – the study of how sounds are produced—describing the speech sound
Auditory Phonetics – perception on how the sound is heard (*how you process the sound with
your brain and its reaction to it.)

Phonemic [fəʊˈniːmɪks]
A significant speech sound, phone—vowel or consonant—highness, lowness, pitch
Eme means significant—the change in forms to change in meaning. (The one with the
example of just because “pen” or “pin” may seem similar—the “e” and “I” play important roles in
changing the definition of the two term)
Schwa – weak (This is a German vowel BUT we use this in the English language)
*English symbols are not the only ones used
i.e. French, German, Spanish

Places of Articulation
 Bilabial – created when both lower and upper lips are used.
i.e. [p] pink (voiceless), [b] bank (voiced), and [m] mat (voiced)
Labio-Dental – produced with the upper teeth and lower lip.
i.e. [f] feet (voiceless), [v] van (voiced)
Lingua-Dental – formed with the tip of the tongue placed on upper front.

i.e. [] bath (voiceless), [ð] feather (voiced)

Alveolar – formed when the front part of the tongue is placed on the alveolar ridge (your gums)
behind the upper front teeth. (You know that thing you do when you click your tongue in your mouth? I
think it’s that!)
i.e. [t] tank (voiceless), [s] sip (voiceless), [d] feed (voiced), [n] net (voiced), [z] buzz
(voiced)
Post Alveolar – through the use of airstream and tongue (literally this is not in the module but
it’s what’s in the lecture earlier) i.e. [ʃ] glacier, chaperon, mansion, [ʒ] rouge, confusion, genre
Palatal – doom of your mouth (ngala ngala? The roof of your mouth, the bone part?), the hard
palate or just palate. Palatal is the sound produced by the tongue and palate.
i.e. [ʃ] sheep (voiceless), [tʃ] chin (voiceless), [dʒ] treasure (voiced)
Veral – further back in the palate is a soft spot of your mouth (ngala ngala again but the soft
part?)—velum. Sounds are produced with soft palate and the back of the tongue.
i.e. [k] cool (voiceless), [g] guard (voiced), [] sing (voiced), [ʍ] witch (voiceless)
 Glottal – some sounds may be produced with no active use parts of the human speech organs.
i.e. [h] heart (voiced), [w] which (voiced), [j] yes (voiced)
Manners in Articulation
Stops/Plosives – produced by stopping the airflow very briefly then releasing it abruptly stops are
sometimes called plosives; [p], [b], [t], [k], [g]
Fricatives – produced when air is blocked and is allowed to pass through that produces the
sound; [f], [v], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ]
Affricates – similar with stops requiring stopping but the difference that affricate sounds are
released with obstruction which causes friction; [tʃ], [dʒ]
Sounds that pass through nasal cavity—nasals. The sounds are [n], [m], []
Liquid Rhotic/Lateral – [r] & [l] sounds are lateral sounds are sometimes called liquids—
formed by letting air pass through the side of the tongue
Glides/Semivowels – [h], [w], [j] are glides. Formed with the tongue in motion similar producing
a vowel.
*voice/invoice, manner, articulation (three attributes minimum, Dr. Bonn did mention
about the questions on the “attributes”)
*Intervocalic - between two vowels—s to zh
*B is not bilabial in Spanish
*IMPORTANT NOTE: See the word through sounds, not through spelling.

LESSON 6-7
Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics
Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs

Significant is the change of forms is equal to the change in meaning [of the words]
Allophones is a kind of phoneme that changes its sound based on how a word is spelled
is not phonetically significant—change in sounds but none in meaning
Segmental – vowels/consonant
Supra-Segmental – length, pitch, junction, intonations
Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound in a word which distinctive in a language.
Allomorph – Let us take this example: /t/ sound
In the word “tar” /t/ is pronounced as regular /t/
“star” /t/ is pronounced as /th/
“writer” /t/ sound is produced as /d/
The sounds /th/ and /d/ which correspond to the /t/ sounds on the given examples are what you call
allophones.
A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language.
Allophones are variations of a phoneme
Allomorphs are variations in a morpheme.
*This part is pretty confusing so I’ll put this to help.*
These variations do not form a new word; they only cause different pronunciations.

Aspiration happens when a sound is pronounced with an exhalation of breath

Phonological Conditioning – Every phoneme behaves differently in different phonological environment
Example: pen vs pin—different phonetics
Potato
Which of the two phonemes is aspirated? How does the unstressed, intervocalic /t/ behave differently?
2nd t is stressed
Intervocalic – placed between two vowels
Computer (not aspirated in American English but it is in British English)
Observe the intervocalic (i.e. between two vowels) phoneme /t/ behave?
Does it become voiced /d/?
Nature *the neɪ in nature may affect the sound of /t/
Why does /t/ sound like the phoneme /ʃ/ in t in ‘nature’?
Phonological Rules – we derive it from how a native speaker speaks then take a hypothesis out from it.
Formulate. Consistency. Observable. Replicable.—if you derive it from the rules.
People – peepl
A phonemic is spoken (sounds). A grapheme is written (letters).
How to know if if it is a sound—two slashes
If no slashes—a grapheme (letter)

The word “table” ends with an E but with read it as tæbl

Allomorph Environment
[z] After [b], [d], [g], [v], [ð], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r], [a], [ɔɪ]
[s] After [p], [t], [k], [f], [θ]
[əz] After [s], [ʃ], [z], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ]

Phonological Rules
Generalized statement based on observable phonological behavior
voiced [z] – ends with an unvoiced consonant
unvoiced [s] – ends with a voiced consonant
[əz] used in fricatives and affricates
Morphologically Conditioning is the phenomenon in which a particular phonological pattern is imposed
on a proper subset of morphological constructions (affixation, reduplication, compounding).
Example: 'man-men' 'child-children'
Phonologically Conditioning is any change is the phonological shape of a morpheme.
Example:
In to Il Im Ir
Insecure Illegal Impolite Irrelevant
Indecent Irresponsible
Insanity

*The base word begins with an alveolar letter, In.

Natural change in the morpheme used (cause legal) but retains its meaning.
*Impolite not in inpolite (begins with bilabial letter)
*Irrelevant not inrelevant (begins with rhotic letter)
*Incomplete—read it as ‘in’ as ‘ing’ (begins with veral letters)

Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions

[ ] is used in transcription
Narrow Transcription Broad Transcription
More specific Less specific

Aspirated Stops
h (superscripted h) – is the aspiration symbol in narrow transcription.
Consonant sounds which are produced with the complete impedance or obstruction of the flow of speech
air through the closure of the upper and the lower lips which is immediately followed by a sudden release.
pat [ phæt ] v s s p a t [ spæt ]
kid [ khɪd ] v s s k i d [ skɪd ]
top [ thap ] v s s t o p [ stap ]
*append [ aphɛnd ] vs a p p l e [ æpl̪ ]
*append – p is aspirated with initial or p is in the middle and is included in the stress.

Unreleased Stops (not aspirated)

o (superscript o) – is the symbol used for unreleased stops
popcorn [ phapokhɔhrn ]
kickback [ khɪkobækh ]
labcoat [ læbokhoth ]
madman [ mædomæn ]
rugby [ rəgobi ]
*Unreleased stops are aspirated when [b, k, t]

Flaps
[D] is used in narrow transcription
a phonological condition when /t/ sounds /d/ because it is intervocalic.
c a t t y [ kæDi ]
caddy [ kæDi ]
bitter [ bɪDᶉ ]
bidder [ bɪDᶉ ]
latter [ læDᶉ ]
ladder [ læDᶉ ]

Linguistic tolerance—can accept communication with different accents but it is not tolerated when it
cannot be understood in a communication.

Dental Consonants (teeth)

Observe the symbol used beneath /l/, /n/, and /t/. The symbol stands for dentalization.
health [ hɛl̪ θ ]
unthinkable [ ənθɪŋkəbļ ]

eighth [ etθ ]
in this [ ɪn ðɪs ]

θ is changed from interdental to dentalized

Alveolar [ðə] (the) becomes [ði] (the) dental

Velarized
/ ɫ / is the symbol for this
Pull the tongue backwards
feel [ fiɫ ] vs leaf [ lif ]
pill [ pɪɫ ] vs lip [ lip ]
tall [ tɔɫ ]
g o l f [ gɔɫf ]
If a word ends win a / ɫ /, the sound of the consonant manifests a backward movement of the tip of the
tongue.

Voiceless Liquids and Glides

small zero (0) beneath to indicate voiceless
p r o o f [ pruf ]

sheep [ slip ]
q u i c k[ kwik ]
Liquids and glides are voiced but become voiceless when placed near voiceless consonants like / p /, /
ʃ /, / k /—they become one when it comes to this phoneme. One has to change U to UV (I honestly forgot
what this is lmfao)

Lengthened Vowels
The meaning of a word changes significantly when the sound of a vowel is lengthened.
The symbol for vowel length is a colon (:)
p e a s [ phi:z ] v s peace [ phis ]
had [ hæ:d ] v s hat [ hæt ]
r o a d [ ro:d ] v s r o t e [ rot ]
Attach the unvoiced [s] with voiced then it turns voiced as well.

Important Details to Note!

Colon ( : ) is used in narrow transcription.
Square brackets [ ] are used phonetic transcription.
Angled brackets ⟨ ⟩ are used to identify graphemes.
Slashes / / are used for phonemic transcription.

Nasalized Vowels
To indicate a nasalized vowel, we use a tilde (˜), a small diacritic in ñ
You let the air pass through the nose.
g r e e n[ grĩn ]

tan [ tæn ]
s e w n [ sõn ]

l a m b [ læm ]
t o n g s [ tãŋz ]

*Avoid exaggerating pronunciation and diction.

English obscuring is normal/okay

Not all syllables are given values.
Like not giving values to weak syllables
Example of this is the ‘e’ is ‘table’—we say tæbl not tæblæ
 Obscuring syllables on the right placement of stress.

LESSON 8-11

Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift

Otto Jespersen – "Discoverer" of the GVS

Every language is dynamic as it changes. Language change different from language evolution. As
Sir Bonn stated: Every language changes—it is a better way to put it that way than to say that there is a
language evolution.

*A language is considered a dead language when there is no activity (no addition of new words)
or no change on the rules. Just think about Heraclitus’ famous line, “Change is the only permanent thing
in this world.”

A living language allows changes and accommodates new words.

There is no such things as an easy or simple language. All are equally complex whether they
differ from the writing system or the grammar structure or rules needed to be applied on a certain
language.

The Great Vowel Shift

Why did it happen?

1. Migration. People moved to southward during the 1348 during the “Black Death.”
2. Emerging Middle Class. During the old times, high class or the elites speak Spanish or
French.
*Unlike before, English is now used equally—a composition of a great literary
written by Geoffrey Chaucer, “The Canterbury Tales”, changed the stigma that English is
a language for people under high class.
*Other factors that contributed in making changes with the English language are
economics, social, and political
*Monarchs, academics, scholars, church people and the like used to speak
French and Spanish more than English as they are pretty much obliged to.
3. Language Contact. People of different countries, regions, and places influence each
other’s pronunciation—travel and war.
4. Printing Press Invention. This helped standardize spelling.
 *Anglo Saxon—English language is technically Germanic even though it has lots of borrowed
words from Latin, it is not Latin in origins. As time passed by, there are borrowed words from Hebrewm
Greek, European (Russian), Asian (Malay and even Tagalog).

*English language has irregularities because there are different types of words.

5 Roman’s Language: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian.

13th—18th centuries had dramatic change during this time.

Scholars studied this by rhymes, rhythm, with musical devices used and even symbols.

*There are thousands of English varieties and it should not be snubbed but rather, welcomed.
Lesson 9. Free, Bound, Derivational, and Inflectional Morphemes

Morphemes can be a word, a syllable, just a character, just a letter or a phoneme. A phone as
long as it carries grammatical function then it considered a phoneme.

Morpheme can be a sound, a phoneme but a phoneme cannot be a morpheme however.

Morpheme can be attached and detached to a word. They can stand alone then it is free
morpheme. They cannot then it is a bound morpheme. Bound morphemes are naturally affixes.

Free morphemes are also called the root words—base words. They can stand alone (i.e. bag)
and cannot be divided into smaller meaning units. Most free morphemes can be improved by affixes to
form complex words and compound words through combining two free morphemes like bookmark.

It is divided in two categories:

Lexical Morphemes Functional Morphemes

Words that make the main meaning of a Serve as a grammatical connection between
sentence. lexical morphemes

Content words; Function words;

Nouns (bag, book, pencil);
Verbs (run, seek, walk, dance);
Adverbs (quickly, softly, greedily); and
Adjectives (kind, fast, sad, quick)
Articles (the, a, an);
Auxiliaries (will, is, must, does);
Prepositions (under, over, to, by);
Demonstratives (this, that those, these);
Quantifiers (some, many, few);
Pronouns (he, she, his, her); and
Conjunctions (for, and, but, or).

Manila – one morpheme To Manila

Vital parts of a sentence as they might change Not usually added or connected with affixes that
when joined with other morphemes. change their meaning.

Bound morphemes cannot stand alone. It has no linguistic meaning unless attached to a root
word, or with other bound morphemes.

It is grouped into two categories:

 Inflectional Morphemes Derivational Morphemes

Alter the grammatical function of a word whether alters and changes the semantic meaning of a
mood, verb tense, or another language inflection word

Cannot change the meaning, but the suffixes can

change the word condition

Modify a Noun: -s (or -es), -'s (or s') Prefixes: pre-, un-, non-, anti-, dis-
Modify an Adjective: -er, -est Suffixes: -ize, -ine, -ary, -ate, -ion
Modify a Verb: -ed, -ing, -en
Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of Word Formation

Morpheme Changes

1. Loss of Phoneme. Deletion or removal of a phoneme. i.e. different → difference

*Rather than saying, “different’ce,” we say “difference”

2. Addition of Phoneme. The addition of s.

i.e sword → swordsman; sale → salesgirl; craft → craftsman
3. Simple Change of Phoneme. The change from singular to plural form. i.e. dog → dogs
4. Assimilation—Dissimilation. Two phonemes become similar to each other. i.e.
IN+POSSIBLE= IMPOSSIBLE
5. Synthesis. Combination of two phonemes. i.e. philosophy (we don’t say pihilosopihy.)

*Problematic words to note: shepherd (it should be read shep-herd )and Thailand
(should not be read similar to thigh but tie)

6. Stress Shift, Gradation. Addition of an affix to a word with shift to stress. i.e. syllable
and syllabication
7. Suppletion. The irregularities in English.
i.e. I – me
Be – am, is, was, were
Good – better, best

Types of Word Formation

1. Derivation. Creation of words by using affixes. i.e. nation—national—nationhood—

nationalism

—Affixation. A subtype of Derivation, is the addition of one or more affixes to a

root

2. Clipping. One part is 'clipped' off from the whole word but does not change the meaning
of the word. i.e. rifle (rifle gun), burger (hamburger), socsci (social science)
3. Acronymy. Formed by getting the initial or first letters of a phrase and making a word
out of it. Acronyms, initialism and abbreviation. i.e. Scuba (Self-Contained Underwater
Breathing Apparatus), Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging Sonar-SOund Navigation and
Ranging)
4. Blending. Word formation from parts of two other words—called blends. i.e. brunch,
motel, smog, cheeseburger
5. Back-Formation. Refers to the process of creating new lexemes. i.e. Klim from milk
6. Borrowing. Loaning and becoming part of the language. i.e. Hallelujah, Amen, Hosana
from Hebrew; Karaoke, Kimono, Sushi from Japanese
7. Coinage. Inventing a new word. i.e. Facebook (like brand names)
8. Compounding. Sticking two words together. i.e. lipstick, bookworm, teapot
9. Reanalysis. Creating a new morph or making an old one unrecognizable i.e. hamburger
(Hamburger steak 'chopped and formed steak in the Hamburg style) and hamburger
(hamburg + er), then ham + burger.
10. Folk etymology. Deviates under the effect of the new understanding of its morphemes
—speakers think it has a different origin than it does. i.e. corned beef, baby oil)
Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars

How either native or non-native speakers use the What language use ought to be by setting some
language on their daily lives parameters on how language have to be used
how the language is spoken or used How the language should be spoken or used

Does not explicate or explain which grammar is Has set of rules that impart and teach the
correct or not. speaker the most precise and the correct way to
use the language.

*A sentence should never end with a preposition particularly in writing as preposition is put before a
word—an example of this is Ninoy Aquino’s line, “The Filipinos are worth dying for.”

*Rules should be revised as there contemporary English arises in the use of this language

*We do not split infinitive—to remember always is particularly correct; to eat, to love—to seldom eat,
to fully love

*It’s I or It’s me? It’s me! The first one is artificially correct as this follows the rules however it is not used
in the present time anymore.