Module 26

Topic: 1. Introduction to learning

2. Intro to Classical conditioning

A lasting change in a behavior or a mental process as the result of an experience.

Lasting change cannot be a simple reflexive reaction
Learning regarding mental process is much harder to observe and study.

Active Learning: observation, direct instruction, physical activities, reading, and listening
Passive Learning: the trial and error process

In humans, learning has a much larger influence on behavior than instincts. Learning represents
an evolutionary advance over instincts.

When people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they
have learned.
Change controlled by a genetic blueprint, by contrast, is called maturation (developmental
changes).

Learning: any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

Without learning our lives would be

a series of reflexes and instincts.

We would not be able to:

communicate
have memories of our past or goals for the future.

Habituation: learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus. (e.g. ambulance
sirens in the city)
Habituation is different from sensory adaptation. The latter is an unconscious process, the former
is a learned behaviour.

The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a
preference for things or people that are more familiar to them than others. Repeated
exposure increases familiarity. This effect is therefore also known as the familiarity effect.

How do we learn?
Through association: Certain events occur together (Classical conditioning) Two stimuli that
aren’t initially connected become associated and this response then becomes automatic
(respondent behavior)
Through consequences: Association between a response and consequences is learned (Operant
conditioning)

Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior: (Cognitive learning)

Behavioral Learning is described in terms of stimuli and responses.

Simple Learning - Classical conditioning
Complex learning- Operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (stimuli without
reflex provoking power) acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another
stimulus.

Reflex – an unlearned, involuntary response that is not under personal control or choice

Stimulus – any object, event, or experience that causes a response

Response – the reaction of an organism

There are 5 main components of conditioning. Classical Conditioning always involves these parts:
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)

Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with a natural reflex-producing stimulus,
will begin to produce a learned response, even when it is presented by itself.

Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.

US: A stimulus that automatically (without conditioning or learning) provokes a reflexive

response.

Unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring.”

In Pavlov’s experiment, food was used as the US because it produced a salivation reflex.

UR: A response resulting from an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.

Realize that the US-UR connection involves no learning or acquisition.

During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the same response as the US.

A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that gains the power to cause the response.

A CR is a response elicited by a (previously neutral) stimulus that has become associated with the
unconditioned stimulus.

Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as the response originally produced by
the US, we now call it a conditioned response.

Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned response comes to be elicited by the
conditioned stimulus.

We know learning exists because the CS is linked to the US.

This is called acquisition. However acquisition does not last forever.

The moment the CS is no longer associated with the US, we have extinction.

The diminishing (or lessening) of a learned response, when an unconditioned stimulus does not
follow a conditioned stimulus

To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the US.

But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the strength of the connection between
the two stimuli.
Extinction isn’t the complete elimination of a response.
It merely suppresses the conditioned response, and the CR can reappear during spontaneous
recovery.

Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented.

The response after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.

Delayed Conditioning: present CS, while CS is still there, present US.

Trace Conditioning: present CS, short break, then present US.
Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and US are presented at the same time.
Backward Conditioning: US is presented, then CS is presented.

Module 26 p2
Topic: Classical vs. Operant conditioning
Pavlov:
Studied digestive system; first Russian Nobel Prize (1904)
Demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning

The rising curve shows the CR rapidly growing stronger as the NS becomes a CS due to repeated
pairing with the US (acquisition).
The CR then weakens rapidly as the CS is presented alone (extinction).
After a pause, the (weakened) CR reappears (spontaneous recovery).

Stimulus generalization: the tendency to respond to a stimulus that’s only similar to the original
CS with the CR
Generalization:
Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
to elicit similar responses

Discrimination:
Learned ability to distinguish between a CS (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli

Alternatively: the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that’s similar to
the original CS because the similar stimulus is never paired with the US

First-Order & Second-Order Conditioning

First Order Conditioning.

Bell + meat = salivation.

Bell = Salivation.

Second Order Conditioning

(After first order conditioning has occurred)

Light + Bell = Salivation.

Light = Salivation.

Consensus among psychologists that classical conditioning is basic form of learning:

Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can be studied objectively
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species

Applications
Pavlov’s principles are used to influence human health and well-being:
Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, therapy
Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings
Pairing particular taste with drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to
response from taste alone.

John Watson
Influenced by Pavlov
Theoretical goal of science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior
Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for Watson’s ideas that human emotions and behaviors,
though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses
他认为心理学的理论目标是行为的预测和控制
巴甫洛夫的工作也为沃森的想法提供了基础，即人类的情绪和行为，虽然受到生物学的影响，但主要是条件反应
John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to Psychology with his Baby Albert experiment.
This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as aversive conditioning.

Watson and Rayner showed conditioning of specific fears in “Little Albert” experiments:
White rat and frightening noise paired.

After seven repeats, 11-month-old cried at sight of rat alone.

Five days later, startled fear reaction generalized to sight of rabbit, dog, and sealskin coat

Conditioned emotional response (CER)

Emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli
Example: fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person

Operant Conditioning
The Learner is NOT passive.
Learning is based on consequences!

Classical Conditioning vs.

Operant Conditioning
With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit up or roll
over. Why?
Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more complex
responses that we think of as voluntary.

In classical conditioning, learning depends on what happens before the response

Antecedent stimuli – stimuli that come before other stimuli
在经典条件反射中，学习取决于反应之前发生了什么

In operant conditioning, learning depends on what happens after the response – the
consequence
An operant is an observable behavior that an organism uses to “operate” in the environment.
Operant Conditioning is thus form of learning in which the probability of a response is changed
by its consequence, (i.e. by the stimuli that follows the response).
在操作性条件反射中，学习取决于反应之后发生的事情——结果’

Edward Thorndike- Puzzle box

Rewards strengthen behavior.
Behavior changes because of its consequences.
If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.
Called the whole process instrumental learning.Instrumental learning is a type of learning in
which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences. 
Thorndike’s puzzle box
盒子里的猫。用鱼作为奖励，通过一系列的动作来引诱猫找到从一个谜盒里出来的路。在连续的试验中，猫的表现有
改善的趋势，说明了效果规律。

Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner developed behavioral technology and the principles of behavior control
Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses
Operant conditioning chamber: (Skinner box) inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food
reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown) records the animal’s accumulated responses.

Operant Conditioning
Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Organisms associate their own actions with consequences.
Actions followed by reinforcement increase; those followed by punishments often decrease.

Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a preceding response (anything that INCREASES a
behavior).
Shaping: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Positive
Reinforcement
The addition of something pleasant:
Occurs when a stimulus is presented as a result of operant behavior and that behavior increases.

Negative
Reinforcement
The removal of something unpleasant:
Occurs when an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is removed as a result of operant behavior and the
rate of the behavior increases.

Two Types of negative reinforcement

Escape Learning
Escape learning occurs to terminate an unpleasant stimulus such as annoyance or pain, thereby
negatively reinforcing the behavior.
E. g., to persuade a rat to jump from a platform into a pool of water, you might electrify the
platform to mildly shock the rat. It jumps due to escape learning, since it jumps to escape the
electric shock.

Avoidance Learning
You can transform escape learning into avoidance learning if you give a signal, e.g. a tone, before
the unwanted stimulus.
If the rat receives a cue before the shock, after a few trials, it will jump before it gets shocked. The
rat will continue to jump when it gets the signal, even if the platform is no longer electrified.

Positive reinforcement: Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

Positive reinforcer: any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement: Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. (Note: ≠
punishment)
Negative reinforcer: any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens that response.

Module 27
Topics: 1. Operant conditioning, its criticism and its applications
2. Reinforcement schedules

A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus which occurs after a behavior, and decreases the
probability it will occur again (meant to decrease a behavior). Negative reinforcement ≠
punishment

Positive Punishment:
Adds something unpleasant
An undesirable event that follows a behavior: getting spanked after telling a lie. This is the addition
of something unpleasant.

Negative Punishment
When a desirable event ends or is taken away after a behavior. Removal of something pleasant.
Example: getting grounded from your cell phone after failing your progress report.

Punishment works best when it’s done immediately after behavior and if it’s harsh!
Punishment is not a mirror effect of reinforcement.
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered consistently.

Premack Principle
More preferred activities reinforce less preferred ones.
The specific degree of preference is determined by the individual who holds the preference.

更喜欢的活动会强化不太喜欢的活动。
偏好的具体程度由持有偏好的个体决定

Uses & Abuses of Punishment

Punishment often produces an immediate change in behavior, which ironically reinforces the
punisher.
However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:
The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappears when the threat of
punishment is gone.
Punishment triggers escape or aggression.
Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.
Punishment is often applied unequally.

Making Punishment Work

To make punishment work:
Punishment should be swift.
Punishment should be certain-every time.
Punishment should be limited in time and intensity.
Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the person.
Punishment should not give mixed messages.
The most effective punishment is often omission training (i.e. negative punishment).

How do we actually use Operant Conditioning?

Shaping – reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a desired, more complex behavior

Successive Approximation
Small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior

Chaining Behaviors
It involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior.

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer Things that are in themselves rewarding.
Secondary Reinforcer Things we have learned to value. Money is a special secondary reinforcer
called a generalized reinforcer (as it can be traded for just about anything)

Token Economy
Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given.

Operant Conditioning: Some more types of Reinforcers

Primary: Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli

Conditioned (secondary): Gains power through association with primary reinforcer

Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior

Delayed: Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward

Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement schedule
Includes pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a
response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio:
Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses.
A dog get a bone every 5 time he barks
每间隔相同次数的动作一次奖励

Variable Ratio:
Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses.
Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.
平均间隔相同次数的动作一次奖励，随机次数奖励

Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval:
Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
每间隔相同时间一次奖励
Variable Interval:
Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
平均间隔相同时间一次奖励，随机时间奖励
Module 29
Topics: 1.Other kinds of learning
2. Cognitive maps and latent learning
3.Learned helplessness

Biological influences:
Genetic predispositions
Unconditioned responses
Adaptive responses

sychological influences:
Previous experiences
Predictability of associations
Generalizations
Discrimination

Social-cultural influences:
Culturally-learned preferences
Motivation, affected by presence of others

Learned Taste Aversions

Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste.
Taste was followed by nausea occurring after only one association.

Aversive Conditioning used in Therapy

Used to treat Alcohol Dependency
Disulfiram (Antabuse)-causes a very unpleasant reaction when an alcoholic patient ingests small
amounts of alcohol.

Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning

Limits on Classical conditioning:
Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion research
Animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others
Conditioning is stronger when the CS is ecologically relevant
当 CS 与生态相关时，条件作用更强

Genetic predisposition to associate CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is

adaptive
将 CS 与可预见的、立即发生的 US 联系起来的遗传倾向是适应性的

Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning

Nature limits species’ capacity for operant conditioning
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive
生物学上的限制使生物体倾向于学习具有自然适应性的联系

Instinctual drift (a.k.a instinctive drift) occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed
patterns
本能漂移(又名本能漂移)发生在动物回归到生物倾向模式的时候

Cognition Processes and Classical Conditioning

Mental information that guides behavior is acquired through cognitive learning:

Evidence of cognitive processes:

Animal response on fixed-interval reinforcement schedule
Development of cognitive maps in rats (latent learning)
Destruction of intrinsic motivation by excessive rewards
动物对固定间隔强化计划的反应
大鼠认知图谱的发展(潜在学习)
过度奖励对内在动机的破坏

Cognitive maps: mental representations of physical locations.

人类和动物用它们来认路，并帮助回忆起环境的重要特征。这个术语是由心理学家 Edward Tolman 提出的，用来解
释老鼠如何在迷宫中学习奖励的位置。

Behaviorists previously believed that reinforcements were essential for learning.

Tolman’s study, rats were allowed to wander around a maze, without reinforcements, for several
hours.
However, the rats later were able to negotiate the maze for food more quickly than rats that had
never seen the maze before.

行为主义者以前认为，强化对学习是必不可少的。
在 Tolman 的研究中，老鼠被允许在没有增援的情况下在迷宫中徘徊数小时。
然而，这些老鼠后来能够比以前从未见过迷宫的老鼠更快地通过迷宫寻找食物。

Latent learning: Learning that occurs

but is not apparent until the learner
has an incentive to demonstrate it.
Learning that remains hidden until its
application becomes useful
潜在的学习:在学习者有动机表现出来之前并不明显的学习。
在它的应用变得有用之前一直隐藏的学习

Learned helplessness
The tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in
the past.
失败倾向:由于过去多次失败而未能采取行动逃离某种情况的倾向

Martin Seligman first observed learned helplessness when he was doing experiments on dogs.

Depression explained by the theory of learned helplessness:

People tend to become somewhat apathetic, often staying in unpleasant environments rather
than trying to escape or better their situation.
人们往往变得有些冷漠，经常呆在不愉快的环境中，而不是试图逃离或改善他们的情况。

Prevalence of a sense of powerlessness and hopelessness.

Module 30
Topics: 1. Cognitive learning 2. Observational learning

Cognitive learning involves changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior
alone.
Key theorists
Wolfgang Köhler
Edward Tolman (review) latent learning
Martin Seligman

Insight learning
Sometimes we have “flashes of insight” when dealing with a problem where we have been
experiencing trial and error.

Köhler believed that chimps could solve complex problems by combining simpler behaviors they
had previously learned separately.

Observational learning
Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others

Albert Bandura
Pioneer researcher of observational learning
Bobo doll experiment (After observing adults seeming to enjoy punching, hitting and kicking an
inflated doll called Bobo, the children later showed similar aggressive behavior toward the doll.)

Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory

Mirror neurons
Include frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or
when observing another doing so.

Brain’s mirroring of another’s action

May enable imitation and empathy

Brain activity related to actual pain (left) is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one (right).
Empathy in the brain shows up in emotional brain areas, but not in the somatosensory cortex,
which receives the physical pain input.
Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that observing violence is associated with
violent behavior.

In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers of media violence show a reduction in
emotional arousal and distress when they subsequently observe violent acts-a condition known
as psychic numbing.
此外，实验证据表明，观看媒体暴力的观众在随后观看暴力行为时，情绪唤起和痛苦有所减少——这种情况被称为精
神麻木。

Applications of
Observational Learning

Prosocial effects
Behavior modeling enhance learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new
employees
Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others

Antisocial effects
Abusive parents may have aggressive children

Module 37
Topics: Introduction to motivation-
Motivation
A desire that energizes the start of a behavior, & directs & maintains physical and psychological
abilities to attain the goal.
Drives and motives
Drive: States of tension that result from an internal imbalance that prompts an individual to
restore the balance.
e.g. Hunger
Motive: Motivational process that is learned.

Instinct theory
Motivation comes from natural selection.
Birds migrating, salmon returning to creeks to spawn
William James (1890)
Needed to be simplified which led to the drive-reduction theory

Drive reduction theory

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy that need (e.g. Eating and Drinking)

Physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis – maintenance of steady internal state.

E.g., maintenance of steady body temperature.

Homeostasis
Body’s tendency to maintain balanced or constant internal state
Includes regulation of:
Hormones
Water levels in cells
Blood sugar levels

Incentive Theory 激励理论；诱因论

Revolves around External Stimuli e.g. Money

Proposes that people are pulled toward behaviors that lead to rewards and pushed away from
actions that might lead to negative consequences.

Incentives can be positive or negative  behave in a manner to avoid an unpleasant outcome

In many cases, these external rewards can motivate you to do things that you might otherwise
avoid such as chores, work, and other tasks you might find unpleasant

Incentives can be used to get people to engage in certain behaviors, but they can also be used to
get people to stop performing certain actions.

Rewards have to be obtainable in order to be motivating.

For example, a student will not be motivated to earn a top grade on an exam if the assignment is
so difficult that it is not realistically achievable.

Arousal Theory
Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis but seek arousal or excitement.
sensation seekers: people who needs more arousal than the average person

Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level
of arousal, and the eventual outcome
For easy tasks=higher levels of arousal
For difficult tasks= moderate levels work best
Abraham Maslow
Suggested some needs have priority over others.
Physiological needs like breathing, thirst and hunger come before psychological needs like
achievement, self-esteem & need for recognition.
Highest level = self actualization

Maslow originally proposed eight levels of needs in the following hierarchical order:
Physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, and
transcendence

Maslow’s definition of a self-actualized person:

Has no mental illness
Satisfied in basic needs
Fully exploited talents
Motivated by values

Criticism of Maslow
Although critics will admit Maslow’s Hierarchy was the first real step toward a comprehensive
theory of motivation, they say it isn’t complete.
eople often neglect their basic biological needs for more social needs
Cross-cultural needs: individualistic vs. collectivist cultures see needs differently
Little scientific support: theory based on his own observations of people
Sensation seeking: Why would someone jump out of a plane for “fun?”
Other areas it doesn’t explain?
Module 38
Topics: Hunger and its motivation
The Biological Basis of Hunger
Hunger does NOT come from our stomach. People who have had their stomachs removed still
feel hunger.

Hunger comes from the brain Hypothalamus

The Physiology of Hunger

Humans automatically regulate caloric intake through a homeostatic system to prevent energy
deficits and maintain stable body weight.
Stomach contractions
Blood sugar glucose regulation
Appetite hormones
Set point and settling point
Basal metabolic rate

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is key in hunger
Actively regulates appetite
Considered “weight thermostat”

Set point = point at which an individual’s hypothalamus is supposedly set

Falling below increases hunger triggering a lowered metabolic rate to restore lost weight.

Basal metabolic rate: resting rate at which we burn calories for energy
Specific number of fat cells
Hormones work together to keep weight where it’s designated

Lateral Hypothalamus:
When stimulated it makes you hungry.
When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus:
When stimulated you feel full.
When lesioned you will never feel full again.

The Physiology of Hunger

Glucose
Triggers feeling of hunger when low
Arcuate nucleus 弓状核；弧形核: Pumps appeitite-suppressing hormones 分泌抑制食欲的激素
Ghrelin 胃饥饿素（一种胃肠道激素）: Involves hunger-arousing hormones secreted by empty stomach
空腹分泌的引起饥饿的激素

The Appetite Hormones

Insulin 胰岛素 : Hormone secreted by pancreas 胰腺 ; controls blood glucose.控制血糖 allows our
cells to use glucose for energy or convert it to fat Insulin goes up, glucose goes down

Ghrelin appetite increaser, is released primarily in the stomach and is thought to signal hunger to

the brain

Orexin 食欲肽: Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus.下丘脑分泌的引发饥饿的激素

Glucose levels drop, orexin levels rise making us hungry

PYY 多肽 YY 激素: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain.

Leptin （ 脂 肪 组 织 产 生 的 ） 瘦 蛋 白 : Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes

brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger. 脂肪细胞分泌的蛋白质激素;丰富时，使大脑增加新陈代
谢和减少饥饿感。Obesity = insensitivity to leptin 对瘦素不敏感
External incentives:
Sight, sound, and smell of food that seem to affect eating habits
External Eater is more affected by external incentives

Availability of Food – if food is available, people are more likely to eat.

Learned Habits – if people develop food habits, they will stick to those habits.

Stress – with more stress, comes more eating.

Memory & hunger

Memory also plays an important role in hunger.

Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently, if given food (Rozin et al.,
1998).

On the other hand, Alzheimer’s patients may forget to eat.

Obesity
Body Mass Index (BMI) – Weight/Height (Squared)..
Set Point Theory – the body monitors fat cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable. (this
is why people often put back on weight after losing it).

Settling-Point Theory – weight tends to drift around the level at which the constellation of factors
that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieves an equilibrium.

Dietary Restraint – people are constantly thinking about food while dieting, so overindulge more.

Basal metabolic rate – Body’s resting rate of energy output.身体能量输出的静息率。

Eating Disorders: Anorexia 神经性厌食症

Normal weight person has distorted self-perception (delusion) of being “fat”

Eating Disorders: Bulimia 暴食症

Eating disorder characterized by excessive eating (bingeing 大 吃 大 喝 ), followed by vomiting 呕吐
(purging)

Causes of Eating Disorders

Genetic links:
Cultural pressures:
Permissive neglectful: parents simply aren’t involved with their
children, ignoring them and allowing them to do whatever they
want until it interferes with what the parent wants

Permissive indulgent: parents seem to be too involved with

their children, allowing them to behave in any way they wish