AP Psychology

Week 2: Sept 5, 2022

Teacher: Andrew Trigg

Topics:
Correlation vs. experimentation
Warm-up:
the Hawthorne effect

 What is the Hawthorne effect? Who can explain this now?

 From VeryWellMind’s “The Hawthorne Effect and Behavioral Studies”,
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-hawthorne-effect-2795234
“The Hawthorne effect is a term referring to the tendency of some people to work
harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment. The
term is often used to suggest that individuals may change their behavior due to the
attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any
manipulation of independent variables.” [emphasis added]
 Question: why do you think this could be a problem for psychology research?
Are there any ways this problem could be overcome?
“Whether the lights were brighter or dimmer, production went up in
the Hawthorne electric plant.”
 Research Strategies: Correlation
 General Definition: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other
(thus, they are “co”-related)
 Scientific definition: a measure of how closely two factors (variables) vary together, or how
well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other.
 Positive (direct) correlation (between 0 and +1.00)
 Indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease
together
 Negative (inverse) correlation (between 0 and −1.00)
 Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases.
 Correlation coefficient: Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary
together and how well one predicts the other (predicts ≠ causes)
Scatterplots showing patterns of
correlation

Correlations can range from +1.00 (scores on one measure increase in direct proportion
to scores on another), to 0.00 (no relationship), to –1.00 (scores on one measure
decrease precisely as scores rise on the other).
 Scatterplot – a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two
variables.
 The slope of the points suggests the direction of two variable’s relationship
 The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter
indicates high correlation).
 Correlational methods for
research: pros and cons
 Research methods are a highly-examined FRQ topic for the AP exam (learn the
correct terminology for Modules 4-8 now, rather than later).
 Remember correlations tell us that two variables are related, but not why they are. Only
experiments can confirm our explanations. (Understanding this point makes us better
critical thinkers).
 On the other hand, statistics and data, especially scatterplots, help us see what the
naked eye often misses.
 Correlations can also help us make useful predictions. But no matter how strong the
relationship, correlation can never prove causation!
 Two uncorrelated variables can never be causally connected.
 Correlation indicate the mere possibility of a cause-effect relationship between
variables. Why can’t it ever prove causation?
3 possible cause-effect relationships

People low in self-esteem are more likely to report depression than are those high in self-
esteem. One possible explanation of this negative correlation is that a bad self-image causes
depressed feelings. But, as the diagram indicates, other cause-effect relationships are
possible.
 Illusory correlations

 Refers to the perception of a relationship between two variables when no

relationship (or only a minor one) exists. For example?

 May be influenced by confirmation bias (overreliance on evidence that confirms

our views, while ignoring evidence discrediting them).

 May also be influenced by regression to the mean (the tendency for extreme or
unusual scores or events to regress toward the average).

 Remember: we often perceive patterns, even with random data.

 Research Strategies:
Experimentation
 With experiments, researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more
factors in several ways.
 Manipulating the variables of interest to determine their effects
 Holding constant (“controlling”) other variables
 Using an experimental group and a control group.
 experimental group – the group exposed to the treatment (to one version of the
independent variable).
 control group – the group not exposed to the treatment (serves as a comparison for
evaluating the effectiveness of the treatment).
 confounding variables: scientists must be careful to avoid miscellaneous
variables having an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment.
Experimentation
Variables

Independent variable in an • Factor that is manipulated; the

variable whose effect is being
experiment studied

Confounding variable in • Factors other than the

independent variable that might
an experiment produce an effect
• Factor that is measured; the
Dependent variable in an variable that may change when the
experiment independent variable is
manipulated
 Experimentation

 Scientists carefully measure whether the independent variable brings about a change (in the
dependent variable).
 Unlike correlational studies (which show naturally occurring relationships), experiments are
deliberate, and can demonstrate an effect (or a lack one).
 If there’s a drug in an experiment, it’s almost always the independent variable.
 Double-blind procedure: (used to eliminate biases)
 Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving
the treatment.
 Treatment’s actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect.
 Placebo effect
 Effect involves results caused by expectations alone.
Random sampling (selection)

 To have confidence in experimental results, they need to be taken from a

sample of participants chosen in an unbiased manner.
 Random Sample: A sample group of subjects selected by chance, or
without biased selection techniques.
Random assignment

 Random assignment ≠ random selection/sampling (students often confuse

these in AP exam questions!!)
 Once you have a random sample, randomly assigning them into two groups
(experimental and control) helps control for confounding variables.
 Group Matching - ensures that experimental and control group are equivalent
on some criteria (gender, race, height, etc.)
Experimental limitations:
Predicting real world behavior
 Experimental purpose – scientists test theoretical principles. This is not a re-creation of
exact everyday life behaviors.
 Resulting principles – help explain everyday behavior generally, but not specific findings
 Psychological science – focuses on seeking general principles that help explain many
behaviors and less on particular behavior.
 There are two main ways to group participants in a study:
 a within-subject design involves comparing participants to themselves. All the
participants will be exposed to the independent variable as well as a posttest (or
pretest). (Participants serve as their own controls.)
 a between-subject design involves comparing one group of participants to another,
with only one group exposed to the independent variable. (This is more common and
more efficient in terms of time. But it’s less resistant to the effects of individual
differences than within-subject).
Comparing Research Methods
Research Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What Is Manipulated Weaknesses

Do case studies,
No control of variables;
To observe and record naturalistic
Descriptive Nothing single cases may be
behavior observations, or
misleading
surveys

To detect naturally
occurring
Collect data on two or
relationships; to Cannot specify cause
Correlational more variables; no Nothing
assess how well one and effect
manipulation
variable predicts
another

Sometimes not feasible;

results may not
Manipulate one or
To explore cause and generalize to other
Experimental more factors; use The independent variable(s)
effect contexts; not ethical to
random assignment
manipulate certain
variables
 Homework

 Revise Module 6 for your upcoming quiz

 (Optional) Find 1-2 psychological studies reported in (non-technical) online news or

magazines. Evaluate whether the reports represent the appropriate interpretations of the
conclusions of the studies. Specifically:
 Does the report misrepresent a correlational study as an experimental study? Why or
why not?
 What are the variables evaluated by the study? What outcome does the article suggest
can be drawn from the study?
 Are the primary researchers interviewed? If so, do they caution people to interpret a
correlational study appropriately? Why or why not?