Unit 2

mean
The average in a set of numbers

median
The average in a set of numbers

mode
Most frequently re-occuring number in a set of
numbers
 standard
deviation
Used to show and measure the
variation in data

histogram
A graph that shows the frequency
between two things
 operational definition

The process of defining a measurement that isn't necessarily measurable--it may

be vague and unclear before you create this.

theory
A list of ideas that are used to explain predictions and
to make predictions
 hypothesis
An educated guess on what the outcome will be that
supports the theory

research
The actual collection of the data being tested. The test of
the hypothesis
 descriptive
research
Used to describe behavior and characteristics of the population. Usually
Naturalistic Observation, Case Studies, and Surveys

naturalistic observation
The process of observing and classifying,
not explaining, behavior of people in a
natural setting (at home, parks, a mall). The
people are being observed without
interference between the observer and the
one being observed. The bad thing about it is
observer bias, it's time consuming, and you
don't have control over the environment.
 observer
bias
When the researcher them self
alters or changes the results of the study. For example, a teacher studying
differences in math skills between boys and girls might spend more time teaching
boys because he/she believes that boys are better at math.

case study
Kind of the same as naturalistic
observation, except is has a deeper
study on a certain topic with fewer
people (for example, health.) You
usually can't replicate these and
because of the small amount of people,
it takes away generalization.
 survey
Used to get large amounts of data in a short
amount of time, either though an interview or a
questionnaire.
These are very inexpensive, however, people may lie because they know they're
a part of an experiment, and it doesn't represent the entire population. It also
leads to more advanced research.

correlational
research
The process of examining how variables are
naturally related to the real world. This only shows the relation between two
things, not how they were caused (Cannot determine causality, only correlation.
For example, you can't say less sleep causes more stress or vice versa). This is
good because you can explore relations in a natural environment, and provide a
base for future experiments.
 correlational coefficients

The numerical relationship between the variables. The scale goes from -1.00 to
+1.00. An example of positive correlation (0 to +1.00) is time spent studying and
grades. An example of negative Correlation (0 to -1.00) is the time spent playing
video games and grades.

scatterplots
The visual representation on the variables and how they
correlate with each other.
experimental
research
This is the manipulation of one variable to
examine the effect on the second variable.

experimental
group
The group of people being experimented on, or those
who are receiving the treatment.
 control group
The group not being experimented on, or those who are
not receiving the treatment.

placebo effect "The sugar pill". A group of people

receive a pill (or any other forms) that
they continue to take to cure whatever
needs to be cured, and their minds are
tricked into actually thinking it works, so
they believe that it's actually doing what
is said to be doing however it's not.
double-blind study
A medical study in which both the groups participating
and the researchers are unaware of when and what the
experimental medication or procedure has been given.
The experimenters don't know who is in what group and
the subjects don't know which group they are in. This
helps fix the placebo effect.

independent
variable
The variable that is manipulated or changed by the
researcher.
 dependent
variable
The variable that is measured. It is something
that depends on other factors. For example, a
test score.

confounding
variable
AKA the extraneous variables, these variables cannot be controlled by the
researcher and could influence any change in the Dependent Variables (DV).
 random
sampling
This requires that every person in the population
has an equal chance of being selected. The goal
of this is to generalize findings from the sample to the population.

random
assignment
This requires that every member of the sample has
an equal likelihood of being assigned to the
experimental group. It balances out the unknown
factors, making them equally likely to appear in
both groups.
 statistical
significance
You are very sure that the statistic is reliable--the data has
shown there's a measurable difference between the
experimental group and the control group.

replication

If the experiment can be repeated and have the same or nearly the same results.
5 ethical criteria for human
research
1. Informed consent
2. Right to Withdraw
3. Freedom from Harm
4. Debriefing
5. Confidentiality

informed
consent
The process of telling research participants what
will happen during an experiment and requiring
them to sign a form stating they understand the
requirements. Researchers are allowed to lie in this part of a study.
 freedom
from harm
The ethical requirement that research
participants suffer no long-lasting
damage as the result of participating in a
study.

right to
withdraw
The ethical requirement that research
participants be allowed to leave a study
whenever they choose.
 debriefing
Explanation of an experiment after the study is
over, includes telling participants the purpose of the
study and any deceptions.

confidentiality
The right for research participants identity and personal
information to be kept private.

ethics
Established by the A.P.A., guidelines that
outline what is acceptable and unacceptable for
treatment of participants in research studies.
 descriptive statistics

Process of organizing numerical data to describe the basic features. The basis
for quantitative analysis of results. Includes mean, median, mode, standard
deviation, and range.
 inferential
statistics
The process of analyzing statistical data to determine if the results are significant
and can be generalized to the larger population.

population
A larger group of people or animals from
which a sample is drawn.
A
sample
set of subjects drawn from a specific
population

skewed
distribution
The result when a few extreme values (outliers) cause
the entire distribution of data to move too far to one
side of the mean.

validity
The extent to which an experiment measures what it is
supposed to measure.
 reliability
The extent to which a test yields
consistent results when replicated.

illusory
correlation
seeing a corollary relationship when there actually is
none.
 measures of central
tendency
measures of variation
hindsight
bias
The feeling of "I knew it all along!", when someone incorrectly assumes they
knew the outcome of a situation after already finding out the results.
overconfidence
The tendency to overestimate how easy something
might be or how long a task might take.

perceiving order
in random
events
Humans' tendency to see patterns where there
are none--such as in flipping a coin.