INTRODUCTION TO

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Ma. Concepcion A. Maico-Bacus, EdD, MAN, RN, COHN
Clinical Instructor
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, the students
should be able to:
1) Define terms relevant to the quantitative
research process– basic research, applied
research, rigor, and control.
2) Compare and contrast the problem-solving
process, nursing process, and research
process.
3) Identify the steps of quantitative research
process in descriptive, correlational, and
quasi-experimental, and experimental
published studies.
4) Read quantitative research reports.
5) Conduct initial critical appraisals of
quantitative research reports.
Introduction
Typical features of an experiment include
randomizing subjects into groups, collecting
data, and conducting statistical analyses.
● Introduction to quantitative research and
its steps
● Relevant terms are defined
● Problem-solving and nursing processes
are presented to provide a background for
understanding the qualitative research
process
● Descriptive correlational study is
presented as an example to promote
understanding of the process.
What is Quantitative Research
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH is a formal,
objective, rigorous, and systematic process for
generating numerical information about the
world.
It is conducted to describe new situations,
events, or concepts, examine relationships
among variables, and determining the
effectiveness of interventions on selected health
outcomes.
Sir Ronald Fisher (1935) originated the classic
experimental designs to test the effectiveness
of treatments. He is noted for adding structure
to the steps of quantitative research process
with hypothesis, research design, and statistical
analyses.
His studies provided groundwork for what is
now known as experimental research.
Campbell and Stanley (1963) developed
quasi-experimental approaches to study the
effects of treatments under less controlled
conditions.
Karl Pearson developed statistical approaches
for examining relationships among variables,
which were used in analyzing data from
correlational studies.
Understanding the quantitative research process
is essential for meeting the Quality and Safety
Education for Nurses (QSEN, 2017)
competencies for undergraduate nursing
students which are focused on patient-centered
care, teamwork and collaboration, EBP, quality
improvement, safety, and informatics.
Descriptive Research
It is the exploration and description of
phenomena in real-life situations. Provides an
accurate account of characteristics of
particular individuals, situations, or groups
using numbers.
Usually conducted with large numbers of
subjects or study participants, in natural
settings, with no manipulation of the situations.
Researchers discover new meaning, describe
what exists, determine the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorize information in
real-world settings.
Outcomes include: the identification and
description of concepts, identification of
possible relationships among concepts, and
development of hypotheses that provide a basis
for future quantitative research.
Correlational Research
Involves the systematic investigation of
relationships between or among variables.
Researchers measure selected variable in a
sample and then use correlational statistics to
determine the relationships among the study
variables.
Using correlational analyses, the researcher is
able to determine the degree or strength and
type of relationship between variables.
The degree of relationship varies: ranging from
-1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect
positive correlation), with 0 indicating no
relationship.
A positive relationship indicates that the
variables vary together; variables increase or
decrease together.
A negative relationship indicates that the
variables vary in opposite directions.
Correlational Research

The primary intent of correlational studies is to

explain the nature of relationships in the real
world, not to determine cause and effect.

The relationships identified with correlational

studies are the means for generating hypothesis
to guide quasi-experimental and experimental
studies that do focus on examining cause and
effect relationships.
Quasi-Experimental Research
The purpose of quasi-experimental research is
to examine causal relationships or determine
the effect of one variable on another.
Involve implementing an intervention and
examining the effects of this intervention using
selected methods of measurement.
Differ from experimental studies by the level of
control achieved by the researchers.
Quasi-experimental studies have less control
over the implementation of the intervention,
management of the setting, and/or selection of
study participants than experimental studies.
When studying human behavior, especially in
clinical settings, researchers frequently are
unable to select the participants randomly or
control certain variables related to the
intervention or setting. As a result, nurse
researchers conduct more quasi-experimental
studies than experimental studies.
Experimental Research
It is an objective, systematic, and highly
controlled investigation conducted for the
purposes of predicting and controlling
phenomena in nursing practice.
Causality between the independent (treatment)
and dependent (outcome) variables is examined
under highly controlled conditions.
It is the most powerful quantitative method
because of the rigorous control of variables.
3 main characteristics of experimental studies:
1. Controlled manipulation of at least one
treatment variable (independent variable)
2. Exposure of some of the study
participants to the treatment variable
(experimental group) and no exposure of
the remaining participants (control group)
3. Random assignment of participants to the
control or experimental group
Experimental Research

The degree of control achieved in experimental

studies varies according to the population
studied, variables examined, and the
environment of the study.

Randomly selecting participants and conducting

the study in a laboratory or research facility
strengthen the control in a study.
Defining Terms Relevant to
Quantitative Research
Basic Research

Sometimes referred to as pure research or even
bench research.
Includes scientific investigations conducted for
the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake or for
the pleasure of learning and finding truth.
Basic nursing research might include laboratory
investigations with animals or humans to
promote further understanding of physiological
functioning, genetic and inheritable disorders,
and pathological processes.

Seeks new knowledge about health phenomena,

with the hope of establishing general scientific
principles that often require applied research for
use in practice.
Applied Research
Also called practical research.
Includes scientific investigations conducted to
generate knowledge that will directly influence
or improve clinical practice.
The purpose of applied research is to solve
problems, make decisions, and/or predict or
control outcomes in real-life practice situations.
The findings can also be invaluable to policy
makers as a basis for making changes to
address health and social problems.
Researchers often examine the new knowledge
discovered through basic research for its
usefulness in practice by applied research,
making these approaches complimentary.
Rigor in Quantitative Research
Rigor is the striving for excellence in research,
which requires discipline, adherence to detail,
precision, and accuracy.
A rigorously conducted quantitative study has
precise measuring tools, a representative
sample, and a tightly controlled study design.
Critically appraising the rigor of a study involves
examining the reasoning used in conducting the
study.
Another aspect of rigor is precision, which
encompasses accuracy, detail, and order.
Precision is evident in the concise statement of
the research purpose and detailed development
of the study design.
The most explicit example of precision is the
measurement or quantification of the study
variables.
Precision allows for replication and variation.
 Control in Quantitative Research

Control involves the imposing of rules by

researchers to decrease the possibility of
error, thereby increasing the probability
that the study’s findings are an accurate
reflection of reality.

The rules used to achieve control in

research are referred to as design.
Control in Quantitative Research

Type of Quantitative Research Researcher Control of Research Setting

Interventions and Extraneous
Variables

Descriptive and Correlational No intervention; limited or no Natural or partially controlled

control of extraneous variables setting

Quasi-experimental Controlled intervention; rigorous Partially controlled setting

control of extraneous variables

Experimental Highly controlled intervention Research unit or laboratory

and extraneous variables setting
Elements Controlled in Quantitative
Research

● Extraneous variables
● Selection of setting/s
● Sampling process
● Assignment of study participants to groups
● Development and implementation of the study intervention
Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables exist in all studies and can

interfere with obtaining a clear understanding of
the relationships among the study variables.
Research Settings
The setting is the location in which a study is
conducted. Also referred to as locale.
3 common settings: natural, partially controlled,
and highly controlled.
Natural or field setting is an uncontrolled real-life
situation or environment. Conduct in this setting
means that the researcher does not manipulate
or changes the environment for the study.
A partially controlled setting is an environment
that the researcher has manipulated or modified
in some ways.
A highly controlled setting is an artificially
constructed environment developed for the sole
purpose of conducting research. Laboratories,
research centers, and test units in universities or
healthcare agencies are highly controlled
settings.
Sampling & Assignment of Participants to
Groups
Sampling is a process of selecting participants
who are representative of the population
because each member of the population is
selected independently and has an equal chance
or probability of being included in the study.
A randomly selected sample is very difficult to
obtain in nursing research, so quantitative
studies often are conducted with nonrandom
samples.
To increase the control and rigor of a study and
decrease the potential for bias (slanting of
findings away from what is true or accurate), the
participants who are initially selected with a
nonrandom sampling method are often
randomly assigned to the intervention or control
group in quasi-experimental and experimental
studies.
Study Interventions
Quasi-experimental and experimental studies
examine the effect of an independent variable or
intervention on a dependent variable or
outcome.
Controlling the development and
implementation of a study intervention
increases the validity of the study design and
credibility of the findings.
A study intervention needs to be: 1) clearly and
precisely developed; 2) consistently
implemented; and 3) examined for effectiveness
through quality measurement of the dependent
variables.
The detailed development of a quality
intervention and the consistent implementation
of this intervention are known as intervention
fidelity.
Problem-Solving and Nursing
Processes: Basis for
Understanding the Quantitative
Research Process
A process includes a purpose, series of actions,
and goal.

The purpose provides direction for the

implementation of a series of actions to achieve
an identified goal or outcome.

The specific steps of the process can be revised

and re-implemented to reach the endpoint or
goal.
Comparison of the Problem-Solving Process,
Nursing Process, and Research Process
Problem-Solving Process Nursing Process Research Process

Data collection Assessment Knowledge of nursing world

● data collection (objective and ● Clinical experience
subjective data), data ● Literature review
interpretation

Problem definition Nursing diagnosis Problem and Purpose Identification

Plan Plan Methodology (design, sample,
● Setting goals measurement methods, data collection,
● Identifying solutions data analysis)

Implementation Implementation Implementation

Evaluation and revision Evaluation and modification Outcomes, communication, and
synthesis of study findings to promote
EB nursing practice
Comparing Problem-Solving with the
Nursing Process

The problem-solving process involves: Steps in the nursing process:

1. systematic collection of data to identify a 1. Assessment

problem, difficulty, or dilemma; 2. Diagnosis
2. determination of goals related to the 3. Plan
problem; 4. Implementation
3. identification of possible approaches or 5. Evaluation and modification
solutions to achieve those goals (plan);
4. implementation of the selected solutions;
and
5. evaluation of goal achievement.
Comparing the Nursing Process with the
Research Process
The research process is more complex than the
nursing process and involves the rigorous
application of a variety of research methods.
Has a broader focus.
Researchers must be knowledgeable about the
world of nursing to identify problems that
require study.
The conduct of research requires greater
precision, rigor, and control than those that are
needed in the implementation of the nursing
process.
The outcomes from research frequently are
shared with a large number of nurses and other
healthcare professionals through presentations
and publications.
Identifying the Steps of the
Quantitative Research Process
The quantitative research
process involves
conceptualizing a research
project, planning and
implementing that project,
and communicating the
findings.
Research Problem and Purpose
A research problem is an area of concern in
which there is a gap in the knowledge needed
for nursing practice.
It usually identifies an area of concern for a
particular population that requires investigation.
Usually broad and could provide the basis for
several studies.
The research purpose is generated from the
problem and identifies the specific focus or goal
of the study. The focus of a quantitative study
might be to identify, describe, or explain a
situation, predict a solution, or control a
situation to produce positive outcomes in
practice.
The purpose includes the variables, population,
and often the setting for the study.
Review of Relevant Literature

Researchers conduct a review of relevant This section concludes with a summary

literature (sometimes, review of related paragraph that indicates the current knowledge
literature) to generate a picture of what is known of a particular problem area and identifies the
and unknown about a particular problem and to additional research that is needed to generate
document why a study needs to be conducted. essential evidence for practice.

Includes only those sources that are pertinent to

or highly important in providing the in-depth
knowledge needed to study a selected problem.
Study Framework
A framework is the abstract theoretical basis for
a study that enables the researcher to link the
findings to nursing’s body of knowledge.
In quantitative research, it is a testable theory
that has been developed in nursing or another
discipline such as psychology, pathology or
sociology.
A theory consists of assumptions, an integrated
set of defined concepts, and relational
statements that present a view of a
phenomenon and can be used to describe,
explain, predict, or control the phenomenon.
Assumptions are statements that are taken for
granted or are considered true even though they
have not been scientifically tested, and provide a
basis for the phenomenon described by the
theory.
Study Framework
A concept is a term that abstractly names and
describes an object or phenomenon, providing it
with a separate identity and meaning.
The relational statements in theories identify the
links between two or more concepts that are
tested in research.
A study framework can be expressed as a map
or a diagram of the relationships that provide
the basis for a study and is described in the
research report, or the framework can be
presented in a narrative format.
Research Objectives, Questions, or
Hypotheses
Research objectives (or aims), questions, or
hypotheses bridges the gap between the more
abstractly stated research problem and purpose
and the study design and plan for data
collection and analysis.
Objectives, questions, and hypotheses are
narrower in focus than the purpose and often
specify only one or two research variables.
They identify the relationship between the
variables and indicate the population to be
studied.
Some descriptive studies include only a
research purpose whereas others include a
purpose and objectives or questions or
hypotheses.
Study Variables

The research purpose and objectives, questions, More concrete concepts such as temperature,
or hypothesis identify the variables to be weight, or blood pressure, are referred to as
examined in a study. variables in a study.

Variables are concepts at various levels of More abstract concepts, such as creativity,
abstraction that are measured, manipulated or empathy or social support, sometimes are
controlled in a study. referred to as research concepts.
Study Variables

Researchers operationalize the variables or Researchers develop an operational definition

concepts in a study by identifying conceptual so that the variable can be measured or an
and operational definitions. intervention implemented in a study,

A conceptual definition provides a variable or

concept with theoretical meaning and it comes
from a theorist’s definition of a concept or is
developed through concept analysis
Study Design
Research design is a blueprint for the conduct of
a study that maximizes control over factors that
could interfere with the study’s desired outcome.
The type of design directs the selection of a
population, procedures for sampling, methods
of measurement, and plans for data collection
and analysis.
The choice of study design depends on what is
known and not known about the research
problem, the researcher’s expertise, the purpose
of the study, and the intent to generalize the
findings.
Sometimes it indicates that a pilot study was
conducted. A pilot study is often a smaller
version of a proposed study, an researchers
frequently conduct these to refine the study
sampling process, intervention, or measurement
of variables.
Study Design

In descriptive and correlational studies, no

treatment is administered.

Quasi-experimental and experimental study

designs usually involve intervention and control
groups and focus on achieving high levels of
control, as well as precision in measurement.

A study’s design usually is in the methodology

section of a research report.
Population and Sample

The population is all elements (individuals,

objects, or substances) that meet certain criteria
for inclusion in a study.

A sample is a subset of the population selected

for a particular study, and the members of
sample are the participants.
Measurement Methods

Measurement is the process of “assigning

numbers to objects (or events or situations) in
accord with some rule”.

A component of measurement is
instrumentation. An instrument is selected to
measure a specific variable in a study.

The numerical data generated with an

instrument may be at the nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio level measurement.
Data Collection

It is the precise and systematic gathering of Consent form - describes the study, promises
information relevant to the research purpose of confidentiality, and indicates that the
the specific objectives, questions, or hypotheses participants can withdraw from the study at any
of a study. time.

To collect data, the researcher must obtain The research report must document permission
permission from the setting or agency in which from an agency to conduct a study and consent
the study will be conducted. of the study participants.

Consent from all study participants must also be

obtained.
Data Analysis

Reduces, organizes, and gives meaning to the Researchers base their choice of analyses
data. techniques primarily on the research objectives,
questions, or hypotheses.
Analysis techniques conducted in quantitative
research include descriptive and inferential
analyses and some sophisticated, advanced
analysis techniques.
Discussion of Research Outcomes
Interpretation of research outcomes involves
examining the results from data analysis,
identifying study limitations, exploring the
significance of the findings, forming
conclusions, generalizing the findings,
considering the implications for nursing, and
suggestion further studies.
Limitations are restrictions in a study
methodology and/or framework that may
decrease the credibility and generalizability of
the findings.
A generalization is the extension of the
conclusions made based on the research
findings for practice and identify areas for
further research.
Reading Research Reports
Sources of Research Reports

The most common sources for research reports

are professional journals.

Applied Nursing Research and Clinical Nursing

Research focus on communicating research
findings to practicing nurses.

Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing focuses

on innovative ideas for using evidence to
improve patient care globally.
Content of Research Reports

A research report often includes six parts:

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Methods
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. References
Abstract

Usually at the beginning of a research report. The American Psychological Association (APA)
provides guidelines for developing quality
It is a clear concise summary of a study. abstracts.

Ranges from 100 to 250 words and usually

include the study purpose, design, setting,
sample size, major results, and conclusions.
Major Sections of a Research Report
INTRODUCTION
● Statement of the problem; with
background and significance
● Statement of the purpose
● Brief literature review
● Identification of the framework
● Identification of the research objectives,
questions or hypotheses (if applicable)
METHODS
● Identification of the research design
● Description of the interventions (if
applicable)
● Description of the sample and setting
● Description of the methods of
measurement
● Discussion of the data collection process
Major Sections of a Research Report
RESULTS
● Description of the data analysis
procedures
● Presentation of results in tables, figures, or
narrative organized by the purpose/s,
and/or objectives, questions, or
hypotheses
DISCUSSION
● Discussion of major findings
● identification of the limitations
● Presentation of conclusions
● Implications of the findings for nursing
practice
● Recommendations for further research
Introduction Section
Identifies the nature and scope of the problem
being investigated and provides a case for the
conduct of the study.
The significance of the study should be
identified.
Depending on the type of research report, the
literature review and framework may be in
separate sections or part of the introduction.
The literature review documents the current
knowledge of the problem, including what is
known and not known, and provides the basis
for the study purpose.
Researchers often end the introduction by
identifying the objectives, questions, or
hypotheses that they used to direct the study.
Methods Section

Describes how the study was conducted and

usually includes the study design, intervention (if
appropriate), sample, setting, measurement
methods, and data collection process.

This sections of the report needs to be

presented in enough detail so that readers can
critically appraise the adequacy of the study
methods to produce credible findings.
Results Section

Includes outcomes from the statistical analyses Focusing more on the summary of the study
and their significance. results and significance than on the statistical
values can help reduce the confusion that may
The researchers identify the statistical analyses be caused by the numbers.
conducted to address the purpose or each
objective question, or hypothesis and present
the results in tables, figures, or narrative of the
report.
Discussion Section

The discussion section ties together the other

sections of the research report and gives them
meaning.

This section includes the major findings,

limitations of the study, conclusions drawn from
the findings, implications of the findings for
nursing, and suggestions for further research.
References Section

The reference section of list includes the

studies, theories, and methodology resources
that provided a basis for the conduct of the
study.

These sources provide an opportunity to read

about the research problem in greater depth.
 Tips for
Reading a research report requires
Reading the use of a variety of critical
thinking skills. Such as skimming,
Research comprehending, and analyzing to
facilitate an understanding of the
Reports study.

Skimming a
research report
Involves quickly reviewing the source
to gain a broad overview of the
content.
Skimming enables preliminary
judgment of the value of a source and
whether to read the report in depth.
Familiarize the title, check the
author/s’ name/s. Check the
abstract or introduction and
discussion sections.
Knowing the findings of the study
will provide you with a standard for
evaluating the rest of the article.
Read the major headings and 1-2
sentences under each heading.
Reexamine the conclusions and
implications for practice.
Comprehending
a research
report
Requires the entire study be read
carefully.During the reading, focus on
understanding major concepts and
the logical flow of ideas within the
study.
Identify the particular statistics
used, results from each statistical
analysis, and meaning of the
results.
Study the purpose of specific
objectives, questions, hypotheses.
Indicate whether the focus is on
description, relationships or
differences.
 Analyzing a
Break the content of the report into
research report parts and examine the part in depth
for accuracy, completeness,
Involves determining the value of the uniqueness of information, and
report’s content. organization.
 1) What type of quantitative study
Critical was conducted– descriptive,
correlational,
Appraisal quasi-experimental, or
experimental?
Guidelines 2) Can you identify the following
sections in the research
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH report– Introduction, Methods,
Results, and Discussion?
The following questions are important 3) Were the steps of the study
in conducting an initial critical clearly identified?
appraisal of a quantitative research 4) Were any of the steps of the
report: research process missing?
Please be ready for a
Chapter Exam
tomorrow :)