Research Designs,

Methods and Strategies

DR. WILFREDO C. RAMOS
Research and Its Purpose
discusses the relationship of research questions with
methods and designs
the meaning and purpose of research designs and
the link between designs and statistical analysis
includes the threats to internal and external validity
aim of scientific research is to collect and organize
information in the world around us
main goal is to increase our understanding of the
things we observe, and eventually, to be able to
predict and control some aspects of the
phenomenon that has been observed.
Reseach questions are generally
concerned with (Grospe 2001)
(1) descriptions
(2) relationships
(3) differences
What is a Research Design?

the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation

conceived so as to obtain answers to research
questions and to control variance.
The plan is the overall scheme or the program of
the research
It includes an outline of what the researcher will
do from writing the hypothesis to the final
analysis of data.
 Research Structure

the outline, the scheme, paradigm (model or

pattern) of the operation of the variables
Strategy, on the other hand, includes the
methods to be used to gather and analyze the
data.
Design decisions depend on the purpose of the
study, the nature of the problem, and the
alternatives appropriate for its investigation.
Once the purpose has been specified, the study
should have explicit scope and direction.
Classification of Research
by Methods
(Quantitative Approach)
 What is Quantitative Research?

A formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process

for generating numerical information about the
world
Conducted to describe new situations, events, or
concepts; examine relationships among
variables; and determine he effectiveness of
treatments in the world
Organized into nine functional
categories (Isaac and Michael1976)
Historical
 it is concerned with describing past events or
facts objectively and accurately. Broadly, it
involves any appeal to past experience to help
in knowing what to do in the present and future
(Fox, 1969).
Descriptive Method
The principal aim in employing this method is
to describe the nature of a situation as it exists
at the time of study and to explore the causes
of particular phenomena.
Population census studies public opinion
surveys, observation studies, documentary
analysis, follow-up studies are examples of
descriptive research.
Developmental
its purpose is to investigate pattern and
sequences of growth and or change as a
function of time. It can be done either using
the longitudinal method and the cross-
sectional method.
The former studies the same sample
participants over time while the latter
studies participants of various characteristics at
the same point in time.
Case Study
this is employed when you want to study
intensively the background, current status
and environmental interaction of a given
social unit, an individual, group, institution or
community.
Correlational
This type of research aims to investigate the
extent to which variations in one factor
corresponds with variations in one or more
other factors in the population of interest.
Measures of Correlation coefficient is used to
determine the magnitude and direction of
relationship. Prediction studies are included in
this category.
Causal Comparative or Ex Post Facto
Ex post facto means "from the fact".
The research investigates the problem by
studying the variables in retrospect its
purpose is to investigate possible cause
and effect relationship by observing some
existing consequence and searching back
through the data for plausible casual factors
True Experimental
This method of research is the only one which
can truly test hypothesis concerning cause-
and- effect relationship.
This is done by exposing one or more
experimental groups to one or more
treatment conditions and comparing the
results to one or more control groups not
receiving the treatment.
Three Distinct Characteristics of
Experimentation
1. An independent variable is manipulated
2. All other variables except the dependent
variable is held constant
3. The effect of the manipulation of the
independent and variable on the dependent
- variable is observed or measured.
Quasi-Experimental
This approximate the conditions of true
experiment in a setting which does not allow
the control and or manipulation of all relevant
variables.
Action
aim to develop new skills or approaches
and to solve problems with direct
application to the classroom or other applied
setting
Alternative
Research Methods
Sevilla et.al (1992)
Participatory Action Research (PAR)

a problem is defined in terms of the people who

think and feel that is a problem. How they will
go about solving it will depend on how they
perceive it themselves, and on their resources
available to enable them to solve it.
It is the people themselves who develop their
own theories and solution to the problem.
In this method, the people are not merely the
object of research, but they are co-researchers.
Ethnographic Research Methods

 Evolved primarily as a response to the requirement that

rapport between the researcher and the "researched" is
a must for a valid research to be successful.
 The kinds of information gathered is based on the
information shared by the subject and how these
information are articulated in their behavior.
 This method is commonly used by anthropologists,
linguists, and other social scientists. Participant
observation is the most common technique of data
gathering
Indigenous Research Methods

The development of indigenous research methods

emanated from attempts towards indigenization of
Philippine psychology.
The applicability and generalizability of western
research methods are being questioned by
Enriques and other Filipino Psychologists such that
they advocate pakapa-kapa,
pakikipagkuwentuhan, pakikipanuluyan, and other
techniques in gathering data ( Pe-Pua, 1988).
Nine Basic Methods of Research
Method Purpose

Historical To reconstruct the past objectively

and accurately, often in relation to
the tenability of the hypothesis.
Descriptive To describe systematically a situation
or area of interest factually and
accurately.
Developmental To investigate patterns and
sequences of growth and/or change
as a function of time.
 Method Purpose
Case and Field To study intensively the background, current
status, and environmental interactions of a
given social unit; an individual, group,
institution, or community
Correlational To investigate the extent to which variations
in one factor correspond with variations in
one or more other factors based on
correlation coefficients.
Causal- To investigate possible cause-and-effect
comparative or relationships by observing some existing
"ex post facto"
consequences and searching back through
the data for plausible causal factors.
 Method Purpose
True To investigate possible cause-and-effect
experimental relationships by exposing one or more
treatment conditions and comparing the results
to one or more control groups not receiving the
treatment
Quasi- To approximate the conditions of the true
experimental experiment in a setting which does not allow
the control and or manipulation of all relevant
variables. The researcher must understand
what compromises exist in the internal and
external validity of his design and proceed
within these limitations.
Action To develop new skills or new approaches and
to solve problems with direct application to the
classroom or other applied.
IDENTIFYING THE STEPS OF THE
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Research problem and purpose

Literature review

Research objectives, questions, or hypotheses

Study variables

Assumptions
Generating
Limitations
further
Research design research

Population and sample

Methods of measurement

Data collection

Data analyses

Research outcomes
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 A systematic, subjective approach used to
describe life experiences and give them
meaning.
 Four qualitative perspectives:
1. Phenomenological
2. Grounded theory
3. Ethnographic
4. Historical
Values of Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research approaches are based
on a worldview that is holistic, and may
draw upon the following beliefs:
1. There are multiple, constructed realities.
2. The knower and the known are
inseparable and knowledge is co-
constructed.
3. Inquiry is value bound.
4. All generalizations are bounded by time
and context.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
• Reasoning process involves perceptually
putting pieces together to make wholes
• Qualitative researchers believe that there are
better and worse interpretations of data
• Frameworks /theories are used during data
analysis to further expand the understanding
of the data
• Findings lead to an understanding of a
phenomenon in a particular situation and are
not generalized
 Phenomenological Research
• Phenomena are the world of experience and it occur
only when a person experiences them
• Phenomenology refers to both a philosophy and a group
of research methods congruent with the philosophy
• Phenomenologists view the person as integrated with
the environment
• “What is the meaning of one’s lived experience?”
• To understand human behavior or experience, requires
the person interpret the action or experience for the
researcher and then the researcher must then interpret
the explanation provided by the person
 Grounded Theory Research
• Inductive technique that emerged from the discipline of
sociology
• “Grounded” means that the theory that developed from
the research has its roots in the data from which it was
derived
• Based on symbolic interaction theory which explores how
people define reality and how their beliefs are related to
actions.
• George Herbert Mead (1934), a social psychologist was a
leader in the development of this theory
• Grounded theory researcher seeks to understand the
interaction between self and group from the perspective of
those involved.
 Reality is created by attaching
meaning to situations.

Meaning is expressed in such symbols as

words, religious objects and clothing.

Symbolic meanings are the basis for

actions and interactions
which vary in individuals.

Meanings are shared by groups and are

communicated to new members through
socialization processes
(consensus & shared meanings).

Interaction may lead to redefinition and

new meanings and can result in the
redefinition of self.
Ethnographic Research
• Developed by anthropologists to study cultures through
immersion in the culture for a significant period of time
• “Ethnography” means “portrait of a people”.
• Study a people’s origins, past ways of living, and ways of
surviving through time
• Central concept is culture which is “a way of life
belonging to a designated group of people… a blueprint
for living which guides a particular group’s thoughts,
actions, and sentiments… all the accumulated ways a
group of people solve problems, which are reflected in
the people’s language, dress, food, and a number of
accumulated traditions and customs (Leininger)
Basic Approaches In Anthropology
1. Emic Approach
 Involves studying behaviors from within
the culture
2. Etic Approach
 Involves studying behavior from outside
the culture and examining similarities
and differences across cultures
Historical Research
• Examines events of the past
• Three (3) primary questions of history are:
1. Where have we come from?
2. Who are we?
3. Where are we going?
• Major assumption of historical philosophy is “There is
nothing new under the sun” which provides the
rationale for the foundation idea of historical research:
We can learn form the past.
• Historians study the past through oral and written
reports and artifacts, searching for patterns that lead to
generalizations.
Qualitative Research Methods
Selection of Topic

State the Problem or Question

Justify the Significance of Data

Design the Study

Identify Sources of Data

Gain Access to Sources of Data

Recruit Subjects

Gather Data

Describe, Analyze and Interpret Data

Develop Written Report of the Results

 Selection of Participants
• Subjects in qualitative research are called as
“participants” who provide assistance and
guidance to the researcher, who could not be
successful in carrying out the study without their
help
• They are recruited because of their particular
knowledge, experience, or views related to the
study
• Adequacy of number of participants is
determined through data saturation which is the
“repetition of data obtained”
Data Collection Methods
1. Interview
 Format is more likely to be open-ended interviews
 Range from semi-structured (fixed set of questions, no
fixed response) or unstructured (open-ended questions
with probes)
 Probes are queries made by the researcher to obtain
more information from the participant about a particular
interview question
 No fixed sequence of questions
 Respondents are allowed and even encouraged, to raise
important issues not addressed by the researcher
 Goal is to obtain an authentic insight into the
participant’s experiences
Interview Pointers
1. Sex
2. Age
3. Clothing
4. Physique
5. Race
6. Gadgets
7. Institutional affiliation
2. Focus Groups
 Designed to obtain the participant’s perceptions of a
specific topic in a setting that is permissive and
nonthreatening
 Group may give a sense of “safety in numbers” to
those wary of researchers or those who are anxious
 Conducted by a moderator or facilitator with the entire
interaction audio-recorded or video-recorded plus
noting of the proceedings
 Context such as time and environment are also critical
elements to be documented because of the potential
effect on the group
 Moderator should share common characteristics with
the participants
3. Observation
 Fundamental method of gathering data especially
ethnography studies
 Aim is to gather firsthand information in a naturally
occurring situation
 Researcher wants to learn the answer to the question
“What is going on here?”
 Researcher should look carefully and listen
 Activities being observed are routine for the
participants but unexpected events occurring during
the activities may be significant and are carefully
noted
 Researcher will attend to some aspects of the
situation while disregarding others
Methods In Observation
1. Field noting
 Detailed handwritten notes while
observing
2. Observe then write
3. Videotaping
 Observe for “Hawthorne” effect
4. Text as a source of Qualitative Data
 Researcher asks participants to write about a
particular topic (mail or e-mail not in person)
 Patient records, procedure manuals, newspaper
articles, magazine articles, books, or the Internet
can be used
 Transcriptions of recorded interviews are
commonly used
 Text analysis is used in historical research which
involves written descriptions of historical events,
letters, and documents related to the event
 Other Methods For Data Collection
1. Collecting Stories
 Gathering stories can enable ministers to
develop storytelling as a powerful means to
increase insight and promote spiritual health to
the congregation.
 Examples:
 Tales of success or tales of key
leaders/personalities
 Atrocity stories and morality fables
 Tales of professional incompetence
 Narratives of traumatic times and events
2. Case Studies
 Examines a single unit within the context of its real-
life environment
 Unit may be a person, a family, a nursing unit, or an
organization
 Can use quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods
of data collection
 Researcher should consider the multiple aspects
that affect a particular case and include this
essential information in the plan for data collection
and analysis
Transcribing Interviews
• Listen to recordings ASAP after the interview
• Note voice tone, inflection, and pauses of the
researcher and the participant
• After transcribing, researcher is advised to listen to the
recoding and read the written transcript of the tape
simultaneously, making notations of observations on
the transcript
• During the proofing process, underline key phrases, jot
down ideas next to the text in order not to lose some
line of thinking
 Immersion In The Data
• Initial purpose is to address the question “What is going
on?”
• Researcher needs to become familiar with the data as it is
gathered
• Involves reading, rereading notes and transcripts,
recalling observations and experiences, listening to audio
recordings, and viewing video recordings
• Recordings contain more than words; they contain feeling,
emphasis, and nonverbal communications that provide
clues about the participant’s feelings and emphasis
• In phenomenology, immersion in the data is known as
“dwelling with the data”
Codes And Coding
• Coding
Is the process of reading data, breaking text down into
sub-parts, and giving a label to that part of the text
A code is a symbol or abbreviation used to classify
words or phrases in the data.
Codes may be handwritten on a printed transcript or
indicated by highlighting a section of text and making a
comment in the margin within a word processing
program
Develop a numbered list of codes within the transcript,
in separate color coded small leafs or post it notes
Codes are them placed on a wide surface (table or
wall), to group, collapse, and regroup related themes
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE
AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative
Purpose To predict or to measure; to
quantify hypothesis that was
generated qualitatively
Form Standardized measures and
predetermined responses;
use measurement
Scale Large scale; larger numbers
of observations (at least
n=100); limited number of
questions yielding broad,
generalized, projectable
results
Optimal Result Greater understanding of
group similarities; excludes
content
Qualitative
Describe, explore or generate
ideas, thoughts, or feelings;
to form hypothesis is to be
tested quantitatively
No predetermined categories
of analysis; illuminate and
provide meanings
Small scale; small number of
observations or respondents;
small groups of people
generating a large amount of
in-depth, exploratory
information
Greater understanding of
individual differences;
provides context
 Quantitative Qualitative
Outcome Precise, exact, easily gathered for Longer and more detailed;
analysis variables contextualized

Negatives Reductionist thinking; simplifies Over-complicated thinking;

meanings of variables some respondents’ bias may
occur

Process Test previously set hypothesis; Illustrative explanation,

numerical presentation, responses can responses can be interpreted;
be gathered usually exploratory

Approach Supposedly objective; gathers Supposedly subjective; gathers

numerical data verbal or observable data

Description Statistical – How many? How often? Interpretive – How? Why?;

How much? What? ; explains and understands and interprets the
predicts meanings of variables

Sampling Probability, random, quota, structured, Convenience; uses purposive

uses representative sample sample

Strength Statistical validity; can be used to Face validity; cannot be used to

generalize generalize

Cost More expensive, usually takes longer in Less expensive, usually quick for
field to complete groups; longer for in-depth
interviews
SAMPLING
• Population
All elements (individuals, objects, or substances)
that meet the criteria for inclusion in a study
• Sample
A subset of the population that is selected for a
particular study, and the members of a sample
are the subjects or participants
In quantitative research – subjects, in qualitative
– participants
• Sampling
Defines the process of selecting the group of
people, events, behaviors, or other elements
with which to conduct a study.
• Measurement
The process of assigning “numbers to objects (or
events or situations) in accord with some rule
Involves instrumentation, which is the application of
specific rules to the development of a measurement
device or instrument
An instrument is selected to measure a specific
variable in a study
Levels Of Measurement
1. Nominal-scale
Lowest, used when data can be organized into
categories of a defined property but cannot be
ranked in order
Categories should be:
(a) not orderable, (b) must be exclusive, (c) must be
exhaustive
Ex. peptic ulcer, kidney stone, ovarian cyst

2. Ordinal-scale
Data are assigned to categories that can be ranked,
either higher or lower, either better or worse
Quantity can also be identified (Ex. pain – no pain,
mild, moderate, severe, excruciating)
unequal intervals
3. Interval-scale
 Uses interval scales, which have equal numerical
distances between intervals
 Magnitude of the attribute can be more precisely
defined
 Lacks an absolute zero point
 Ex. temperature

4. Ratio-scale
 The highest form of measurement and meets all of
the rules of other forms of measurement
 Has mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories,
ordered ranks, equally-spaced intervals and a
continuum of values
 Interval and ratio data can be added, subtracted,
multiplied and divided because of equal intervals
and continuum of values bsolute zero pointsEx.
Weight, length and volume
Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random
 Selection of samples on random basis giving each
element an equal chance or probability of being
choses as subject of the study

2. Stratified
 Divides the population into homogenous
subgroups from which elements are selected at
random.
3. Cluster (Multi-stage) Sampling
 Successive selection of random samples from larger
to smaller units by using either simple random or
stratified random methods. Involves several stages
in drawing the samples from the population.

4. Systematic (Sequential) sampling

 Selection of samples in sequence according to a
predetermined
modality
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
Probability Sampling

Advantages Disadvantages
• There is less bias. • It is time consuming
• Every element in the • Expensive
population is given an • Inconvenient
equal (independent) • Somewhat impossible to
chance to be selected obtain
Non-probability Sampling
1. Accidental (Convenience) Sampling
 Uses the most readily available or most
convenient group of people as study respondents
which are also called as volunteer samples
 Used when it is extremely difficult to select either
random or nonrandom sample
 Cannot be considered representative of any
population and should be avoided if at all
possible unless this is the only choice available

2. Quota
 Divides the population into homogenous sub-
populations to ensure the presence of
representative proportions of the various strata
3. Purposive (Judgment) Sampling
 Subjects are “handpicked” to be included in the sampling
frame based on certain criteria for the purposes of the
study
 Subjects are viewed as “typical cases” or “experts” that
provide enough data to answer the research questions
4. Snowball (Network or Chain) Sampling
 Consists of identifying few persons who meet the inclusion
criteria of the study and who in turn refer other individuals
who may be interviewed.
 Used to gain access to people who are difficult to identify
5. Modal instance sampling
 Used when one wishes to investigate thoughts and actions
of “typical” people and when the researcher fears that
significant data about this group of people might be lost in
a more general study.
 Advantages & Disadvantages
of Non-probability Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
Convenient It is likely to produce biased
Easy to produce anytime samples or errors in judgment
Less time spent for The researcher cannot
selection of the estimate the precise elements
respondents of the population that will be
included in the samples
Economical Certain elements may have no
Less expensive chance to be included in the
No fixed budget required sample
Importance of Sampling
1. Ensures quality of subjects through its inclusion and
exclusion criteria.
2. Acknowledges and specifies the scope and
limitations of the study.
3. Maximizes time and effort for better and accurate
collection of data.
4. Ensures the quality of data since the sampling
process helps control or eliminates extraneous
variables
5. Economic and financial concerns
 Slovin’s Formula
(Computation of Sample Size)

n = ________N________ N = 500_____
1 + (N) e 1 + (500) (.05)2
where: = 500
N = total population 1 + 1.25
n = sample size = 222
e = margin of error (5%)
The Research Process

Design &
Planning
Phase

Analytical
Phase
The Conceptual Phase
 Formulating and delimiting the problem

 Sources of research Problem

 Criteria in evaluating a research problem

 Reviewing the related literature

 Purpose
 Categories of reference
 Locating relevant literature for research review
Defining the framework and developing conceptual

and theoretical frameworks

Defining important terms: concept, construct,

conceptual models, statistical models

 Formulating hypotheses
 Purpose of research hypotheses
 Types
 Criteria considered when stating hypotheses
The Design and Planning Phases
 Selecting a research design

 Characteristics of research designs

 Identifying the population to be studies

 Designing the sampling plan

 Specifying methods to measure variables

The Empirical Phases
 Measurement and assessment of quantitative data
 Definition of measurement
 Levels of measurement
 Advantages of measurement

 Reliability
 Stability, internal consistency, equivalence

 Validity
 Content validity, criterion – related validity , construct
 Sensitivity and specificity
The Analytical Phase
 Analyzing the quantitative data
 descriptive data analysis
 inferential data analysis
 classification of statistics
 criteria for selecting statistical tool
The Dissemination Phase
 Communicating the research findings
 Using research in evidence – based nursing practice