UNIT IV.

LESSON I Cagayan State

University- Lal-
METHODOLOGY lo Campus
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1. Different Methods of Research

1.2. Subjects of the study and sampling design

Learning Competencies:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Determine the appropriate sampling technique for your study

Describe the data gathering instruments for research
Describe the procedures in data gathering for your research
Apply appropriate statistical treatment for your research.

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 HUNTING FOR INFORMATION
Methodology is used as a middle heading title of descriptive design. This is presented in chapter III of a
thesis and dissertation. This includes the research designs, determination of sample size (if sample is
survey), sampling design and techniques, the subjects, the research instrument, data gathering procedure,
data processing method, and statistical treatment.

1.1 DIFFERENT METHODS OF RESEARCH

 Essential Elements of the Research Methodology

1. Research design - A very important aspect of research methodology which describes the research
mode (whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research or if the researcher will use a specific
research type, e.g., descriptive, survey, historical, case study, or experimental).
2. Research locale - It discusses and describes the setting or place where the study is to be conducted.
3. Participants/respondents of the study- It describes the target population and the sample frame.
4. Instrument of the study- It explains the specific type of research instrument that will be used such as a
questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklist, interview schedule teacher-devised tests, and the like.
5. Validation of and establishing reliability- Two of the characteristics of a good instrument-Validity
and Reliability- should be established before the research instrument is utilized. It has to pass the tests for
validity and reliability.
6 Statistical treatment- One of the many ways of establishing the objectivity of research findings is by
subjecting the data to different but appropriate statistical formulas and processes.

QUANTITATIVE DESIGN QUALITATIVE DESIGN

Aims to characterize trends and patterns
Usually starts with neither a theory nor hypothesis
about the relationship between two data or more
variables
Uses structured research like questionnaires or
schedules
Uses large sample sizes that are representative of
Involves processes, feelings, and motives: the why's
and the how's (data are in depth and holistic)
Usually concerned with theory nor hypothesis
about generating a hypothesis from rather than
testing a hypothesis
Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
instruments
Uses sample sizes chosen purposely

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the population
Research of this kind can be replicated
Used for greater understanding of group similarities
Uses structured processes
Methods include census, survey, experiments, and
secondary case study, secondary analysis analysis
Validity should be high
Used to gain a greater understanding of
individual differences in terms of
feelings, motives, and experiences
Uses more flexible processes
Methods include field research, case study,
secondary analysis.

I. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Is the traditional, positivist scientific method which refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined
procedures to acquire information. It utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in
the real world. By "systematic" it means that the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps,
according to a pre-specified plan of action. Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is
rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses. Checking for the
presence or absence of skin inflammation, determining the anxiety level of a patient, and measuring the
weight or the newborn infant are all examples of empirical observations. The evidence for a study using
the positivist paradigm is gathered according to the established plan through structured instruments.
Usually, the information gathered in such a study is quantitative, 1.e., numeric information that results
from some type of formal measurement, and is analyzed with statistical procedures. The degree to which
research find: generalized to individuals other than those who participated in the study (referred to as the
generality of the research) is a widely used criterion for assessing the quality of quantitative studies. It is
based on the concepts of manipulation and control of phenomena and the verification of results validating
empirical data. It frequently deductive or theory-testing approach.

In the quantitative research, the researcher is concerned with the use of numbers and statistical analyses.
This is ideal for the traditional research approach which must contend with the problems of measurement.
To study a phenomenon, quantitative researchers attempt to measure, that is, to attach numeric values that
express quantity. A critique of quantitative research is that it is a limiting method for studying human
beings who are inherently complex and diverse. Another is that it focuses on a relatively small portion of
the human experience (e.g., weight gain, depression, chemical dependency) Complexities tend to be
controlled or eliminated rather than studied directly. In general, quantitative research is criticized for
it’s narrowness and inflexibility of vision, a problem that has been called a "regimented view of the world"
that does not fully capture the reality of human experience.

Table 1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental Designs Non- Experiemntal

True experimental design Action studies

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 Pretest-posttest control design Comparative studies
Posttest only control group Correlational studies
Solomon four-group Developmental studies
Evaluation studies
Quasi-experimental designs Meta-analysis studies
Non-equivalent Methodological studies
Time series Needs assessment studies
Secondary analysis studies
Pre-experimental designs Survey studies
One-shot case study
One group pretest
Posttest

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Experimental research is concerned primarily with cause and effect relationships in which all experimental
studies involve manipulation or control of the independent variables (causes) and measurement of the
dependent variables (effects). This design utilizes the principle of research known as the method of
difference. This means that the effect of a single variable applied to the situation can be assessed, and the
difference likewise be determined (Mill, ascited in Sevilla, 2003).

II. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research, or the naturalistic method of inquiry of research, deals with the issue of human
complexity by exploring it directly. In this type, the emphasis is on the complexity of humans, their ability
to shape and create their own experience, and the idea that truth is a composite of reality. Naturalistic
investigations place heavy emphasis on understanding the human experience as it is lived, usually through
the careful collection and analysis of data that are narrative and subjective.

Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights on and an understanding of an individual's perception of

events. It is concerned with in-depth descriptions of people or events and their interpretation of
circumstances. Data are collected through such methods as unstructured interviews and participant
observation. The task of the researcher is to synthesize the patterns and themes in the data instead of
focusing on the testing of hypotheses. The qualitative researcher must not be limited by existing theories
but must be open to new ideas and new theories. Lastly, the researcher does not have to be concerned with
numbers and complicated statistical analyses. This model tends to emphasize the dynamic, holistic, and
individual aspects of human experience and attempts to capture those aspects in their entirety within the
context of those who are experiencing them. The collection and analysis of information typically progress
concurrently as researchers sift through information; insights are gained; new questions emerge; and

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further evidence is sought to confirm the insights. Through the inductive process, researchers integrate
information to develop a theory or description that helps explicate the phenomenon under observation.

A major limitation of this model is that it is reductionist i.e. it reduces human experience to just a few
concepts under investigation, which are defined in advance by the research rather than emerging from the
experience of the respondents. Another limitation of a qualitative research involves the subjective nature
or naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes causes concerns about the nature of conclusions.
No two naturalistic researchers studying the same phenomenon in similar settings would arrive at similar
conclusions. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the most naturalistic studies involve a
relatively small group of people Thus, the generalizability of findings from naturalistic inquiries is
sometimes questioned.

1.2 SUBJECTS OF THE STUDY AND SAMPLING DESIGN

This element of the research methodology discusses how the subjects/respondents of the
study are selected and how an appropriate sampling method is chosen. In this part of the
research, the subjects/respondents, through citing basic profiles, are introduced to the
readers. Subjects can be individuals or organizations to which intervention or processes are
applied. In some studies, the subjects are the respondents themselves, but in other
researches, the subjects are not necessarily the respondents.

The participants or respondents are individuals or a group or groups of people that serve/s
as the source of information during data collection. The population is a complete set of
persons' or objects that possess some common characteristics that are of interest to the
researcher. There are two groups of population: the target population and the accessible
population. The target population is composed of the entire group of people or objects to
which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study while the accessible
population is the specific study population.

For example, in a study about the common difficulties encountered by nursing students in
their related learning experiences, all level III nursing students sing in the Philippines can
be the target population, but only the nursing students level III in a particular college/s of
the researcher's choice.

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A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population. It is very impractical for the
researcher to get data from the entire population, especially it is very large; in this case a
sample is derived. A sample is a subset of the entire population or a group or individuals
that represents the population and serves as respondents of the study.
A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a sample. A single member of the sample is
called an element.

 Ways of Determining the Statistic of the Sample Size

An important task of the researcher is to determine the acceptable sample size. The larger
the sample, the more reliable is. Hence, it is advisable to have a sample large enough to
yield reliable results.

 Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size

1. Homogeneity of the population

The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population, the smaller is the sample
size that can be utilized.
2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher
The larger the sample size, the higher is the precision or accuracy or results.
3. Types of sampling procedure
Probability sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than non-probability sampling.

 Considerations in Determining the Sample Size

1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the
sampling distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott,
1990)

2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve
as the sample size. This is called universal sampling

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 REFERENCES

Aquino, G. (2015). Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing

Calmorin, L. & Calmorin, M. (2007). Research Methods and thesis writing.
Cristobal, A. & Cristobal, M. (2013). Research Made Easier: A step by step process. C&E Publishing Inc.
Korthari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques. New Age International Publishers.
Passer, M. (2014). Research Methods: Concepts and Connections. Worth Publishers.
Tuarabian, K. (2015). Manual for writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations
Walliman N. (2011) Research Methods: The Basics. The Routledge