MODULE ON

CRIMINOLOGICAL
RESEARCH

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Copyright
No portion of this module maybe be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems or transmitted in any
form or by any means mechanical, electronic, photocopying or otherwise without prior permission from
the publisher.

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 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AND RESEARCH
PROBLEMS

What is research?
Research is defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical proposition about the presumed relations among
natural phenomena. Being systematic and controlled means it is to order that
the investigation can have critical confidence in their research pursuit. Being
empirical this is where solvable problems can be solved by studying
observable events. To be critical is to examine the result of one’s work and
the research results of others. And through this examination, one could
identify weaknesses and strength of one’s studywhich one can improve, if not
replicate to meet the purpose of solving the problem.

What is the difference between thesis and articles?

Thesis and Journal Article are both important parts of reports in academic field. Some researchers
find it the same but it has many differences so it is necessary to know what is thesis and what is
article.
A thesis is a theory or statement needs to be proved while an article is a piece of writing that can
be found in the newspaper, magazine, or other publication.
In terms of word length, there is no particular word limit in thesis writing which is approximately
25,000 words, while in article writing there is a word limit based on the journal approximately 5000
words. Also, thesis abstract is longer than a journal paper and article abstract is smaller in length.
In addition, thesis literature is much longer than article literature.
A thesis is an academic requirement while an article meets journal standards. Thesis has a table
of contents while an article follows a manuscript format.
Thesis also needs to discussed detailed research methodology carried but an article discussed
specific methodology as well as experiments conducted.
Others differences includes the way it is written, a thesis needs a detailed introduction while an
article needs a concise introduction. All findings presented as in the thesis but an article only
selected finding.

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Definition of Criminological Research
Criminological Research is defined as careful, systematic study of knowledge in the field
of criminology or criminal justice, undertaken to establish facts or causations of crime. It is also
defined as systematic process of collecting and analyzing crime and victim data to find an answer
to a question or a solution to the criminological or victimization problem and to validate or text
existing criminological and victimization theories.
Many students and practitioners in criminal justice and criminology are engaged in
activities which have the characteristics or formal research. They make inquiries and initiatives
to determine whether their ideas are correct. They make further inquiries and initiatives evaluate
their guesses and decide on the best answer. This process cannot be called research unless
they follow systematic procedures ask the appropriate questions and use reliable and valid
instruments.

Why study Criminological Research

Criminological research provide the tools necessary to approach issues in criminal justice
from a more rigorous standpoint and enable a venture beyond opinions based solely on non
scientific observations and experiences. Much of what appears in criminological research is of
course not uniques

Types of Research according to use of Statistical Procedure

1.Qualitative research–exploratory research; used to gain an understanding
of underlying reasons, opinion and motivations
2.Quantitative research–used to quantify the problem by way of generating
numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics
Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to
QUESTIONS

SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which

you will follow. There are certain things in the research process which are
always done in order to get the most accurate results.

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 ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing
research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused
and limited to a specific scope.
FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a
hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find
answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.
QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is
of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important
questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose

Functions or Purpose of Research:

 Exploration – suggests that little is known about a subject and therefore the task to “do
some digging”, “delve into”, or “investigate”.
 In Criminology research context, according to Bayens & Roberson (2017) the study can
be considered exploratory if the purposes are:
 Determine what is occurring
 Gain new insights
 Assess phenomena in a new light
 Description – captures the essence of come event by gathering precise measurements
from a set of carefully selected cases and then generalize the findings to a larger
population. This is very useful to estimate future events.
 According to Bayens & Roberson (2017) the study can be considered descriptive if the
purposes are:
 Portray an accurate profile of an event or situation
 Estimate the proportion of people in a specified population
Provide a quality descriptive that is representative of a larger group
 Explanation - a researcher attempts to go beyond the level of description and explain a
phenomenon by testing relationships among variables of the hypothesis.
 According to Bayens & Roberson (2017) the study can be considered explanatory if the
purposes are:
 Find explanations to problems
 Test the probability that certain relationships of variable exist

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  Exploration – determine what is occurring, gain new insights, assess
phenomena in a new light.
 Description – portray an accurate profile of an event/situation, estimate the
proportion of people in a specified population, provide a quality description that is
representative of a larger group
 Explanation – find explanation to problems, test the probability that certain
relationships of variable exists, and understand the relationships of variables
 Understand the relationship of variables.

Types of Research
1. Action research is a methodology that combines action and
research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena
through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to
improve practice.
2. Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical
problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.
3. Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to
acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other
than the advancement of knowledge. Clinical trials are research
studies undertaken to determine better ways to prevent, screen for,
diagnose or treat diseases.
4. Epidemiological research is concerned with the description of
health and welfare in populations through the collection of data
related to health and the frequency, distribution and determinants of
disease in populations, with the aim of improving health.
5. Evaluation research is research conducted to measure the
effectiveness or performance of a program, concept or campaign in
achieving its objectives.
6. Literature review is a critical examination, summarization,
interpretation or evaluation of existing literature in order to establish
current knowledge on a subject.
7. Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights
concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviors of individuals
to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as

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 focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case
studies.
8. Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement
of attitudes, behaviors and perceptions and includes interviewing
methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as
well as self- completion methods such as mail outs and online
surveys.
Service or program monitoring and evaluation involves collecting and analyzing a range of
processes and outcome data in order to assess the performance of a service or program and to
determine if the intended or expected results have been achieved.
General Categories of Research

1. Descriptive Research
- The descriptive type of study finds answer to the questions who, what, when where and how.
This type of research describes a situation or given state of affairs in terms of special aspects or
factors. What may be described are characteristics of individual or groups i.e., offenders, victims
, etc. or physical environments i.e., rura;, urban, squatter etc. or conditions i.e., performances,
effectiveness, etc.
2. Correlational Research

- The correlation type of study goes beyond description of the problem of situation. It attempt to
explain the possible factors related to a problem which has been observed in a descriptive study.
This type of study answers the questions why and how? The factors related to the problem
however need not be viewed as a real “causes” of the problem but factors which are associated
with many contribute to the occurrence of the problem.

3. Intervention research
The intervention type of study evaluates the effects or outcome of a particular intervention. It
studies the “cause and effect” relationships between certain factors on certain phenomenon under
controlled conditions. The subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the experimental group
and to the control group and both groups are exposed top similar conditions except for the
interventions.

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Other Classifications of Research
1. Pure Basic VS. Applied Research
Pure Basic research is concerned with the acquisition of new knowledge for the sake of
science or the development of the field whereas applied research is practical research concerned
with solving immediate policy problems. Although the issues of common sense briefly by means
or “myths of the crime” and addressed, there still exist the broader issues.
2. Qualitative VS Quantitative research

- In quantitative research concepts are assigned numerical value, whereas qualitative research
concepts are viewed as sensitizing ideas or terms that enhance our understanding. Research
methods in the social sciences, of which criminal justice as heir, have followed two basic
philosophical traditions. The first legacy reflects a historical, intuitive or observational approach
and suggest that the physical and social sciences are distinct entities.
3. Exploratory vs explanatory research
Exploratory research is a loosely structured but valuable methodological strategy. When
scientist are interested in some phenomenon, but feel they need to know a great deal more about
it before they can put together a well organized and thorough study on it, they often engage in
exploratory research.
Exploratory studies are designed to describe an existing problem/ situation and examine
the underlying factors that contribute to the emergence of the problem, the nature of which is not
yet well known. Occasionally, researchers discover that they are not as interested in the
phenomenon as they initially thought or that there seems to be no feasible means of studying the
phenomenon further at the present time. Any of these outcomes of exploratory research would
make the effort worthwhile.

What is thesis?
Thesis is a written document submitted as candidate for an academic degree or professional
qualification. It a paper that proving something with evidence and facts. It can be a long essay or
dissertation which involves personal research.

Types of Thesis
1. Traditional Thesis
A clear document which provides a complete and systematic account of the research. A traditional
thesis contains the following contents including introduction, main body, footnotes, bibliography
and appendices.

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2. Manuscript-based Thesis
A document that is written based on one or more manuscript. The thesis based on manuscript
should be required to have introductory chapter of the manuscript. It contains introduction,
literature review, thesis theme, hypothesis to be tested. Each chapter should provide contents of
the manuscript which have been published.
3. Administrative Thesis
It is defines, describes, analyzes, and interprets actual administrative. It contains definition of the
problem, description of settings and structure as well as function and relationship, process
outcome and assessment of the administrative solution.
4. Investigative thesis
It is usually written to investigate at specific health issues describing the public health importance.
It includes definition of the problems, presentation of data and methods, analysis of the results,
implication of the results, and recommendations.
5. Portfolio thesis
This type of thesis contains of a number of small written presentations and a final written
presentation of larger scope.
6. Product thesis
It contains a product presentation with documentation.

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Activity 1
Explain the significance of research in your future profession?
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Determine what category of research is applicable to the following problem:

1. studying the relationship between criminality and socio economic status

2. Assessing the factors influencing drug addiction

3. assessing the level of effectiveness of rehabilitation programs inside the New Bilibid prison

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 CHAPTER 2 Research Problem

Process of making Research

“What are the most important factors to consider when writing a

research paper?”
The research you conduct should of course be novel, timely, rigorous, and hopefully
interesting. But you must also transmit your scientific research into writing—a well-written paper
will greatly improve your chances of getting accepted into journals. Here is an overview of the
factors that help create quality writing in a research paper:
1. Coherence

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 • All of the parts of your paper should fit together in an order that makes sense.
• Include all necessary information in each section needed to understand the other sections.
• Do not repeat information unless it is necessary.
• Ensure that your sentences are grammatically and logically coherent.
2. Organization
• Most scientific papers follow the IMRD structure—be sure to put the right parts in the right
section (e.g., don’t include the literature review in the Methods section).
3. Relevance
• As you do research you will notice that there are a great many pieces of information and
data you COULD include in your paper. However, you need to conform to length
guidelines and keep your paper focused. Therefore, you should be sure that you are
choosing a proper number of items to focus on for each section.
• For example, if your study has 10 results but your paper can only be 4,000 words, you
might want to narrow down these results to only those that support your hypothesis,
perhaps the 3-5 most important results.
• The same applies to the Introduction, where you must choose what background, context,
and relevant literature to include. Be sure to only include information that gives readers a
focused and relevant understanding of your area of study.
4. Clarity
• Clarity is related to coherence, organization, and relevance. It means ensuring that each
paragraph and sentence in your paper is natural and easy to read and understand: proper
grammar, phrasing, and style are key to writing a paper that is readable and comprehensible
to both experts and possibly non-experts, depending on your target audience.

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The research problem
A problem is a situation resulting from the interaction or juxtaposition of two
or more factors (e.g., givens, constraints, conditions, desires, etc.) which yields (1)
a perplexing or enigmatic state, (2) an undesirable consequence, or (3) a conflict
which renders the choice from among alternative courses of action moot.

A problem solution is an action which clarifies the perplexing or enigmatic state,

which alleviates or eliminates an undesirable consequence, or which resolves the
conflict or delineates the course of action to be taken.

The nature of the relationship between or among the factors generating the
problem may take any of severalforms, e.g.:
1. provocative exception
2. contradictory evidence
3. moot alternatives, i.e., knowledge void
4. action-knowledge conflict
5. knowledge-action conflict

The research title

The thesis title is the topic on which you have prepared your thesis. In simple words, it can
be said that the title of the thesis summarizes the main concept of your study. A title should be
crisp, small and relevant to the topic.

Why thesis title is important?

While writing a thesis, the first thing that catches reader attention is the title of thesis. Therefore, it is
an essential part. A PhD thesis title is its identity. Your thesis will be known by the topic you choose
to write. Hence, if the title is lengthy, the study will lose its gravity. The title should be crisp and short.
It also helps in avoiding grammatical mistakes.

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How to make thesis title?

The title of thesis is an important part. You need to be very creative when it comes to thesis title.
Title is not just an introduction, but it is reflection of your study. Here are some points that can
help you with writing a good thesis title for your study:

• The title of your thesis should be small and crisp.

• It should be very catchy and easy to remember.
• The title should be relevant to the subject of your study.
• It should give an idea about your thought that you are supporting in your study.

Characteristics of a Good Research Title

According to rhetoric scholars Hairston and Keene, making a good title for a paper involves
ensuring that the title of the research accomplishes four goals as mentioned below:

• It should predict the content of the research paper.

• It should be interesting to the reader.
• It should reflect the tone of the writing.
• It should contain important keywords that will make it easier to be located during a keyword
search.

Guidelines to thesis title

1. The title should be clear and distinctively stated.

2. Subject matter of the study, the place of the study, the population involved, the period

when the data were gathered should be included.

3. The variables being examined should always be written as part of the title. Choose terms

that will summarize the variables if there were many variable being studied.

4. Title should be short. It should not exceed twenty words.

5. Title should not contain acronyms.

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 6. Some forms of title phrasing such as “Study of…..”, An analysis….”, “A Preliminary Study

of……..” are to be avoided.

7. Title should not contain formulas, symbols or subscripts or other non-alphabetic symbols

instead word substitute should be used.

8. In case the title contains more than one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid,

all words in capital letters.

How to write thesis title?

EFFECTIVENESS OF PARENT ENGAGEMENT PROGRAM TO REDUCE TRUANCY AND

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY : A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Factors to be considered whether the research problem is researchable or not:

1. The problem is existing to the locality or country but no known solution to the problem

2. The solution can be answered by measuring statistical strategies and techniques

3. There are possible solutions but they are not yet tested

4. The occurrence of phenomena requires scientific investigation to arrive at precise solution

5. serious problems of people where it demands research

Criteria of a good research problem

1. Interesting – Research problem should attract the attention of the reader. Students doing the
research should also be interested to their topic to develop enthusiasm and eagerness to finish
their study.

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2. Innovative – Though replicability in conducting research is allowed, It is advisable that a
research problem is something novel, original and unique to attract the attention of people and
contribute to the economic development of the country.

3. Cost effective – A good research problem should be cost effective and economical in solving
the needs of the community. It should also augment socio economic and health conditions of the
people and many others.

4. Relevant to the needs and problems of the people – Researchers must keep in mind that they
conduct research not for personal aggrandizement but to solve the needs and problems of the
people.

5. Relevant to government thrust – The researcher must respond to the government thrust. For
instance government thrust is on waste management, the investigator must conduct a study to
fight against waste.

6. measurable and time bound – a good research problem is measurable by using research
instrument, apparatus or equipment as well as statistical tools to arrived scientific and measurable
results.

What are the sources of research problems?

Interviews
Interviews sessions can be significant sources of research problems. The method gives you an
opportunity to have formal discussions and informal interactions with individuals who can provide
useful insights into research and make findings more relevant to future research.
Personal experiences

You have to think critically about your personal experiences with an issue that affects your family,
your personal life, or your community. A research problem derived from personal experience can
spring from any issue and from anywhere.

Deduction from theory

A deduction from theory refers to inferences a researcher makes from the generalizations of life
in a society that a researcher knows very well.
A researcher takes the deduction, places them in an empirical frame, and then, based on a theory,
they come up with a research problem and a hypothesis that suggests some findings based on
given empirical results.

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The research accounts for the relationship to observe if a theory summarizes the state of an affair.

Interdisciplinary Perspective
If you consider interdisciplinary perspective to identify a problem for a research study, you’ll have
to look at scholarship and academic movements from outside your main area of investigation.
It’s an intellectually involving process, one that requires reviewing pertinent literature to discover
unique avenues of exploration an analysis.
The benefit of using this approach to identify a research problem for your research paper
assignment is that it presents an opportunity for you to understand complex issues with ease.

Relevant Literature
To generate a research problem from relevant literature, you first have to review research related
to your area of interest.
Doing so allows you to find gaps on the topic, making it easy for you to understand just how much
understudied your area of interest is.
Data collected from relevant literature is relevant because it helps to:
• Fill existing gaps in knowledge based on a specific research
• Determine if current studies can have implications on further research on the same issue
• See if it’s possible to conduct a similar study in a different area or apply the same in a
different context
• Determine if the methods used in previous studies can be effective in solving future
problems

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Activity 2
Browse the library for literature or studies on three research topics in which you are most
interested. Explain how you became interested in these issues.
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 Introduction

For most students, getting started with the thesis introduction chapter is the scariest part.
They are often not clear about the elements that should be included to make it interesting. It is
the first section in thesis writing. Thus, it must be engaging enough for the readers.

Similarly, if you face trouble putting together a good introduction, it is better to start with a
placeholder. However, this section doesn’t have to be the first thing that you should write. In fact,
it is usually the very last thing to be completed by the writers.

What is INTRODUCTION?
The introduction is the first chapter of your thesis paper. It narrows down a broad subject and
directs its focus to a specific point.

Similarly, it also serves as a mind map highlighting the central theme, writing styles, and
supporting points. These aspects set the stage for the writing process.

Moreover, a thesis introduction paragraph comes after the table of contents and provides a
broader context of the research. Remember, a strong beginning is important to grab the reader’s
attention.

What are the major elements of Introduction?

• Topic and Context – What points a reader should know to understand the thesis?
• Focus and Scope – What aspects of the topic will be addressed? It can be research
gaps, questions, and problems.
• Relevance and Importance – How does the research work contribute to the existing
work on the topic?
• Questions and Objectives – What are the main objectives of the research work, and
how they can be achieved?

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 • Overview of the Structure – How each chapter of the thesis will contribute to the
overall objectives?

How long should a thesis introduction be?

The introduction of your thesis paper makes up roughly 10% of your total word count. Therefore,
a PhD thesis paper introduction would be 8000 - 10000 words. However, a Master's thesis would
be 1500 - 2000 words long.
Although the thesis introduction length can be increased if the writer includes images, diagrams,
and descriptions.

A thesis introduction chapter outline.

• Start with an attention-grabbing hook statement.
• Introduce the topic to the audience through a general statement.
• Describe the problem statement and the main hypothesis.
• State your main argument with the help of a thesis statement.
• Mention the research questions along with the objectives.
• Discuss the significance and the contribution of the research to the existing literature.
• State the research limitations, if there are any.
• Conclude your introduction paragraph by connecting all the ideas logically.

Thesis introduction outline – sample

- Major research questions
- Sub question A (to address major research question)
- sub question b (to address major research question)
- How you came to be interested in your major research question?
- the importance of this question to the community
- a sentence or two descriptions of each of chapters to follow

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How to start thesis introduction?
1. Choose a Topic
The first step to start a thesis introduction is by choosing an interesting topic. It should be
introduced and defined well for the readers to understand.
You can also choose unique ideas from our compiled list of thesis topics.

2. Brainstorm and Research the Content

Brainstorm different ideas and information related to your topic. Research the content by going
through previous literature regarding your subject. It will help you get maximum grip on the thesis.

3. Select the Type of Paper

Select the type of paper you are comfortable in writing. Remember, the text should never be in
the first person.
Also, do not add irrelevant details and be precise by using accurate vocabulary and grammar.
Strong words while writing a thesis will help you describe the research aims comprehensively.

4. Know the Target Audience

It is better to know the target audience that you are addressing. Similarly, the work techniques,
processes, and literature must be introduced according to your audience.

5. Organize the Ideas

Organize and compile the main arguments, ideas, and claims in the next step. These thoughts
will be helpful to describe and present the thesis statement.

6. Define the Subject and Relevant Themes

Define the subject and the relevant themes before starting your thesis introduction. It would
become easier for the reader to skim and get a good idea by going through it.

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Steps in writing thesis introduction

1. Hook the Reader’s Interest

A writer should begin writing the introduction with a hook statement to draw the reader’s interest.
It can be a question, quotation, or interesting transitions into your arguments.
Also, make a list of interesting, current events or controversies related to your topic. It will help in
creating a strong introduction and thesis statement.

2. Identify the Research Gap

Review and evaluate the existing literature critically. It will help the researcher in finding and
addressing the research gap.

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3. State the Background Information
A good introduction of the thesis always states the historical background of the chosen topic. It is
usually cited in the first paragraph and shows the current position of the subject.

4. Back Your Topic with Relevant Literature

The introduction is a mix of previous research and literature review. Thus, the topic should be
backed with relevant resources.
It is also used to explain the context and significance of previous studies. Moreover, it further
acknowledges credible sources of information to solidify your claim.

5. Mention the Hypothesis

Formulate a hypothesis of your research work. It will discuss what you aim to achieve along with
the possibilities.

6. Provide Significance of Your Research

The gap will help to evaluate the situation and explain the significance of the current research.
Thus, add the purpose of your paper explaining why the research is done. It will also demonstrate
the possible contributions of the research work in the future.

7. Outline the Research Questions

The next step is to outline your research questions. These should be relevant to the purpose of
your study. Moreover, it will also help you discuss the problems that you seek to address.

8. State Research Objectives

State the research aims and objectives to define the primary purpose of the work. It should give
a direction to the research by providing an overview of what it aims to achieve.

9. Create an Outline
Create a well-structured outline to organize and compile the ideas. Also, include a table of
contents at the beginning of your thesis. It serves as a mind map to discuss the layout of your
thesis proposal.

10. Discuss the Research Methodology

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The next step is to define the terms and methodology you are going to apply in your research. It
is a good technique to make your study authentic, credible, and useful.

11. Finalize your Introduction

Ask yourself the following questions after finishing writing the introduction.
Does your introduction discuss the problem your thesis is addressing?
Does this section address the contribution the research work is making?
Does it provide a detailed overview of your thesis?
Does it end by briefly discussing the content of each chapter?
Does it make a case for the research?
Does it outline research questions, problems, and hypotheses clearly?
The following are some writing tips to help you draft perfect thesis introductions.

Thesis introduction writing tips

- The thesis introduction requires you to identify and define your parameters of research.
- It provides enough data to support your arguments.
- The topic must define the territory for the introduction along with its terms and scope.
- It also establishes a niche by narrowing the claims that you will be discussing in your thesis
body.
- A good introduction defines the direction and purpose.
- It will guide the reader to determine which approach the writer should adopt for further
exploration.
- It contains background information to give a strong foundation to your thesis.
- The introduction must introduce the current research by stating hypotheses, research
questions, and objectives.
- The content of this section should be original and plagiarism free.
- It must follow a coherent thesis format by providing concise information.
- Do not use technical language as it will leave the reader confused.

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Activity 3
Try to create an introduction using the guidelines discussed in this chapter and the title you came
up with in the preceding exercise or activities.

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Parrts of Introduction:
- The problem and its background
- Review of Related Literatures
- Theoretical Framework
- Objectives of the study

The problem and its background

- This chapter describes and discusses the problem and background why the researcher
conducted the study.
Background of the study
- This part shows the origin of the problem. It is an account describing the circumstances
which suggested the research. It also include the rationale for conducting the research.
In writing background of the study consider the following:
1. readers interest
2. reach out specific audience
3. establish problems that leads to study
4. place the study within larger context of the scholarly literature
5. a quantitative introduction is typically written from the third person point of view
6. This helps creates sense of objectivity

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Review of Related Literature

What is literature?
- It maybe defined as written works collectively, especially those enduring importance
exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which are written in a particular period,
language and subject (Funk and Wagnalls dictionary, 1976)
- The related literature is a section in research paper, thesis, dissertation and research
project in which the sources are taken from books, journals, magazine, novel, poetry and
many others.
- Composed of discussion of facts and principles to which the present study is related
- Material which are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, journals, magazines
and other publications

Importance of related literature

- It helps or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem or
topic
- It helps investigator understand his topic or research better
- It ensures that there will be no duplication of other studies

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 - It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of planned research
- It give the researcher feeling of confidence
- It provides information about research method used
- It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations

Characteristics of related literature

- The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible
- Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased
- Materials reviewed must be relevant to the study
- Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data
to make valid and reliable.

How to conduct the review of related literature?

- Visit school library or other library in the vicinity. Browse over books, magazines, journal,
etc. be patient
- Do computer aided search through an electronic data base.

- google scholar
- website of journals; botanicus
- ask reprints from experts
- take down notes on index card or research notebooks. Begin organizing your notes by
devising sections and headings such as:
a. general information
b. methods in other studies
c. support for objective 1 and 2
d. results to compare with mine
e. pros and cons of controversy
f. write bibliographic information
g. paraphrase

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Guide questions in making review of related literature
1. DO the accumulated literature indicate gaps and inconsistencies which you hope to fill?
2. Are the variables adequately described?
3. What data gathering instruments have been used? Are they reliable and valid tools?
4. Are the target and sampling populations presented?
5,. Were the hypothesis tested and properly interpreted?
6. Are the results logical? Are the conclusions and recommendations data based?

How to write review of related literature

- Use headings arranged in logical order to indicate main points
- Avoid too long introduction to your main topic
- Include information that are directly related and relevant to the topic
- A maximum of half page (double space)must constitute one paragraph
- Do not copy in toto the information form your source. No more than 10% of the paper is
allowed for direct quotation.
- Give due credit to real source or your data
- Cite the authors at the end of the sentence
- Paraphrase your own words and style the data gathered
- Summarize important points from your sources and relate them to your topic
- Reinforce your data with selected figures or statistics from your course.

“A common problem in writing RRL is that it can turn onto boring list of ideas in paragraph form”

How to avoid this Boring problem?

- Make subheads (not too many) transitional phrases and unifying ideas to make
information flow smoothly
- Spice your writings with a variety. Keep your discussion alive!
- Author A found out that…… Author B found out that…… replace found out that with :
- demonstrates
- presented evidence for
- supported
- observed

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 - reported
- examined
- concluded

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Activity 4
What related literatures should be included in this problem? Research for at least 5 recently
published.
What are the factors affecting drug addiction in terms of:
a. personal,
b. psychological, and
c. social?

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Theoretical Framework
Theories
- They are formulated to explain, predict and understand phenomena and in many cases to
challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of the critical bounding
assumptions
Theoretical Framework
- It is the structure that can hold or support theory of a research study. The theoretical
framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem
under study exist.
Formulating the theoretical framework
Purposes
- It helps the researcher clearly the variables of the study
- It can provide him general framework for data analysis
- It is essential in preparing research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods

The theory provides a point of focus for attacking the unknown in specific area. If relationship is
found between two or more variables theory should be formulated to explain why the relationship
exist.

Importance of theoretical framework

A theoretical framework consist of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing
theory that are used for your particular theory.
The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts
that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of
knowledge in the class you are taking.
Theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature. You
must review course readings and pertinent research literatures for theories and analytic models
that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of theory should
depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

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The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways:
- An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them
critically to act in more informed and effective ways
- An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them
critically
- The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by
relevant theory, you are given bases for your hypotheses and choice of research methods
- Articulating the theoretical assumptions of research study forces you to address questions
of why and how. It forces you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed to
generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
- Having a theory helps you to identify the limits of those generalizations. A theoretical
framework helps you specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It
alerts you to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
- By virtue of its application, nature good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely
because it fulfill one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature and challenges of a
phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live so that we
may use knowledge and understanding.

Placement of theory in Quanti research only

General guide
- Introduce the theory early in the study :
: in the Introduction,
review of related literature,
immediately after the hypothesis or
as separate section of the study – this is the ideal so that researcher can clearly identify
the theory vis a vis the study

The use of theoretical framework as a guide in research study

If the framework is logically sound and substantiated by previous research studies, there
is a possibility that the predictions or hypothesis evolving from that framework will be supported.
“ In some cases, a theoretical rationale in inappropriately used e.i. a theory used to explain
particular behavior in infants may not be appropriate for the study of those behaviors in adults”.

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How to develop theoretical framework?
1. select concepts – a concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea
2. identify the interrelationship among concepts
3. formulating definitions – to develop a theoretical framework that can generate and test
hypothesis, concept must be clearly defined:
a. conceptual definition – conveys the general meaning of concept
b. operational definition – adds another dimension to the conceptual definition by
delineating the procedures or operations required to measure the concept.
4. formulating the theoretical rationale
– though the literature review an investigator becomes aware of or confirms identified
theoretical connection between variables
- In evaluating the formulation of the theoretical rationale, the internal structures such as
concept and their definitions should have clarity and continuity and the approach to
understanding phenomena whether inductive or deductive should be logical.

Types of theories and types of research

Theories may be described a particular phenomenon explain relationships between or
among phenomena or predicts how one phenomenon affects one another.
Descriptive theories describe or classify specific dimensions or characteristics of individuals,
groups, situations or events by summarizing the commonalities found in discreet observations.
“To test descriptive theories, researchers conduct descriptive research study”

Explanatory theory specify relations among dimensions or characteristics of individuals groups,

situations or events. Explanatory theories are tested by using correlational research

Predictive theories intended to predict precise relationships between the dimensions or

characteristics of a phenomenon or differences between groups. Predictive theories are tested
through experimental or quasi experimental research design.

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Variables
VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person
to person, or even within one person over time.

There are six common variable types:

Dependent Variables, how the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables.
For example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching
procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught
using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the
variation in the independent variable.

Independent Variables are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve
manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new
variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research setting.
Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will have
some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.

Intervening variables refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the
independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside
the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot
observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable
and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes
used by the subjects are the intervening variables.

Moderator Variables affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by
modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator
variables are measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and
language acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex,
age, culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.

Control Variables. Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible
to consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a
particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have

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a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called
control variables.

Extraneous Variables are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on
the dependent variable(s) but which is not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They
may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by
the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled,
extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results

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Activity 5
Research for applicable theory on the following title. Explain also how your presented theory is
related to the given problem.

Drug addict parents : Impact to Sociological well being of children

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

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Objectives of the study
There are 2 types of problems: general and specific problem.
The General problem is followed by an enumeration of specific problems. The specific problem
are usually stated as questions the researchers seeks to answer.

What is the difference between research problem and research objectives?

A research problem is a broad issue that you would like to address through your research. It
identifies a difficulty, doubt, or an area of concern, in theory or in practice, that requires thought
and investigation. Research objectives are clear statements of what you aim to achieve through
your research.

The specific problems must meet the following criteria:

- They must be in question form
- They must define the population or sample of the study (respondents)
- They must identify the variables being studied
- They must be empirically testable

Two general types of questions

1. NON RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS
- questions of value
- questions that are answerable by yes or no
Examples:
- Should all mothers breastfeed their babies?
- Should college instructors be watchful with their students?

2. RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS
- questions of value, opinions or policy raised to accumulate data
- formulating a clear significant questions prepares the researcher for subsequent decision
making over research design, data collection, and data analysis.
- The basic form of research questions involve the use of question words: 5W’s 1H.

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Types of research questions (Dickoff et.,al as cited in Wilson, 1990)

1. Factor isolating question (what is this)

- sometimes called factor naming questions.
- they isolate, categorized describe or name factors or situations
Example:
1. What is the profile of school managers in terms of:
1.1. age,
1.2. management experience,
1.3. management training,
1.4. home atmosphere,
1.5. educational attainment and
1.6. hobbies?
2. Factor Relating Questions (what is happening here?)
- Their goal is to determine the relationship among factors that have been identified.
- It aim to establish relationship
Examples:
2. What relationship and interrelationship are observed between and among the following
variables?
2.1. intrapersonal competency,
2.2. interpersonal competency, and
2.3. school effectiveness?
3. What are the factors that affect the school effectiveness?
4. What relationship exist between variable a and b?

3. Situation relating questions (what will happen if…?)

- Usually yielded hypothesis testing or experimental study designs in which the researcher
manipulates the variables to see what will happen.
Examples:
1. What are the effects of traditional methods of teaching to the level of performance of criminology
students?
2. How do management procedures applied by the head waiters affect the level of customer
satisfaction as experienced by selected regular clients of Jollibee stores in Pampanga?

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3. How significantly different is the performance of the morning call center agents to that of
evening call center agents?

4. Situation producing questions (how can I make it happen)

- This questions establish explicit goals for actions, develop plan or prescriptions to achieve goals,
and specify the conditions under which these goals will be accomplished.
Examples:
1. Based on the findings, what human relation intervention can be adopted to enhance or improve
school effectiveness?
2. How can catering services be organized to promote job satisfaction?
3. What policy is to be formulated to manage the personnel in government agencies effectively?

Sample of statement of the Problem (Experimental Research)

UTILIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF FISH BONE AND OFFAL OF MILKFISH,

GOATFISH AND TIPAPIA INTO LUNCHEON MEAT (Calmorin 2007)

The main problem of this study is to utilize and commercialize the fish bone and offal of milkfish,
goatfish and tilapia into luncheon meat. Specifically is seeks to answer the following problems:

1. What is the acceptability of the quality attribute of fish bone and offal of milkfish, goatfish and
tilapia into luncheon meat?

2. What is the gross sales and profit of luncheon meat from the bone meal of milkfish, goatfish
and tilapia?

3. Which product is most acceptable, salable, profitable and with higher return of investment?

4. Is there a significant difference o the acceptability of the quality attributes of these products?

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Sample of statement of the problem (Descriptive Research)

CORRELATION BETWEEN JOB-RALATED PROBLEMS AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF

STAFF NURSES IN PRIVATE AND GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL IN THE CITY OF
TRECE MARTIREZ, CAVITE
Statement of the Problem
The main problem of the study is to correlate between job-related problems and job performance
of staff nurses in private and government hospital in the city of Trece Martirez. Specifically, it
attempts to answer the following questions:
1. What is the demographic profile of the staff nurses in the city of Trece Martirez relative to: age,
gender, civil status and length of nursing practice?
2. What are the job related problems and the extent of seriousness as perceived by staff nurses
in the city of Trece Martirez in relation to:
2.1 Administration of top management
2.2 Communication
2.3 Finance condition
2.4 Hospital facilities
2.5 Job hazard when classified as to age, gender, civil status and length of nursing practice?
3. What is the mean job-performance of staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Trece
Martirez city?
4. What is the correlation between the job-related problems and job- performance of staff nurses
in private and government hospitals in Trece Martirez city?
5. Is there a significant difference on job-related problems and job performance as perceived by
staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Trece Martirez in relation to :
5.1 Administration of top management
5.2 Communication
5.3 Finance condition
5.4 Hospital facilities
5.5 Job hazard, when classified as to age, gender, civil status and length of nursing practice?

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Hypothesis
There are two type of hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis (Ho) stated in negative form, is a denial of an existence of a trait, characteristic,
quantity, value correlation or difference of the result.
Example (Experimental)
Problem: Is there a significant difference on the weight increment of Eucheuma cultured in
municipal water of Ternate using lantay and the hanging method?

Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference on the weigh increment of Eucheuma culture in
the municipal water of Ternate Cavite using lantay and hanging methods.
Ho X1 = X2 = 0
Where: Ho the null hypothesis
X1 weigh of Eucheuma using lantay method
X2 weigh of Eucheuma using hanging method
Since there is no significant difference on the mean weigh of Eucheuma using the two
methods, the null hypothesis is equal to zero.

Example (Descriptive)
Problem: Is there a correlation between the job-related problems and job- performance as
perceived by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Trece Martires city?

Null Hypothesis: There is no correlation between job-related problems and job performance of
staff nurses in Trece Martires.
Ho X1 = y2 = 0
Where: Ho the null hypothesis
X1 is the job-related problems
y2 is for job-performance

2. Alternative hypothesis (H1) stated in positive form, this is the affirmation of the existence
phenomena.

Example (Experimental)
Problem: Is there a significant difference on the general acceptability of luncheon meat from bone
meal of Milkfish and goatfish?

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Alternative Hypothesis: There a significant mean difference on the general acceptability of
luncheon from bone meal of Milkfish and goatfish.
H1 X1 ≠ X2
Where: H1 the null hypothesis
X1 general acceptability of milkfish luncheon meat
X2 general acceptability of goatfish luncheon meat
Since there is a mean difference on the general acceptability of luncheon meat from bone meal
of milkfish and goatfish, this the difference is not equal, either X1 is greater than X2 or X1 is lesser
than X2.

Example (Descriptive)
Problem: Is there a correlation between the job-related problems and job- performance as
perceived by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Trece Martires city?

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Activity 6
Using the following data formulate your title, objective of the study and hypotheses (null and
affirmative)

Year Total Number of Number of Male CICL Number of Female

children in conflict CICL
with the law
2019 100 50 50
2020 150 50 100
2021 200 150 50
2022 200 170 30

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 Materials and methods

RESEARCH DESIGN
There are four kinds of research design. These designs are: 1. Historical, 2. Descriptive, 3
experimental, 4 case studies.

The research design

The research design refers to the strategy choose to integrate the different components of the
study in a cohesive and coherent way in order to address the research problem; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

The research problem determines the type of design used, not the other way around!

1.Action Research Design.

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an
exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are
made for some form of interventionary strategy.

Then the intervention is carried out (the action in Action Research) during which time, pertinent
observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and
the cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement able
solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended
to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and
particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

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What do these studies tell you?
1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community
situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing theories.
3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the amount they learn
consciously from their experience. The action research cycle can also be regarded as a learning
cycle.
4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

2.Case Study Design.

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping
statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few
easily researchable examples. It is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model
actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known
about a phenomenon.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed

contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a
variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous
research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine contemporary
real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and extension
of methods. 5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.

3.Causal Design.

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional

statements in the form, “If X, and then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact

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a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal
explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when
variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in
variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

1. Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the

independent variable and the dependent variable.
2. Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was involved; one must see that cases
were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent variable.
3. Nonspuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third
variable.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Causality research designs helps researchers understand why the world works the way it does
through the process of proving a causal link between variables and eliminating other possibilities.
2. Replication is possible.
3. There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject
selection and equity of groups being compared.

4. Descriptive Design.
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where,
and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively
ascertain answers to why.

Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena
and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation

What do these studies tell you?

1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment.
True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of
the subject.

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2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitatively research designs, the
general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing
quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.
5. Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.

6. Experimental Design.

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that
may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or
predict what may occur.

Experimental Research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design
specifies an experimental group and a control group.

The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group,
and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental
designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments
must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows
researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer
direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

6. Exploratory Design.

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An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier
studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or
undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.

The goals of exploratory research are intended produce the following possible insights:
• Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.
• Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why,
how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise
research problems.
5. Exploratory studies help establish research priorities.

7. Historical Design.

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the
past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a
variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives,
and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings.
The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

What do these studies tell you?

1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of
the study.
2. The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.

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3. Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand
and interpret a research problem.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
5. Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to
replicate a previous study.

7. Longitudinal Design.

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. With
longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals,
enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain
why the changes occur.
Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more
distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a
type of observational study and is sometimes referred to as a panel study.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Longitudinal data allow the analysis of duration of a particular phenomenon.
2. Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually attainable
only with experiments.
3. The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period to
another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors. 8.

Observational Design.

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group,
in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types
of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them.
Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know
they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and
avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.

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What do these studies tell you?
1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around
a hypothesis about what you expect to observe (data is emergent rather than pre-existing).
2. The researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before
applying other methods like experiments. Observation research designs account for the
complexity of group behaviors

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Activity 7
The investigators divided the class into two groups to determine which teaching strategies are
effective. The first group will use differentiated learning instruction, which allows teachers to
engage each student by accommodating to their specific learning style, and the second group will
use cooperative learning, in which students will be given the opportunity to work with others and
see different points of view. What is the best research design to employ? Discuss your anwer

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

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Most Common Research Design Used in Thesis writing

Historical Design.

The study is focused in the past (what was). Historical research is both science and the art. It is
scientific and the narration thereof is an art. History differs from the natural sciences because it is
based upon the reports of observations which cannot be repeated, although similar events may
occur unlike in natural sciences it is based on experimentation.

Uses of Historical research

1. Useful in searching through the past for solution to contemporary problems and needs.
2. Used to throw light on the present.
3. Gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present;
4. Enables the communities to grasp their relationship with the past to the current issues an
5. Chronicles events of enduring worth which confer upon the individual consciousness of unity
and the feeling of importance of human achievement.

Major Steps of Historical research

1. Collection of data, with consideration of documentation and remains or relics of primary and
secondary sources of bibliographical procedure, and organization of materials;
2. Criticism of the data collected, including the processes of external criticism and internal criticism
and
3. Presentation of the facts in readable form involving problems of organization, composition,
exposition and interpretation.

Sources of Historical research

1. Primary data.

There are two major primary sources these are:

a. Documents.

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These include school directives, court decision, executive and other official records, personal
material, newspapers and periodicals.

b. Remains.

These include the physical plant, equipment, apparatus, teaching aid and devices, picture of
buildings or furnishing, forms of diplomas and certificates, textbooks and reference books.

2. Secondary data are histories of education, bibliographies, encyclopedia and many other

Descriptive Design

In descriptive design, the study focuses at the present condition. The purpose is to find new truth.
The truth may have different forms such as increased quantity of knowledge, a new generalization
or a new “law” an increased quantity insight into factors which are operating, the discovery of a
new casual relationship, a more accurate formulation of the problem to be solved and many
others.

Descriptive research is valuable in:

1. Providing facts on which scientific judgments may be used.
2. Providing essential knowledge about the nature of object and person.
3. for closer observation into the practices, behavior, methods and procedures
4. Playing a large part in the development of instrument for the measurement of many things.

Type of Descriptive Research

1. Descriptive-survey Suitable whenever the subject varies among themselves and one is
interested to know the extent to which different conditions and situations are obtained among
these subjects.
The word survey signifies the gathering of data regarding present conditions. A survey is useful
in providing the value of facts, and focusing attention on the most important things to be reported.

Example:

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A researcher wants to determine the Job-Related –Problems and Job-Performance of Staff
Nurses in Private and Government Hospital in the Province of Cavite. The researcher uses a
questionnaire as his research instrument in gathering and collecting data.

2. Descriptive-Normative Survey.

Good and Scates (1972) stressed that the “term Normative is sometimes used because surveys
are frequently made to ascertain the normal or typical condition for practice, or to compare local
test results with a state or national norm.

Example:

A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the English achievement of fourth year secondary
students at the state colleges and universities in Region 4. An achievement test is the instrument
used to gather the data. The results of the test are them compared with the regional norm.

3. Descriptive-status.

This approach to problem-solving seeks to answer questions to real; facts relating to existing
conditions. This is a technique of quantitative description which determines the prevailing
conditions in a group of cases chosen for study.

Example:
A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the socio-economic status and performance of
instructors and professors of states universities and college in Region 4. He uses a questionnaire
as instruments in gathering data. Based on the responses of the subjects, the researcher can
determine the socio-economic status and performance of SUCs instructor and professors whether
the higher the socioeconomic status is, the higher the performance will be; or the lower the socio-
economic is, the lower the performance will be.

4. Descriptive-analysis.

This method determines or describes the nature of an object by separating it into its parts. The
purpose is to discover the nature of things. In other words the researcher should determine the

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composition, structure, substructure that occurs as units within the larger structure. He also
determines the individual parts and units integrated into an internal system.

Example:

A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the Job analysis of personnel in government and
private hospital; He devises a questionnaire to analyze the job of the subjects of similar positions,
functions and responsibilities and with the same salary.

5. Descriptive-Classification.

This method is employed in natural sciences subject, namely Biology, Botany, Zoology,
Physiology and the like. The specimens collection are classified from phylum to specie

6. Descriptive-Evaluation.
This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.

Example:

the researcher wishes to conduct a study on the evaluation of an implementation of WOW (War
on Waste). He devises a questionnaire which evaluates the implementation of WOW and requests
the division and district supervisor, principal, head teacher and teachers to respond on it.

7. Descriptive-comparative.
This is a design where the researcher consider two variable (not manipulated) and established a
formal procedure to compare and conclude that one is better than the other.

Example:
A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the effectiveness of teaching English Using rhetoric
and content-based approaches to Bachelor of Computer Technology students. He uses test as
research instrument in gathering the data. All things are held constant, except on the approach of
teaching used.

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8. Correlational Survey.
This is designed to determine the relationship of two variable (x and y) whether the relationship
is perfect, very high, marked or moderate, slight or negligible.

Example:

The researcher wishes to correlate the performance between English (x) and Mathematics (y) of
freshmen nursing students. He uses test as research instrument in gathering the data, Scatter
gram is the statistical tool to determine the correlation between x and y

9. Experimental Design
This is a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the future on what will be when
variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. This can be a basic, applied or developmental
research. This type of research involves the 7Ms, namely: manpower (competent), money,
method, materials, machinery, moment of time and marketing. Experimental design has distinct
limitation when used in the fields of education, sociology, and psychology. To conduct an
experiment means to try in order to see what happens. An experiment involves trial and error
method until the result is successful.

Example:

A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the effectiveness of culturing grouper in fish cages
using bread meal as supplemental feed. There are three fish cages in the culturing of grouper
treated with 5%, 10% and 15% bread meal as supplemental feed based on body weight. The feed
is the independent variable and the growth rate is the dependent variable. But there is a possibility
that ecological parameters such as salinity, temperature, oxygen and pH of the water as
intervening variable might affect the growth rate of the grouper. Types of Experimental Design 1.

10. Single-group design.

This design involves a single treatment with two or more level

Example:
A researcher wishes to study on the effect of fish meal as supplemental feed upon the yield of
mubcrab cultured in the fishpond. In this experimental study, fish meal is subjected to single

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treatment with different level such as 5%, 10%, and 15% based on body weight of mubcrab. F-
test or analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine the significant difference on the effect
of fish meal as supplemental feed upon the yield of mubcrab culture.

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Activity 8
Give examples of research topics and situations in which the following research design would be
appropriate:
1. Experimental design

2. Correlational survey

3. Descriptive comparative

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 Research Instrument

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT/TOOLS
Measuring Instruments/
Statistical Tools Measuring instrument are the tools of data collection. They allow the researcher
to implement the research method and to produce data for analysis.

There are two classes of instrument:

1. Standardized instrument
– is one that has been carefully developed, has highly refined measurement procedure and has
been designed for administration under carefully prescribed condition for some specific purpose.

2. Researcher-made instrument – made by the researcher for the purpose of gathering data for
the specific problem of his research. It can be: Interview; Observation form; Documentary analysis
form; questionnaire Scale of Measurement The scales of measurement make use of the
necessary component in developing a research instrument. There are four basic scales of
measurement namely: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Questionnaire construction

The questionnaire is a written instrument that contains a series of questions or items that attempt
to collect information on a particular topic.

The entire process of question construction can be divided into six steps:
1. Determining the questionnaire content Part 1 personal data of the respondents Part 2 items
about the independent variables Part 3 items about the dependent variables
2. Type of questions to be used Dichotomous response. Items offer the respondents two
alternatives to choose from.

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Example:
Do you have provision for maternity leave
?___yes ___
No Does your school provide health insurance?
___Yes ___No

Multiple Question Items provide several alternatives.

Example

Educational attainment __Elementary graduate __High school graduate __college graduate

__Master’s __Ed D. or Ph. D. Occupation ____ Businessman ____ professionals ____ Skilled
workers ____ Laborer ____ None

Checklist provides a run down of items and respondents check those that apply to them.

Example

What electrical-electronics appliances do you have?

____ TV ____ Computer ____ Record player ____ Dishwasher ____ Refrigerator ____ Electric
Fan ____ Washing machine ____ Electric cooker ____ Flat iron ____ Video machine

____ Others, Please specify _________

Check how you got the information?
____ Television
____ Word of mouth
____ Radio
____ Bulletin board
____ Newspaper
____ Magazine
____ Others, please specify___________________

Rating Scale.
It is where the respondents evaluate a particular product, certain attitudes and other
characteristics.

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Commonly used rating scales are:

1. Numerical rating is where a respondent indicates his response in a scale of number from 1 (not
at all to 7 (very much)

Example The teachers stimulate student’s interest.

Not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very much

2. Graphic rating scale - the scale contain words rather than numbers.

Example The instructor maintain classroom discipline Never Seldom Occasionally Frequently
Always

3. Forced Choice rating Scale presents the respondents with a series of choices and requires him
to choose one over the other.

Example: Indicate the characteristic which best described your teacher (choose one only)
____ Has sense of humor
____ Shares enthusiasm
____ Use time efficiently
____ Maintains classroom discipline

Ranking Items. Allow the researcher to determine responses of relative importance.

The respondents are asked to choose which item is the most important, second most important
and so on.

Example :

Rank in order of priorities the concerns which should be attended to by the administration
____ Dirty comfort room
____ Student unrest
____ delayed honoraria
____ staff development

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____ Teacher morale
____ Employability of graduates
____ Others, Please specify ________________________

Attitude Scale Measures the attitudes of respondents on certain issues. Commonly used scales
are:

1. Semantic Differential – is a method of observing and measuring g the psychological meaning

of concept, developed by Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum, where the respondent indicate an
attitude or opinion between two extreme choices. It usually uses bipolar objectives on a seven
point rating scale.

Example Good ___ ___ ___ Bad

Too Much ___ ___ ___ very little
Healthy ___ ___ ___ Unhealthy
Democratic ___ ___ ___ Dictatorial
Clean ___ ___ ___ Dirty

2. Likert Scale is made up of a series of opinion statement about some issues. In likert scaling,
individuals are presented with a list of statements about a single topic (e.g teacher morale) and
are instructed to respond in each statement in terms of their degree of agreement or
disagreement. This is considered a subject-centered or person-centered approach to scaling.

Example
Below are items on common personnel management practice of manager of the establishment.
Indicate your manager’s strategy use in dealing with you as one of the staff. Use the rating as
follows;
5– always
4 – Often
3 – Sometimes
2 - Seldom
1 – Never

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 Indicators 5 4 3 2 1
1. Manage staff and provide them with feedback
2. Manager set good example
3. Manager are responsible
4. Provide fair and accurate feedback to help employee
5. Create an environment and strategy to support the
management
6. Manager manage by setting good example
7. Provides fringes benefit to the personnel

Listed are some commonly used response scales

1. Strongly agree/agree/neutral/disagree/strongly disagree/ unable to answer
2. Excellent/adequate/barely adequate/inadequate/ terrible/ unable to answer
3. Excellent/good/all right/poor/bad/unable to answer
4. Often/ sometimes/ almost/ never
5. Radical left/ very liberal/ somewhat liberal/ middle/ somewhat conservative/very conservative/
radical right
6. Certainly true/quite often true/seldom true/ never true/ true/ don’t know
7. Very important/ important/ somewhat important/ not important don’t know

Organizing and Assembling of items.

1. Direction should be clear
2. Do not use double negative
3. Avoid the use of concept words, rather stick to familiar words
4. Do not abbreviate words
5. Use a minimum of punctuation
6. A mixture of easy, moderately difficult and very difficult items.
7. Avoid using a scale with more than 10 step
8. Do not ask embracing questions

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Activity 9
Formulate your own research instrument using the stamen of the problem below:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1. age,
1.2. sex and
1.3. highest educational attainment?

2, What are the factors affecting drug use in terms of:

2.1. personal,
2.2. family and
2.3. social?

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Evaluation and finalization of the Instrument (validation)

Researcher-made instruments such as questionnaires, tests, observation schedule, checklist,

rating scales, interviews and many others should meet the qualities of a good research instrument
before they are used for gathering data.

There are three qualities of a good research instruments:

1. Validity;
2. Reliability and
3. Usability.

Validity- means the degree to which a test or measuring instrument measures what it intends to
measure. It has to do with soundness, what the questionnaire measures its effectiveness and
how well it could be applied. The validity of test must always be considered in relation to the
purpose it serves.

Four types of validity

Content validity – the extent to which the topic of the test is truly representative of the content of
the course. It is described by the relevance of a test to different types of criteria, such as thorough
judgment and systematic examination of relevant course syllabi and textbook, pooled judgment
of subject-matter expert, statement of behavioral objectives, analysis of researcher
made test question. Content validity is appropriate for the criterion-reference measure.

A researcher wishes to validate a questionnaire in Science. He request expert in science to judge

if the items measure the knowledge, skills and values supposed to be measured. For content
validity the experts are directed to check (/) the items to be retained as (3) retain; (2) needs
improvement; (1) delete.

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Directions: Below are teaching strategies used in teaching science. Indicate the extent to which
each strategy is used in teaching science in your school by encircling one of the options on the
right column. The options 4 –very often; 3- often; 2 – sometimes; and 1- never.
Items R NI DELETE
1. curriculum enrichment 4 3 2 1
2. Theory and Practice 4 3 2 1
scheme
3. Brainstorming method 4 3 2 1
4. experimental method 4 3 2 1
5. supervised or direct study 4 3 2 1
6. Laboratory approach 4 3 2 1
7. Discovery approach 4 3 2 1
8. Guided discovery approach 4 3 2 1
9. Project Method 4 3 2 1
10. Unstructured approach 4 3 2 1
11. others 4 3 2 1

The researcher requires a selected group of expert to validate the content of the
questionnaire on the basis of the foregoing questions. It the weighted mean is 2.5 and above the
item is retained; 1.5 to 2.4 needs improvement

For instance, there are five experts to validate the above questionnaire. In term 1,
“Curriculum enrichment”, 4 expert rates 3 and 1 rated 2. Weighted mean is used. The computation
is follows:

Thus, Item 1 should be retained.

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Concurrent validity is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as
an accepted measure. Usually includes any validity strategies that focus on the
correlation of the test being validated with some well-respected outside measure(s)
of the same objectives or specifications. The criterion is always available at the
time of testing. It is applicable to test employed for the diagnosis of existing status
rather than for the prediction of future outcome.

Predictive Validity is determined by showing how well predictions made from the test are
confirmed by evidence gathered at some subsequent time. The criterion measured
against this type of validity is importance because the outcome of the subject is
predicted.

Construct validity. A construct, or psychological construct as it is also called, is an attribute,

proficiency, ability, or skill that happens in the human brain and is defined by
established theories.

For example, "overall English language proficiency" is a construct. It exists in theory and has been
observed to exist in practice. Construct validity has traditionally been defined as the experimental
demonstration that a test is measuring the construct it claims to be measuring. Such an
experiment could take the form of a differential-groups study, wherein the performances on the
test are compared for two groups: one that has the construct and one that does not have the
construct.

Reliability mean the extent to which a research instrument is dependable, consistent and stable
(Meriam. 2005) It is concerned with the consistency of responses from moment to
moments. Even if a person takes the same test twice, the test yields the same results.

Four methods in testing the reliability of a good instrument

1. Test-retest method.
In this method the same instrument is administered twice to the same group of subject and the
correlation of coefficient is determined. Disadvantage occur when the time interval is short, the

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respondents may recall their responses, and this tends to make the correlation high; when the
time interval is long, such factor as forgetting, unlearning may occur and may result in low
correlation; and other varying environmental condition such as, temperature, lighting, noise and
other factors may affect the correlation coefficient of the research instrument. The Spearman
Rank Correlation of coefficient of Spearman rho is the statistical tool used to measure the
relationship between paired ranks assigned to individual scores on two variables of test-retest
methods. The formula is:

2. Parallel form method. The test is administered to a group of subject and the paired observations
correlated. Parallel-forms reliability evaluates different questions and question sets that seek to
assess the same construct. Evaluation may be done in combination with other methods, such as
Split-half, which divides items that measure the same construct into two tests and applies them
to the same group of people.

Examples
An experimenter develops a large set of questions. They split these into two and administer them
each to a randomly-selected half of a target sample.

3. Split-half.
The test is administered once, but the test items are divided into halves. The common procedure
is to divide a test into odds and even items. The two halves of the test must be similar but not
identical in content, number of the items, difficulty, means and standard deviation. Each
respondent obtained two scores, one on the odd and the other on the even items in the same
test. The score obtained in the two halves are correlated. The result is reliability coefficient for a
half test. Since the reliability holds only for a half items, the reliability coefficient of a whole test is
estimated by using the Spearman Brown Formula as follows:

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4. Internal consistency method. This method is used with psychological test. The respondents
either pass or failed in the test item. A score of 1 (one) is assigned for a pass and 0 for failure.
The reliability coefficient is determined by Kuder-Richardson Formula 20. This formula measures
the internal consistency or homogeneity of the research instrument.

5. Usability is the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used by
teachers, researchers, supervisors, managers without undue expenditure of time, money and
effort.

The factors that determine usability are:

1. Ease in administration;
2. Ease of scoring;
3. Ease in interpretation and application;
4. Low cost and
5. Proper mechanical make-up.

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Activity 10
Explain the process of instrument validation.

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 DATA PROCESSING & STATISTICAL TREATMENT (Data
CHAPTER 5 Analysis)

Sampling Design

Sampling –the method of getting a representative portion of the population.

Population –is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species, or orders of plants or
animals.

Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time, money and effort.
2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster, cheaper and economical.
4. It is more accurate.
5. It gives more comprehensive information.

Disadvantages of Sampling
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classification due to small number of
subjects.
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results can
be erroneous.
4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population.
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

Planning a Sample Survey

1. State the objectives of the survey.
2. Define the population.
3. Select the sampling individual.
4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the sample.
5. Design the sampling design to be used that suits to the study, either scientific or nonscientific
sampling.
6. Determine the sample size.
7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample.
8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution.
9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.
10. Choose experts to administer the research instruments

Determination of Sample Size

Step 1: Determine the total population (N) as assumed subjects of the study.
Step 2: Get the value of V(2.58), Se(0.01), and p(0.50).
Step 3: Compute the sample size using this formula:

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Types of Sampling Designs
A. Scientific Sampling
1. Restricted random sampling – This type of sampling design involves certain restrictions to
improve the validity of the sample. This design is applicable only when the population being
investigated is homogeneous since it is likely to arrive at accurate values of the population
characteristics.
2. Unrestricted random sampling – This is the best random sampling design due to no
restrictions imposed, and every member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
a.) Lottery Technique. Each individual in the population is assigned a number which is written
on a piece of paper . The pieces of paper are rolled and place in a box. The rolled paper are
drawn from the box one at a time;

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 b.) Table of Random Numbers, consists of digit do selected that no systematic relation exist
between any sequence of digits in the table, regardless of whether the table is read vertically or
horizontally, right or left or in any way
3. Stratified random sampling – This type of design divides the population into two or more
strata. For each stratum, the sample items are drawn at random.

For example , an institution may have a population of 5000 students, of which 3,500 are female
and 1500 were males. The sample size of 3500 is 244, and 1500 is 233, hence a sample of 244
are drawn by random technique from the subpopulation or stratum of female and the 232 males
from the subpopulation or stratum of males.

4. Systematic sampling – In this type of design the individuals of the population are arranged in
a methodical manner., for instance alphabetical or chronological (age, experience or academic
rank) and the nth name may be selected in the construction of the sample. To chose the sample,
from the population of 2500 population, the sample are arranged either alphabetical or
chronological. They are numbered 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 10 for the first set; second set
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 10 for the second set and so on till the desires population , 2500 are
numbered by 10s. Every 10th of the set is selected as part of the sample till 242 is reached
because the sample size of 2500 is 242.

5. Multistage sampling – This design is done in several stages. It can be two-stage, three stage,
four stage, and many other depending on the manner of sampling to be used. In this design the
population individuals are grouped into a hierarchy of units and sampling is done consecutively.
For example a nationwide study, a regions are chosen as the firs stage; provinces as the second
stage; municipalities as the thirds stage; barrage fourth stage. Hence sampling is in four stages.

6. Cluster sampling – In this type of design, the population is grouped into clusters or small units.
For example blocks or districts, in a municipality or city composed of population individuals are
selected either by random sampling or systematic sampling. This design is advantageous when
individual in the districts belong to heterogeneous group.

B. Nonscientific sampling
1. Purposive sampling – This type of nonscientific sampling is based on selecting the individuals
as samples according to the purpose of the researcher as his controls. An individual is selected
as part of the sample due to good evidence that he is a representative of total population.
2. Incidental sampling – This type of sampling design is “applied to those samples which are taken
because they are the most available.” The investigator simply takes the nearest individual as
subject of the study until the sample reaches the desired size.

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3.Quota sampling – This type of design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is
done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics. The sampling technique
is usually prepared by the main office with instruction to field researchers to gather data from
samples that meet the prescribed criteria or characteristics.
Data Processing Data processing involves:
1. Input – it involves the responses from the research instrument by the subjects of the study.
2. Throughput – it includes statistical procedures and techniques.
3. Output – the results of the study which are presented in data matrix form.

Data processing consists of three basic steps:

1. Categorization of data, refers to the grouping of subjects under study according to the
objectives or purposes of the study. Five rules in categorizing research information by Kerlinger:
1. Categories are set up according to the research problem;
2. The categories are exhaustive;
3. Each category is derived from one classification principle;
4. The categories are mutually exclusive and independent;
5. Any categorization scheme must be one level of discourse.

2. Coding of data – Information from the questionnaire, tests, interview schedules, rating scale
and many others must be transformed into coded items to facilitate tabulation of data.

3. Tabulation of data – this is done by tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a frequency
distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several tables.

4. Data matrix - Presentation of data in tabular form.

Three (3) Types of Data Matrices

1. Univariate matrix – involves only one variable.
The research problem is to determine the acceptability of the quality attributes of milkfish luncheon
meat from offal of boneless milkfish as evaluated organoleptically by 20 trained panelist using the
9- pointy Hedonic scale ( 9- like extremely to 1 – dislike extremely). The foregoing research
problem is univariate because there is only one variable, milkfish luncheon meat. The fish value
added product is evaluated on its acceptability of then quality attributes by 20 trained panelists.

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Table 1. Acceptability of the Quality Attributes of Milkfish Luncheon Meat from Offal of
Boneless Milkfish.
Quality Attributes Milkfish luncheon meat
Mean Interpretation
Color 7.75 Like very much
Odor 8.15 Like very much
Flavor 8.30 Like very much
Texture 8.00 Like very much
General acceptability 8.20 Like very much

2. Bivariate matrix – involves two variables. The problem “Correlation Between Job Related
Problems and Job Performance of Staff Nurses in Private and Government Hospitals in Ioiilo
City”. In this kind of problem, staff nurses in Iloilo City may be categorized into private and
government hospitals.

Table 2 Job-Related Problems of Staff Nurses in Private and Government Hospital in Iloilo City in
Relation to Top Management

Job related Staff nurses

problem Private hospitals
Mean Interpretation Mean Interpretation
1. 2.1 Less serious 2.4 Less serious
2. 3.2 Serious problem 3.3 Serious problem
3. 3.0 Serious problem 3.2 Serious problem
4. 3.4 Serious problem 3.6 Serious problem
5. 4.2 Very serious problem 4.0 Serious problem
6. 3.3 Serious problem 2.9 Less serious
7. 2.2 Less serious 2.1 Less serious
8. 4.2 Very serious 4.4 Very serious problem
9. 4.0 Very serious 4.4 Very serious problem
10. 3.7 Very serious 3.9 Serious problem

3. Multivariate matrix – has three or more variables in the table. For illustration purposes
consider this research problem “ Luncheon Meat from Fish Offal of Boneless Milkfish Goatfish
Tapa, Boneless Siganid and canned sardines.” This is an example of multivariate matrix since it
has four variables namely luncheon meat from milkfish offal, goatfish offal, siganid offal and
sardines offal.

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Table 3 Sample of Multivariate Matrix on Luncheon Meat from Fish Offal of Boneless Milkfish
Goatfish Tapa, Boneless Siganid and canned sardines.

luncheon meat
Quality Milkfish offal Goatfish offal Siganid offal sardinec offal
Attributes mean mean mean mean
color 7.7 7.9 7.5 7.1
odor 8 8 7.3 7.2
texture 8.4 8.2 7.9 7.6
flavor 8.1 8 7.8 7.7
generability 8.3 8 7.7 7.5
acceptability

Dummy tables - Are helpful in preparing for the data matrix because they are used in planning,
summarizing, organizing and analyzing the data on how the different variables differ with each
other.

Table 2 Sample Dummy Table on the Percentage Distribution of Job Performance of Staff Nurses
in Private and Government Hospitals in Iloilo City

Job
Performance Hospitals
Private Government Total
F % f % f %
outstanding
very satisfactory
satisfactory 175 100 200 100 150 100

Statistical Treatment
It is a must that researchers diagnose the problem by using the appropriate statistical tool to
arrive at accurate and definite interpretation of results.
I. Univariate Statistical Treatment
The appropriate statistical tool for univariate problem is the weighted arithmetic mean and the
like.

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Experimental Research.
For instance, the experimental research problem is “What is the acceptability of the flavor of fish
burger from offal of boneless milkfish?” Of the 30 panelist who evaluated the product using the 9
–point Hedonic scale 5 rated extremely or 9; 23 rated like very much or 8; and 2 like moderately
or 7.

For illustration purposes consider the formula of weighted arithmetic mean.

The input is the evaluation of the 30 panelist such as 5 panelist rated 9; 23, 8 and 2, 7. The
throughput is the statistical technique or weighted arithmetic mean and the output is the result,
8.1 or like very much. II.

Bi variate Statistical Treatment

A. Experimental Research- The statistical tools for bivariate problem in experimental research are
t-test and linear correlation.
1. t-test When attempting to determine if the difference between two means is greater than that
expected from chance, the "t" test may be the needed statistical technique. If the data is from a
normal population and at least ordinal in nature, then we are surer that this is the technique to
use. If you wish to generalize to a population, then the samples must be representative. "t" is the

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difference between two sample means measured in terms of the standard error of those means,
or "t" is a comparison between two groups means which takes into account the differences in
group variation and group size of the two groups. The statistical hypothesis for the "t" test is stated
as the null hypothesis concerning differences. There is no significant difference in achievement
between group 1 and group 2 on the welding test.

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Decision: t value obtained is 9.16 is greater than the table value of 2.845 at 0.1 level of probability
with 20 degree of freedom. Leads to the rejection of the mull hypothesis that state “there is no
significant difference on the mean catch of squid using horizontal and vertical fishing for 21 days
operation. This indicate that the two type of fishing methods really differ with each other because
horizontal fishing has more catch than the vertical fishing.

2. Linear Correlation or Correlation with two variable

The formula for Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation is used.

Steps in Computing Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation

1. Find the sum of x and y
2. Square all x and y values
3. Sum of x2 and y2
4. Find the product of x and y
5. get the sum of the product xy
6. Apply the formula

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Sample computation of Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation on the weight (x) and
length (y) relationship of Grouper cultures in Fish cage using bread meal as supplemental feed.

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Decision: The rxy valve obtained is 0.90 which demotes high relationship. This means the heavier
the weight, the longer the length and the lighter the weight the shorter the length or as the weight
increase the length also increases of grouper cultured in fish cage using bread meal as
supplemental feed. B.
Descriptive Research
1. Linear Correlation using Spearman rank coefficient of correlation or Spearman rho (r). For
Instance, the research problem is “What is the relationship between capital (x) abd profit (y) of
Milkfish burger from offal of boneless milkfish burger from offal of boneless milkfish, consider the
formula of Spearman rank Coefficient of Correlation.

Steps to follow
1. rank the values from highest to lowest in the first set of variable (x) and mark then Rx. The
highest
value is given the rank of 1; the second rank 2 third; 3 and so on.
2. rank the second set of values (y) in the same manner as in step 1 and mark them Ry
3. Determine the difference in rank for every pair of ranks
4. Square each difference to get D2
5. Sum the square difference o find ∑ D2
6. Compute Spearman rho by applying formula

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Sample computation of Spearman rho between Capital (x) and Profit (y) of Milkfish Burger from
offal of Boneless Milkfish.

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Activity 11
Answer the following using slovins formula:
1. your total population is 1000, 45o of them are female and 550 are male. How many will be
your respondents?

2, You are need to assess the health problems experienced by adults, the total population of
your target respondents is 650, 18o of them are below 18 years old, how many will be your
respondents?

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References:
Calmorin and Calmorin (2007). Research Method and Thesis Writing. Rex Bookstore, Manila
Philippines
Espamer F. (2015). How to write a thesis, MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts England
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