Theories and Crime Causation Criminology 2

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Theories and crime causation criminology 2
Criminology (Filamer Christian University)
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THEORIES
OF
CRIME
CAUSATION
PREPARED BY: MARY GRACE O. GALINO RC, MSCJ.

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FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
Roxas Avenue, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines, 5800
Tel no. (036) 6212-318
http://www.filamer.edu.ph
SELF- LEARNING MODULE 1
Course No. : CRIMINOLOGY 2

Course Title : THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
No. of Units : Three (3) Units
No. of Hours per Week : Three Hours
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course captures the theoretical perspective of crime causation committed by

individuals and institutions. It provides a wide array of theories from all dimensions and
aspects of the person, the society and the institutions, such as political, economic,
environmental, social, psychological, and biological, women offenders, bio psychosocial
and life course.
A. Program Outcomes
 Conduct criminological research on crimes, crime causation, victims,

and offenders to include deviant behavior;
 Internalize the concepts of human rights and victim welfare;
 Demonstrate competence and broad understanding in law enforcement
administration, public safety and criminal justice;
 Utilize Criminalistics or Forensic Science in the investigation and
detection of crime;
 Apply the principles and jurisprudence of criminal law, evidence and
criminal procedure;
 Ensure offenders’ welfare and development for their re-integration to the
community.
B. Performance Indicators:
At the end of the course, the students are expected to:
 Apply knowledge essential to the conduct of criminological research on
crimes, crime causation, victims and offenders to include deviant
behavior;
 Discuss the theories of crime causation.
 Classify theories according to their underlying perspective and philosophy

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 Formulae solutions to the crimes experienced in the community based on

the analysis made using concepts on offender rehabilitation and based on
the various theories of crime causation.
C. Course Guide
Welcome to the Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation and Intelligence Self-

Learning Module (SLM).
This pandemic had brought a lot of challenges to us, from the sector of health,
economic institutions, governance, and even in the academe. Generally, COVID-19
pandemic had struck and disrupted our daily task. Schools were forced to change from
the traditional or face to face teaching and now entering the realm of virtual and distant
learning. With this bold move in the school system, we are guided by the principle that
education never stop even in this time of the year were pandemic brought a lot of
challenge to us. Thus, as response to the challenge of this “new normal” way of teaching,
this “self-learning module” was conceived.
As your new learning facilitator, we recognized that the process of learning in this
time and even before does not solely lies in the hands of you teacher. We need active and
meaningful partnership, a partnership that is guided by the main goal of this module, to
bring out the best in you enable you to become independent but effective learners. Truly,
your academic success lies in your own hands!
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities
for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.
At the end of this module you will also find references.
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use this module with care.
2. Read and understand the instruction carefully before answering the question
and activities.
3. Don’t forget to check each activity before proceeding to the other set of
question and activities.
4. Observe honesty while answering the question and activities.
5. Before proceeding to the next task make sure to finish the task at hand.

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6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you complete it.

7. Please be reminded that you are responsible for your own learning. At the end,
examinations and another evaluative activity will be given based on the content
of this module.
If you encounter any difficulties in understanding the content and answering the
task in this module, do not hesitate to consult your course facilitator at given contact
information provided in this module.
We hope that through this material, you will gain knowledge about the
fundamentals of Investigation and Intelligence and develop your understanding skills.
You can do it!
D. ASSESMENT GUIDES AND MATERIALS

You will be assessed and evaluated using the following methods and guided by
the grading system indicated below.
a. Assessment Methods:
Paper and Pencil Test, Activity Sheets, and Evaluative Examinations
b. Grading system:
LECTURE GRADE
Module Evaluation 25%
Quizzes 25%
Major Exam 50%
Total: 100%
E. COURSE FACILITATOR
Name of the Facilitator: Mary Grace O. Galino., RCRIM, MSCJ
Contact Details:
Mobile Number: 09071167903
Email Address: mariagraciagalino@gmail.com
Facebook Account: Mary Grace Oro Galino
Office Address: Roxas Avenue, Roxas City

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION: CRIME ITS CONCEPT
There is a growing body of evidence about the factors that place individuals at
risk of criminal offending. The theoretical approaches discussed below attempt to explain
the relationship between those risk factors and criminal behavior. There is no consensus
on the relative merit of these theories and it may be the causal mechanisms proposed
below are more or less significant for different individuals. Most crime prevention
programs are based, sometimes implicitly, on more of the theoretical understandings of
crime. Therefore, even when focusing on practical response, there is value
Correspondingly, this endeavor focuses on the information about theories and

causation crimes. Different theories about the criminology are described. Main focus will
be on the criminology and its two theories. Criminology is the study of factors about the
crimes that lead to its phenomena. This crime may be of individual or social nature. It
includes making laws, breaking laws and attempts to break the laws. Criminology focuses
on the social, cultural and individual causes of the illegal behavior. Criminology is
directly related to sociology and psychology in all disciplines that deal with a group or
individual behavior.
One common definition of CRIMINOLOGY - Is – the study of crimes, criminals

and their treatment. This is understanding the provisions of law regarding acts or
behavior which are defined by law as crime. The criminal justice system declares who the
criminal is, and provides him/her with treatment commensurate to the gravity of the
illegal act committed. Furthermore, CRIMINOLOGY - Is interdisciplinary which
means, it upon either academic discipline including political science, economics,
psychology, law, biology, and sociology (Fulter, 2012). Moreover, CRIMINOLOGY -
Can also be defined as the scientific study of causes of crime in relation to man and
society who set and define rules and regulations for himself and others to govern. The
study of criminology involves man and social forces through the passage and enactment
of laws, maintenance of peace and order, and the imposition of the punishment by
government whose law has been violated.
Thus, in most complete definition of criminology is – “A BODY OF

KNOWLEDGE REGARDING CRIME AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON. IT
INCLUDES WITHIN ITS SCOPE, THE PROCESS OF MAKING OF LAWS, THE
BREAKING OF LAWS AND THE REACTION TOWARDS THE BREAKING OF
LAWS” (Sutherland, 19_).
Crime in its legal sense are defined as acts or omissions punishable by law that
can be punished by imprisonment and/ or fine. While in its behavioral definition of crime

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focuses on criminality, a certain personality profile that causes the most alarming sorts of
crimes. The explanation why crime was committed or the causes of crime is not an easy
thing to do because there are so many factors and circumstances to consider thus making
it complex.
CAUSES OF CRIMES
Causes of crime may be environmental, hereditary or psychological.

Environmental causes are ruled out as independent causes of crimes. But psychological
conditions are said to be determinant of an individual’s reaction to persuasive
environmental influence. Criminologist says that certain offenders are born to create
crimes in the environment. Other cause may be the poverty. Due to low condition of their
living, they are enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination against minorities may
become the cause of crimes. Emotional disorders are also cause of crimes.
CRIME PREVENTION
Ultimate aim of crime prevention is to reduce the risk of victims. Here we find the
ways to prevent crimes. Do not provide the opportunity to the thief to take advantages of
your property. Fewer opportunities may become the cause of reduction in the crime rates.
States should enhance the way of living of poor of that country. Poverty alleviation
programs on sound basis can reduce the crime rates. Law and enforcement agencies are
key role player in prevention of crimes. Delay in justice must be avoided.
ISSUES IN CRIMINOLOGY
Several issues arise which are serious causes to put the crimes rate not reducing.
These issues vary from the level of crime. Due to difference in the legal and criminal
justice system the crime rate is not reducing. Contrast in the police reporting and actual
crime report is another issue. Proper prosecution is not observed when a crime is
committed. Due to differences in data quality a crime rate cannot be feasible work to
reduce the rate of crime.
THEORY; Its concept and Relevance
According to Okada (2015), Theory is a series of statements that seek to

understand and explain particular phenomenon. Theoretical explanations are very
significant in providing a clear and wider understanding of criminal behavior. It also
provide a framework in coming up with new policies in response with crimes like the
development of political and social policies and treatment programs for dealing with
criminals and their victims.

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A theory is a set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how

phenomena are related and from which a number of hypotheses can be derived and
tested. Theories should provide coherent explanations of the phenomena they address,
they should correspond with the RELEVANT EMPIRICAL FACTS, and they should
provide practical guidance for researchers looking for further facts. This guidance takes
the form of a series of statements that can be logically deduced from the assertions of the
theory.
We called these STATEMENTS HYPOTHESES, which are statements about

relationships between and among factors we expect to find based on the logic of our
theories. HYPOTHESES AND THEORIES support one another in the sense that
theories provided the raw material (the ideas) for generating hypotheses, and hypotheses
support or fail to support theories by exposing them to empirical testing. Theories are
devised to explain how a number of different correlates may actually be causally related
to crime and criminality rather than simply associated with them.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICRO-AND MACRO THEORIES
Differences between micro and macro level theories exist. To identify a theory
whether it is macro or micro level is to check what the theory predicts. Focus of the
MICRO-LEVEL THEORY is on the individual interaction. Individual characteristics
can be explained by the interactions of people within an environment. These are
described as EPIDEMIOLOGY. EPIDEMIOLOGY here is concerned with the overall
crime rates. Example of this kind of theory is the relationship between adult children and
their parents. MACRO-LEVEL THEORY is most extended and focuses on the social
problems, social conditions and social processes.
THEORY ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:
1. PREDICTIVE ACCURACY - A theory has merit and is useful to the extent that
it accurately predicts what is observed. That is, the theory has generated a large
number of research hypotheses that have supported it. This is the most important
criterion.
2. PREDICTIVE SCOPE - Predictive scope is the scope or range of the theory and
thus the scope or range of the hypotheses that can be derived from it. That is, how
much of the empirical world falls under the explanatory umbrella of theory A
compared to how much falls under theory
3. SIMPLICITY - If two competing theories are essentially equal in terms of the
first two criteria, then the less complicated one is considered more “elegant.”

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4. FALSIFIABILITY - A theory is never proven true, but it must have the quality
of being falsifiable or disprovable. If a theory is formulated in such a way that no
amount of evidence could possibly falsify it, then the theory is of little use (Ellis,
1994, pp.202–205).
KEY CONCEPTS OF THEORIES
1. Theories are useful tools that help us to understand and explain the world
around us. In criminology, they help us to understand the workings of the
criminal justice system and the actors in the system.
2. Theories suggest the way things are, not the way things ought to be. They are
not inherently good or bad; however, they can be used for good or bad
purposes.
3. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social unit or area (macro), or it
can attempt to explain crime at the individual or smaller unit level (micro).
4. Because we are dealing with human behavior, the social sciences will never be
like the hard sciences. In the hard sciences, the theory of relativity will not
change. In the social sciences, however, we deal with probabilities. The social
scientist will say things such as, “A severely neglected child will probably
commit, or tend to commit, delinquent acts.”
5. To be used for maximum effectiveness, theories must make sense (logical
consistency), explain as much crime as possible (scope), and be as concise as
possible (parsimony). Most important, the theory must be true or correct
(validity). Having met these basic goals, the theory must then have some real
world applications and policy implications.
6. Many theories have common traits, but differences among them still exist.
Understanding these differences is keys to understanding the often
contradictory views of crime and deviance they purport to explain.
THEORY
Means different things to different contemporary criminologists, depending on

their philosophies about the nature of criminology, what it is attempting to accomplish,
and how they think criminology ought to be done. Diversity is evident from the presence
of at least seven differing “philosophies of the enterprise,” expressed in distinct “models”
for doing criminology.
THE SEVEN (7) APPROACHES INCLUDE:

1. Theoretical science;
2. Problem solving;
3. Verstehen” analysis;

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4. Descriptive approaches;
5. Critical work;
6. Nihilistic thinking; and
7. Amelioration. Yet, there does appear to be a dominant paradigm.
1. THEORETICAL SCIENCE
Theoretical accounts within a scientific model are intellectual structures designed
to help explain things within given domains of interest (for more detailed descriptions of
theoretical science see Reynolds, 1971; Tittle, 1995; Turner, 2003: Chapter 1). That is,
scientific theories, and explanations try to provide answers to questions of “why” and
“how” that are deemed satisfactory by critical audiences made up of s scientists who
expect such a theory to provide intellectual satisfaction as well as the means for
predicting aspects of the phenomena of interest.
2. PROBLEM SOLVING
A substantial number of criminologists, perhaps even a majority (though
theoretical science seems to be the dominant approach, there are no hard data to establish
that judgment), aim their work toward finding solutions to crime or crime‐related p
roblems (for examples, see any issue of journal Criminology and Public Policy, or
Kleiman, 2009). Such problems range all the way from international threats of terrorism
to much focused concerns with how best to prevent littering on public streets in particular
towns or cities, and may even involve efforts to assess all manner of collateral damage
for crime‐linked activities. Problem‐solving criminology includes ad hoc explanatory
efforts as well as evaluations of existing programs designed to achieve specific purposes.
3. VERSTEHEN” ANALYSIS
This approach to criminology features efforts to “understand” the actions and
thoughts of participants. (Verstehen is the German word for “to understand”; its use as the
name for this process became popularized in sociology and criminology by the writings
of Max Weber.) The verstehen researcher usually tries to put himself psychically in the
positions of the research subjects in order to see and interpret the world as the subjects
see it and interpret it. This emphatic process is often assisted by careful ethnographic
research and sometimes it is aided by comparative analyses designed to isolate
differences between subjects exhibiting different outcomes or exposures. In recent times
there has been a strong emphasis in criminology on exploring the active part that
individuals play in their crime‐relevant behavior or in escaping from criminal pasts
(sometimes called human agency), and the verstehen approach is especially useful in
pursuing that theme (see for example: Giordano, Cernkovich, & Rudolph, 2002; Maruna,
2001).
4. DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES

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A fourth style of work in contemporary criminology attempts to describe crime

relevant phenomena, situations, and relationships among variables, or to offer conceptual
distinctions with which to classify, think about, or analyze crime relevant aspects of
social life. The objective is to identify the relevant variables empirically, and show how
they actually mesh together in various circumstances. Once accurate description has been
achieved, many descriptive criminologists are ready to move on to other research issues.
In other words, the bulk of descriptive work is a theoretical – neither inspired by nor
answerable to theory (see, for example: Farrington, 1997; Loeber, Slot, & Stouthamer‐
Loeber, 2006).
5. CRITICAL WORK
A substantial number of criminologists define their work roughly as spelling out
social conditions that they believe are responsible for human suffering, injustice, or
inequality, which, in turn, are thought by many to be linked with criminal behavior and
crime‐relevant phenomena (cf. Bonger, 1916 (1969); Daly & Chesney‐Lind, 1988; Gove,
1980; Quinney, 1970, 1974). Within this camp, any argument that logically or
meaningfully connects a social situation or condition with a negative outcome that is
assumed to be associated with crime or crime‐relevant outcomes is called “theory.” Often
the identified culprits are capitalism, mal‐distribution of economic resources, patriarchy,
racism, or other large structural arrangements. Scholars working in this vein share with
theoretical science the goals of showing why and how the particular problem‐generators
operate. However, critical work differs from theoretical science in several crucial ways.
6. NIHILISTIC THINKING
A relatively small, yet vocal, segment of criminologists embrace the notion that it
is impossible to build theories or explanations, and they are highly critical of science as a
model for crime studies (cf. Arrigo, 2003; Einstadter & Henry, 1995; Taylor, Walton, &
Young, 1973). Such scholars essentially contend that nothing can be known except that
nothing can be known. For them, theory is simply the collection of arguments, many of
which are based on obvious biases evident in mainstream criminology, purportedly
showing that humans are incapable of general understanding of human behavior or social
structure and are utterly unable to study social life objectively. So, the idea of theory as a
set of explanatory principles setting out the causes of things relevant to crime is far‐
fetched. To the nihilist, one can only d document human attempts to understand each
other or situations through n narratives, or stories, shared and reacted to by members of
local communities.
7. AMELIORATION
A final style of criminology bears much in common with critical work in that it
attempts to identify sources of human suffering or injustice, but it goes a step further and
offers a prescription for overcoming those forces (cf. Pepinsky & Quinney, 1991). Theory

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for such criminologists, then, consists of the arguments specifying or asserting particular
forces leading to human distress, which are thought to be connected with the probability
of criminal behavior or the construction of legal rules artificially constraining various
segments of the population, along with the remedies to be f followed in overcoming those
forces. Such scholars often reject legal notions of crime, redefining it in terms of
behaviors or social structures producing suffering or injustice.
PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the

causes of crime.
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the
conditions under which penal or criminal laws develop as a
process of formal social controls.
3. PENOLOGY – which is concerned with the controls and prevention of crime
and the treatment of youthful offenders.
4. VICTIMOLOGY – Is a discipline/study which deals of the nature, causes of
victimization, as well as the programs for aiding and preventing victimization.
ANATOMY OF CRIME
1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately functioning

to reach a goal-that is, to perpetrate a crime. EXAMPLES ARE:
A. Intent to rob a bank E. Intent to sabotage

B. Intent to commit murder F. Intent to commit homicide
C. Intent to carnap G. Intent to hi-jack a plane
D. Intent to kidnap H. Intent to rape
INTENT OR INTENTIONALLY – In perpetrating a crime by a person is often

synchronized or harmonized with MOTIVATION. MOTIVATION – Shall mean the
reason, ground or cause why a person perpetrates a crime, thus, creating on his/her mind

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the INTENT to perform it. DESIRE is a WHISHFUL thinking differentiated from

INTENT because intent is willingness to do. MOTIVATION is also differentiated from
DESIRE because MOTIVATION is giving or reason to do the act. Crime is more
identified with INTENT rather than MOTIVATION OR DESIRE.
His/her motivation could be:
A. Economic gain D. Thrill
B. Jealousy E. Political gain,
C. Revenge F. Etc.
2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – Is the means or implemented used in the

commission of the crime. It could be a: (Coronel, 1996).
A. Bolo F. Battery-operated hand drill for carnapping
B. Fan knife G. Motor vehicle
C. An icepick H. Gun,
D. Poison or obnoxious substance I. Etc.
E. Crow bar
Both the INTENT and INSTRUMENTALITY are harbored and wielded by the
perpetrator. The OPPORTUNITY consists of the acts of omission and/or commission by
a person (the victim) which enables another person’s or groups of persons (the criminal/s)
to perpetrate the crime. EXAMPLE FOR THIS ARE:
A. Leaving one’s home or car unattended for a long time

B. Walking alone in a well-known crime prone alley
C. Wearing expensive jewelries in a slum area, and
D. Readily admitting a stranger into one’s residence
3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of indiscretion

and lack of crime-prevention-consciousness on the part of the victim. (Coronel, 1996).
Whether a crime incident would happen or not, it will depend on the presence and
merging of INTENT, INTRUMENTALITY and OPPORTUNITY at the same time and in
the same place. The absence of any one ingredient will mean that there shall be no crime.
The most that could happen is an accident arising out of reckless imprudence,
where there is no intent. A freak crime incident occurs with all the three elements present
and simultaneously occurring at the same time and place, though the victim is not the
intended one.
THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME

There are various methods of classifying crimes. According to LUIS B. REYES,
(1998), in his book CRIMINAL LAW, crimes are CLASSIFIED AS:
1. Crimes against persons

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2. Crimes against property

3. Crimes against personal liberty and security
4. Crimes against chastity
5. Crimes against the civil status of persons
6. Crimes against honor
7. Crimes committed by public officers
8. Crimes against public morals
9. Crimes against public interest
10. Crimes against public order and crimes against the fundamental laws of the state
Frequently, crimes in the context of the study of criminology are classified in

respect to gravity of the act, motives of the offender, for statistical purposes and for
theoretical purpose.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES:
1. ATROCITY OR GRAVITY – Crimes are committed at different degrees of

seriousness. It can be observed on the harm or damage that resulted from a criminal act.
Atrocity or gravity of the offense may be categorized as felony or misdemeanor.
The more serious are called FELONIES and are punishable by death or by
confinement in a state prison; the less serious are MISDEMEANORS and are usually
punishable by confinement in a local jail or by paying fines.
The classification of crimes as FELONIES and MISDEMEANORS is also used
as a classification of criminals. The individual who commits a felony is a FELON, and
the individual who commits a misdemeanor is a MISDEMEANANT.
MOTIVES OF THE OFFENDER (Bonger). – The reason or reasons of the offender

for doing something or behaving in a specific way is his/her motive in committing the
act and it can be categorized INTO:
I. ECONOMIC MOTIVE – The reason for the act is for economic gain.
FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Kidnap for ransom F. Robbery
B. Illegal importation; F. Robbery
C. Sabotage; G. Burglary;
D. Counterfeiting H. Smuggling.
E. Corruption
II. SEXUAL MOTIVE – A direction towards sexual gratification. Or, monetary gain in
exchange of sexual gratification on the part of the client.
FOR EXAMPLE:

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A. Rape
B. Prostitution;
C. Acts of lasciviousness
III. POLITICAL MOTIVE – (Encarta, 2009) – Defines political motive as “motive

carried for reasons that best serve a desired outcome rather than for other reasons such as
being morally justifiable.”
FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Graft and corruption C. Rebellion
B. Tyranny – Powerful/ in used of power and authority D. Sedition
STATISTICAL PURPOSES – It is imperative to gain awareness on the statistics of

crime incidence and this is one purpose why there is a need to classify crimes.
Classifying crimes for statistical purpose would enable us to be aware of the
FREQUENCY of the commission of such CRIMES AS:
A. How many crimes against person were committed in a quarter of a year?

B. How many crimes against property were committed annually?
C. How many crimes against dishonesty were committed semi-annually? And
D. How many crimes against public decency, public order or public morality are
committed in a certain period of time?
THEORETICAL PURPOSES. – For theoretical purposes, each class should be a

sociological entity, differentiated from the other classes by variations in social processes,
SUCH AS:
A. PROFESSIONAL CRIMES – Differentiated from other crimes by the regularity of

behavior, development of skills and techniques, association among offender, consequent
development of a group culture. Usually, crimes committed by organized/syndicated
criminals. FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Drug trafficking
B. Racketeering
C. Syndicated crimes
B. HABITUAL CRIMES – Offenses that are either habits in the literal sense of the
word, which have been made illegal or these are crimes in the common acceptance of the
term, REPEATEDLY BUT NOT SKILLFULLY PERFORMED. FOR EXAMPLE:
-Those that are committed by disorderly drunkards; drug addicts, vagrants, petty
thieves, dope peddlers, and prostitutes.

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C. RECIDIVISM – It refers to the act of committing the same type of crime at a certain
period of time. FOR EXAMPLE:
- A person was arrested, convicted and served imprisonment for a crime of
robbery. After being freed from imprisonment for not more than two years, he again
committed robbery. This person is considered a recidivist.
D. OCCASIONAL – Commits crime perhaps only once, perhaps separated by long

intervals of time. The offender commits a crime only when occasion paves
opportunity.
A SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE ON CRIME
Criminal Behavior is the product of a systematic process that involves complex

interactions between individual, societal, and ecological factors over the course of our
lives. It explains that from the beginning onward the intellectual, emotional, and physical
attributes we develop are strongly influenced by our personal behavior and physical
processes, interactions with the physical environment and interactions with other people,
groups and institutions.
The systematic processes affect the transmission from generation to generation of

traits associated with increased involvement in crime. To have a better understanding as
to how they work together the following are discussed below.
1. Ecological Factors
It involves interactions between people and their activities in a physical

environment. It pertains to physical environment like geography and topography,
crowding, pollution, and recreational opportunities which influences the physical and
emotional development of people over their lives as well as the level of hospitality, fear,
or well- being they feel from moment to moment as they experience, for example, a
crowded subway, dark lonely parking lot, or serene park.
2. Societal or Macro-level Factors
It deals with systematic interactions between social groups which describe the
ways society is structured. It includes the relative distribution of the population among
groups and the flows of information, resources, and people between groups. It also
encompasses the variety and heterogeneity of racial/ethnic/cultural/productive groups,
their behaviors and beliefs and economic relations.
3. Motivation and Opportunity
Individuals actually commit the crimes. Individual factors always intervene

between any descriptions of the causes of crime. Individual or micro level factors
descriptions of the causes of crime.

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What is motivation?
Motivation is the outcome of a process in which a goal is formulated, cost and

benefits are assessed, and internal constraints on behavior are applied. Individual
motivation varies, sometimes a person’s motivation is influenced more by rational
decision making, other times by emotions such as anger, greed, or lust. To some extent
there are similarities wherein some people tend to be more motivated by cost/ benefit
calculations more of the time than others.
Can motivation stand alone?
No. Motivation alone cannot cause a crime to occur; opportunity also is required.
Opportunity itself may influence motivation.
In effect the interactions between biological, socio-cultural and developmental

factors affect how motivated a person is to use force, fraud, or stealth to obtain resources
when an opportunity is presented. If motivation is sufficiently high in the presence of an
attractive opportunity, a crime may occur so long as the person has the ability required to
commit it.
Crime Causation: Historical Overview

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Antique Philosophy
(4th century BC)
Aristotle offers a philosophical standpoint on crime causation who stated that the
crime is poverty related describing poverty as a mother of all revolutions and crimes.
Medieval Philosophy
(17th century)
According to Francis Bacon, criminality will depend on social situations. He

described hid standpoint in this sentence: “Opportunity makes a thief”. Bacon pointed out
that human behavior will depend on situations.

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French Renaissance Philosophy

(18th century)
The famous encyclopedists Voltaire and Rousseau introduce the concept of free
will. Crime is the same as hedonistic behavior and failure to fulfill the social contract
obligations.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the
appearance of X cause effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X
would always cause the effect Y. each and every time the relationship is seen.
2. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - This is the most important factor in evaluating a
theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research evidence.
3. IDEOLOGY - A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure
sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains
how things actually are.
4. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a
logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not
contradict one another. Restated, does the theory make logical and consistent
sense?
5. MACRO - Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime
—crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there
are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have used the terms
“epidemiology” or social structural theories.
6. MICRO - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of
offenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some
individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have used
the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
7. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to produce
effect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
8. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are
involved. How simple is the theory?
9. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions
are suggested.

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10. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY -A concept more applicable to the social

sciences. X is more or less likely to cause effect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
11. SCOPE -Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the theory
covers.
12. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not wholly caused,
determined, or predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or sociological
forces but that these interact with exercise of choice and will by individuals.
Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is difficult.
13. SUFFICIENT CONDITION. Each time X is present, effect Y will always
occur.
14. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people
to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a
crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientific process. In this
case, you would find that greed has been defined as someone who commits
criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
15. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be
subjected to scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are
tautological, propose causes that are not measurable, or are so open-ended that
empirical findings can always be re-interpreted to support the theory.
16. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
17. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this
category attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent
acts.
18. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Theories in this category
attempt to explain how laws are made, and how the criminal justice system
operates as a whole.
19. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real world applications that the theory
proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.
20. THEORY - Is the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct intellectual
apprehension, insight or body of generalizations and principles developed in
association with the practice in a certain field of activity.

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Tel no. (036) 6212-318
ACTIVITY 1
NAME: _____________________________________ YR. &SEC.____________

Instructions: Answer the questions briefly.
1. Explain crime in your own words.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Read a news about a crime whether local, national or international and determine
the following:
a. Who are the perpetrators?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
b. How did they commit the crime(s)?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
c. Why did the perpetrator(s) commit the crime(s)?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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3. In your own point of view, is the crime situation in our community becoming
worst or better? Justify your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________.
4. Do you agree that crime has high and diverse cost? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________.
NOTE: SUBMIT YOUR ACTIVITIES BEFORE DEADLINE!!!

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Tel no. (036) 6212-318
ACTIVITY II
NAME: YR. &SEC.
Part I: Identification
Instructions: Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked.
______________________1. Crime is poverty related describing poverty as a mother of

all revolutions and crimes.
______________________2. Acts or omissions punishable law that can be punished by
imprisonment and/or fine.
______________________3. Introduce the concept of free will.
______________________4. Pointed out that human behavior will depend on situations.
______________________5. The product of a systematic process that involves complex
interactions between individual, societal, and ecological factors over the course of our
lives.
______________________6. If two competing theories are essentially equal in terms of
the first two criteria, then the less complicated one is considered more “elegant.”
______________________7. A direction towards sexual gratification. Or, monetary gain
in exchange of sexual gratification on the part of the client.
______________________8. Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of indiscretion and
lack of crime-prevention-consciousness on the part of the victim.
______________________9. The outcome of a process in which a goal is formulated,
cost and benefits are assessed, and internal constraints on behavior are applied.
_____________________10. A theory has merit and is useful to the extent that it
accurately predicts what is observed. That is, the theory has generated a large number of
research hypotheses that have supported it. This is the most important criterion.
NOTE: SUBMIT YOUR ACTIVITIES BEFORE DEADLINE!!!

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CHAPTER II
THEORIES
Demonological Theory
This is the earliest to explain in crime and criminal behavior. It is theorized that
people believe that evil spirits or demons inside the human body to commit sins.
Terms like demons, witches and windigo were used for people who had turned
criminals. The society thought that it happened due to evil influence. Supernatural powers
were considered the best explanation behind crime and seen. It was believed that a person
did not commit crimes of his own free will but under the evil influence
Spiritual vs. Natural Explanation

Spiritual explanations for crime is primarily at touch into religious beliefs and
superstitions and there is a strong and adherence with the divine intervention. Even at the
present, some religious individuals and groups still attribute crime to the influence of the
evil and to the sinful human nature. The problem with history is that, because spiritual
influences cannot be observed they cannot be proved. Thus this theory cannot be
considered scientific.
Natural Explanations for crime were rooted in people's ideas about the nature of
reality in the physical world based on observation of nature but we're not specific. For
Example, the natural world was thought to include inherent good and evil, and crimes of
them were regarded as crimes against nature or the natural order rather than crimes
against the victim or against God. Seeking explanation for crime in the natural world
provided a basis for the development of legal definition and treatments of crime. Natural
explanation of crime make use of objects and events in the material world to account for
what happens.
Classical Theory
This theory posits that you man behavior as rational and assumes that people have
the ability to choose right from wrong. It explains that crime is a product of believes
that benefits of committing crimes are far greater therefore crime is a behavioral human
characteristics and a choice. This theory expresses that the humans did not act according
to God's wheel or under the influence of any other supernatural power but acted in their
own free will. They acted after having judged the rewards and punishments. It only
shows an individual has the ability to calculate the outcome of his own actions and can
consider the pleasure and pain to result from his activities this is in response to the
primitive an accrual European just a system that existed prior to the French revolution of
1789.
Principles underlying this theory

1. Viewed human behavior as an essential rationale in nature;
2. Felt that people had the ability to choose right from wrong;
3. Believe that major element governing a person's choice of action was the basic
human desire to obtain pleasure and avoid pain.

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To sum up this principles under this trip it is mainly concerned with an

explanation of crime it completely concentrated on the criminal act. People have the
ability to choose right from wrong good from evil. His explanation for criminal
behavior included the idea that people are basically hedonistic, that is, they desire a high
degree of pleasure and avoid pain. People who choose to commit criminal acts think they
stand to gain more than they risk losing by committing the crime. All these ideas of
Jeremy Bentham was promised under the principle of utilitarianism.
What is utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism is the doctrine that the purpose of all action should bring about the
greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It means that human beings are
hedonistic act only in their own self-interest.
What is felicitous calculus or moral calculus?

This is used for estimating the probability that a person will engage in a particular
kind of behavior. People weigh the possibility that a particular behavior pattern or action
will cause current or future pleasure against the possibility that it will cost current or
future pain. In response to the question of why a person commits a crime, Bentham
would probably be applied at the pleasure that the person anticipated from the criminal
act was much greater than the subsequent pain that might be expected from it.
Strength of Classical Theory

It considers both juveniles and insane people as an able to commit crime since
they cannot rationally calculate the outcomes of their actions. Our current criminal on
juvenile justice system are based on the basic propositions of this approach.
1. Deterrence theory
Different story highlights that an individual's choice to commit or not to
commit a crime is influenced by the fear of punishment. It also includes the idea
that force retribution for a crime should reduce crime rates. This theory is
considered an extension of the classical approach focusing on the link between
punishment and behavior at both individual and group levels.

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What is deterrence?
Deterrence is the act of preventing a criminal act before it occurs, through the
threat of punishment and functions.
What is retribution?
Retribution is the notion that a wrongdoer should be forced to pay back or
compensate for his or her criminal acts.
Focus of deterrence theory

 Punishment to be deterrent to criminal behavior it must be certain, swift, and
severe.
 The severity must be sufficient to outweigh any rewards that the criminal may
obtained from a criminal act.
Types of Deterrence
1. Specific Deterrence- this is aimed at the wrongdoer and tries to deter him from
crime by punishing him.
2. General Deterrence - this is aimed but everyone. It deters everyone from crime
by punishing the criminal and thus establishing an example. The weakness is that
it does not clearly consider the impact of punishment on people which have not
committed but might be ready to commit crime.
3. Routine Activities Theory- history suggests that crime is a product of people's
daily activity influenced by a number of factors that can become the motivation
behind crime. Living in the company of delinquent peers or being to places
frequently rounded by others can't motivate anyone to become one of them. It is
used to explain the changing trends in a crime.
It has the idea that criminals are not impulsive or unpredictable because
they balance the cause as well as benefits of committing crimes this theory is a
product of classical approach wherein the explain crime as irrational course of
action by offenders who sick to minimize pain and maximize pleasure.

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According to Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson, trends in crime rates is

influence in terms of the changing routine activities of daily life. It explains why
crime and delinquency occur in particular places under specific conditions like the
merging of motivated offenders, suitable targets and the absence of capable
guardians against a violation.
Suitable targets. Things that are valued or people who when assaulted, provide
positive rewards or pleasure to the perpetrator.
Guardians. Objects or individuals who are capable of protecting possible targets
or victims. To the offender the presence of protective gardens rises crime cause on
lesson targets attractiveness
What are the assumptions in RAT.

1. Self-interest motivates criminal offenders to commit criminal acts;
2. Many individuals may be motivated to break laws.
Rat examines how structural changes in everyday activity patterns
influence crime rates by affecting the convergence in time and space of three
requisites condition for a crime to occur.
These three include:
1. A Perpetrator;
2. A victim and/or object of property
3. A relationship or an opportunity.
Neoclassical Theory
This to reconsider age, gender and social class of the perpetrators. The
perpetrators are people who think feel, act and criminal behavior is learned within groups
by imitation and identification. It suggests the understanding of individual differences of
the perpetrators and sought to improve the stances towards perpetrators who should have
an impact on the level of guilt and severity of punishment. Consequently not all
perpetrators should be treated in the same fashion because the evidence difference exists
among them. Crime is a result of many conditions that have ultimately influenced the
perpetrators to commit it.
Phrenology and Physiognomy

1. Phrenology doctrine of the mental phenomena greek words phren means mind
logos means knowledge. Phrenology is based on the belief that human behavior
originated in the brain.

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2. Physiognomy according to Johann Lavater, a physiognomist, states that the shape

of the skull and some facial features an impact on human behavior and actions.
Johann Lavater

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Auguste Comte is known as the founder of sociology of positivism believe that both
external and internal forces are important for understanding human behavior.
Auguste Comte
Positivist Theories
Positivism emphasizes the techniques of observation the comparative method, and
experimentation in the development of knowledge concerning human behavior and nature
of society. It also stress the idea that much of behavior is a function of external social
forces beyond individual control as well as internal forces such as our mental capabilities
and biological makeup. This theory further argued that human behavior is pre-disposed
and fully determined by individual differences and biological traits meaning it is not free
well that drives people to commit crimes.
Positivism it highlights the relevance of empirical or scientific study of crime, criminals
and criminal behavior in this theory is presumed that scientific study of criminal behavior
should be the causes of such behavior believing that the causes of crime are beyond the
control of individuals. In short positivist theory shows a deterministic explanation it
played an important role in the development of modern criminology. Positivists play the
environment and hereditary factors could be important causal factors behind crime.
Effects of Positivism
1. People were beginning to be perceived and understood as organisms that are part
of the animal kingdom whose behavior is very much influenced by social,
cultural, and biological antecedents, rather than self-determined beings who are
free to do what they want.
2. There is great diversity in positivist theory on the causes of crime: some stress
external factors more, and other stress internal factors more.

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1. Biological Theory
Biological explanations of crime assume that some people are 'born criminals',
who are physiologically distinct from non-criminals. According to biological
positivists the basic cause of crime is biological inferiority, which is indicated by
physical or genetic characteristics that distinguish criminals from non-criminals.
Biological theories also advocate brain surgery, chemical treatment, improved
diets and better mother and child care.
Biological theories of criminality basically support that criminal behavior
is the result of some flaw in the biological make-up of the individual. This could
be due to
a. heredity
b. neurotransmitter dysfunction
c. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above,
improper development, or trauma.
Early Biological Theories vs. Modern Biological Theories
Early biological theories viewed that structure determines function - that is

individuals behave differently because of the found the mental fact that they are somehow
structurally different. It focused only on inherited characteristics.
Modern biological theories examine the entire range of biological characteristics,

including those that results from genetic defects and those that are environmentally
induced. This theory do not suggest that biological characteristic directly "cause" crime
but it claimed that biological conditions increase the likelihood that an individual will
engage in maladaptive behavior patterns and that those behavior patterns, can include
actions that are legally defined as criminal it focus on the interaction between biological
characteristics and the social environment rather than looking solely at the effects of
biology itself being cold as biosocial theories, of crime and most biological
criminologist recognize that this is where the field must go on in the future.
Proponent: Cesare Lombroso- Father of Criminology
Profile
 born in Venice, Italy, in 1835
 educated in medicine and psychiatry
 become a professor of criminal anthropology at the University of Turin 1906
 Published a book entitled, "Criminal Man" in 1876.
He pointed out in this book that the explanation of criminal behavior basing it on
biological characteristics and heredity therefore advocating the scientific explanation,
focused on internal biological factors, and believe that people engage in crime are
throwbacks.

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What was the study of Lombroso?
With idea on phrenology and physiognomy it became the basis of Cesare

Lombroso in exploring the physical traits of a body wherein he researched the facial
features and the shape of the skull. Using various physiological and cranial measurements
of known criminals he theorized that certain persons who engage in criminal behavior are
"born criminals" and believe that criminals could be distinguished from non-criminals by
a variety of what he termed physical stigmata, such as long lower jaw, flattened nose,
and long, apelike arms.
The stigmata themselves did not cause criminal behavior; rather they are visible
indicators of a personality type that was in essence, a primitive atavism, a throwback on
the Darwinian scale of human evolution.
He also compare the large number of criminals and non-criminals using human
physical traits like: ear size, hair length and others. Lombroso stated that atavistic
features are more similar to savages and criminal offenders. This view was held by many
biological positivists. Lombroso was influenced by Darwinian principles of evolution and
used these ideas to support the thesis of inferiority of criminals.
Atavism: Its concept

Atavism from (Latin atavism, ancestor) claimed a return to a primitive of or sub
human type of man, characterized physically by variety of inferior morphological
features reminiscent of apes and lower primates, occurring in the more simian fossil men,
and to some extent, preserved in modern "savages."
What is the implication of Lombroso’s Theory?

The mentality of atavistic individuals is that of primitive man, that these are
biological 'throwbacks' to an earlier stage of evolution and that the behavior of these
'throwbacks' will inevitably be contrary to the rules and expectation of modern civilized
society.

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Lombroso not only focused on the “born criminal,” atavism, and degeneracy; as a
positivist, he also expressed concern for factors such as the social and physical
environment of the offender. He emphasized a mutual interactive relationship between
heredity and environment and, in other written works, stressed environmental conditions
as causing or having an effect on criminality.
The Five Fold Scientific Classification of Criminals

Proponent: Enrico Ferri
Profile:
 Born in Mantua, Italy, in 1856
 Published his dissertation entitled Criminal Sociology
 An acknowledge leader of the positivist school of criminology
 Student of Lombroso at the University of Turin
 Coined the term “born criminal”
The following are the classification established by Ferri:

1. Born or Instinctive Criminal. One who carries from birth through unfortunate
heredity from his ancestors, a reduced resistance to criminal stimuli and also an
evident and developed tendency to crimes.
2. Insane Criminal. One who is affected by a clinically identified mental disease or
by neuro psychopathic condition which groups him with the mentally disease.
3. Passion Criminal. One who, in two varieties, the criminal through passion, or
through emotion, represents a type at the opposite pole from the criminal due to
congenital tendencies.
4. Occasional Criminal. One who constitute the majority of law breakers and is the
product of family and social milieu more than of abnormal personal physiomental
conditions.
5. Habitual Criminal. The criminal by acquired habit, who is mostly a product of
the social environment in which, due to abandonment by his family, lack of
education, poverty, bad companions, already in his childhood begins as an
occasional offender.
According to Ferri, “classes of criminal do not exist in nature however, they are a
necessary “instrument by which the human mind can better understand and multiform
reality things.” On the other hand he also emphasize the significance and interrelatedness
of social, economic, and political factors.
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Four Types of Criminals
Proponent: Rafael Garofalo
Profile:
 Born of Italian nobility in Naples in 1852

 Third of the leading exponents of positivism
 Professor of criminal law at the University of Naples

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 Known principally in the United States for his major, Criminology
Four Types of Criminals on the Basis of Moral Deficits

1. Murderer
The man in whom altruism is wholly lacking and whose sentiments of
both pity and probity are absent, and such a criminal will steal or kill as the
occasion arises.
2. Violent Criminal
Those characterized by the lack of pity (may also commit crimes of
passion, sometimes under the influence of alcohol; such crimes are indicative of
inferior innate moral capacities; certain environments contribute to crimes against
property)
3. Thief
Those thieves who lacks probity (such offenses are committed by a small
minority of the population)
4. Lascivious Criminal
A group of sexual offenders whose conduct is characterized less by the
absence of the sentiment of pity than by a low level of moral energy and deficient
moral perception.
Garofalo’s Sociological definition of crime:

“Those acts which no civilized society can refuse to recognize as criminal and
repress by punishment.”
Natural Crime. Conduct which offends the basic moral sentiments of pity
(revulsion against the voluntary infliction of suffering on others) and probity (respect for
property rights of others.
Natural crime is a behavior which violates certain basic moral sentiments. The
true criminal is the one whose altruistic sensibilities are lacking or are in a deficient
state of development and considered as abnormal. The concepts of crime and the crime
are thus integrally related.”
1. Somatotype Theory
This theory relates to the distinctive body types to personality characteristic and
relates criminal behavior to the body types. People are born with an inherited body
type based on skeletal frame and body composition.
Somatotyping is the classifying of people into types according to body build.
Proponent: William Sheldon
Research:

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He observed the varieties of human bodies and came up with three types:
ectomorphs, endomorphs, and mesomorphs.
a. Ectomorphs
 Thin and fragile
 Flat-chested, fragile, lean, lightly muscled, small shouldered and thin
 Likely to commit suicide
b. Endomorph
 Soft and fat
 Underdeveloped muscles and a round physique
 Have difficulty losing weight
 Likely to be mentally ill
c. Mesomorphs
 Muscular and athletic
 Hour glass-shaped when they’re female, or rectangular- shaped in males
 Have excellent posture, they gain muscle easily and they have thick skin
 Most prone to commit crime or other deviant behaviors
Similar classification of somatotypes was developed by German psychiatrist E.

Kretschmer in 1921. Kretschmer’s classification system introduced three body types:
 Asthenic
 Athletic
 Pyknic

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2. XY Chromosome Theory
This theory holds that criminal have an extra Y chromosomes that gives them an
XYY chromosomal makeup rather than XY makeup. This creates a strong compulsion
within them to commit crimes and being known as “super male”. According to studies the
proportion of XYY males in the prison population is higher than general male population.
3. Neuroscience
The brain is a complex and fragile organ which can damaged by traumatic injury,
tumors, neurodevelopmental disorder, neurodegenerative disorders, vascular lesions and

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many other causes. Episodic or chronic substance abuse can alter both the structure and
functioning of the brain.
4. Genetics
Genetics explain the causes of crime. In a family studies focus on the criminal
history and background of families it was found out that families with criminal
backgrounds, are said to be more likely to produce children with criminal tendencies also,
almost as though crime is a gene carried through generations.
Sociological Theories
The sociological approach theorizes that crime is shaped by factors external to the
individual: their experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the family. It
means that society “construct” criminality. It attempts to connect the issues of the
individual’s criminality with the broader social structures and cultural values of society,
familial, or peer group.
It suggests that crime is caused by anomie, or the dissociation of the individual
from the collective conscience; by social disorganization; by anomie resulting from a lack
of opportunity to achieve aspirations; by the learning of criminal values and behaviors;
and by the failure to properly socialize individuals.
What are the social conditions responsible for criminality?

a. Broken families
b. Poor parenting
c. Low quality educational experiences
d. Delinquent peer relations
e. Poverty
f. Lack of equal economic opportunity
g. Inadequate socialization
____________________________________
Major Sociological Theories
1. Social Disorganization Theory

Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in traditional social control and
organization in the society, community, neighborhood, or organization in the society,
community, neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity result. It states
a person’s physical and social environments are primarily responsible for the behavior
choices that a person makes. At the core of social disorganization theory, is that location
matters when it comes to predicting illegal activity. It is most often applied to urban
crime. It simply focus on the immediate social environment, like the family, peer group,
and school.

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2. Strain/Anomie Theory
This theory explains the breakdown of social norms that often accompanies rapid
social change. A concrete example is when old rules or values are no longer relevant and
new values or rules are in direct conflict with old rules and values. It is also on this
context that, criminal behavior arises when confronted with the inability to achieve
success and when faced with the strain that ensues following the realization that personal
talents, training, or desires cannot achieve that which desire. Merton states that, “Anomie
refers to psychological state of confusion caused by rapidly changing industrial evolution
and accompanying social dislocation and the effect this change has on people. This state
is popularly conceptualized as “normlessness”. It is a feeling, an attitude a psychological
perspective that causes those who experience is to feel confused, frustrated, annoyed
angry, hostile, embarrassed, and even resigned or doomed.
3. Subcultural Theory
This theory is linked to anomie and strain exemplifying concepts of status
frustration and differential opportunity, which North American subcultural theorists used
to explain the delinquent activities of disadvantaged groups. In the study of Albert Cohen
in relation with status frustration, he argued that lower-class youths could not aspire to
middle-class cultural goals and so, frustrated, they rejected them to create their own
subcultural system of values.
4. Social Control Theory

This theory does not address the causes of crime, but the causes of crime, but
rather focuses on why people obey the law. In other words, it explains conformity rather
than deviance. This theory is associated with the work of Travis Hirschi, an American
social scientist who proposed that people generally conform to social norms due to strong
social bonds. Conversely, they engage in delinquent acts when these bonds are broken or
weak. It is non-traditional criminology color perspective because they seek to explain
why individuals conform to societal norms, and not why they commit crime.
It simply suggests that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when
their ties to society are weakened or have broken when the bounds are strong an
individual will refrain from criminal activity.
Key components of social bonds are:

1. Attachment
How strong or weak is an individual relationship with others do this others
expect certain kinds of behavior such as obeying the law from this individual the
stronger the attachment and the stronger the expectation the more likely it is that
the individual will conform.
2. Commitment

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The more an individual commits his herself to a particular lifestyle for example
being married being a parent having a job the more he or she has to lose if he or
she becomes involved in a crime and so deviates from the lifestyle.
3. Involvement
This component comes down to time the more time the individual spends
in gauging in law abiding behavior the last time he or she has to engage in law
breaking behavior.
4. Belief
This relates to a bringing if an individual has been brought out to be law-
abiding they are less likely to become involved in crime.
5. Differential association theory

Proponent: Edwin Sutherland
Mystery emphasize that crime is a result of social learning by engage in and
deviance behavior by those with whom we socially interact it is a learning theory that
concentrates on one's associate and the normative definition one learns from them.
Sutherlands proposition for differential association theory:
1. Criminal behavior is learned.

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other person in a process of
communication.
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate
personal groups.
4. When criminal behavior is learned the learning includes ( a) technique of
committing the crime which are sometimes very complicated sometimes very
simple and (b) the specific direction of motives drives rationalization and
attitude.
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learn from definition of legal codes
as favorable or unfavorable.
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to
violation of law over definitions and favorable to violations of the law.
7. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-
criminal patterns involves all of the mechanism that are involved in any other
learning.
8. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values it is not
explained by those general needs and values because non-criminal behavior is an
expression of same needs and values.
9. Differential association varies and frequency duration priority and intensity the
most frequent longest-running earliest and clauses influence will be most
efficacious or determinants of learning behavior.
6. Cultural Deviance Theory

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This theory signifies that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower
class society causes crime. Lower class subcultural has a unique set of values and beliefs,
which are invariably in conflict with conventional social norms. Criminality is an
expression of conformity to lower class subcultural values. Members of the working class
commit crimes as they respond to the cultural norms of their own class in an effort to deal
with problems of social-middle class- adjustment.
7. Social Learning Theory
This theory underscored that people learn to engage in crime, primarily through
their association with others. They are reinforced for crime, they learn beliefs that are
favorable to crime, and they are exposed to criminal models. They view crime as
something that is desirable or at least justifiable in certain situations. Juvenile learn to
engage in crime in the same way they to engage in conforming behavior: through
association with or exposure to others. Primary or intimate groups like the family and
peer groups have an especially large impact on what we learn.
Three mechanism by which individuals learn to engage in crime
1. Differential Reinforcement of Crime

Individuals may teach others to engage in crime through the reinforcements and
punishments they provide for behavior.
Positive Reinforcement- The behavior results in something good-some positive
consequence like money, the pleasurable feelings associated with drug use, or an increase
in social status
Negative Reinforcement- The behavior results in the removal of something bad-
a punisher is removed or avoided.
2. Beliefs Favorable to Crime

Other individuals may not only reinforce our crime, they may also teach us beliefs
favorable to crime. Most individuals, of course, are taught that crime is bad or wrong.
They eventually accept or “internalize” this belief, and they are less likely to engage in
crime as a result. Some individuals, however, learn beliefs that are favorable to crime and
they are more likely to engage in crime as a result.
3. The Imitation of Criminal models

Behavior is not only a function of beliefs and the reinforcement and punishments
individuals receive, but also of the behavior of those around them. Individuals often
imitate or model the behavior of others- especially when they like or respect these others
and have reason to believe that imitating their behavior will result in reinforcement.
Environment Criminology
Environmental Criminology is the study of crime, criminality, and victimization
as they relate, first, to particular places, and secondly, to the way that individuals and
organizations shape their activities spatially, and in so doing are in turn influenced by
placed-based or spatial factors. Further it is a positivist theory that suggests crime is
influenced, if not caused, by a person’s spatial environment which include space, time,
offender, and target or victim.

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1. Psychological Theory
This theory has a general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning,
development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts.
Under this approach, the criminal act itself is important only in that it highlights an
underlying mental issue. It focus on the association among intelligence, personality,
learning and criminal behavior. It further explain criminal behavior, in part, as factors
affecting individuals such as negative childhood experiences, or incomplete cognitive
development.
2. Psychodynamic Theory
A theory individual’s personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes
that are grounded in early childhood. Child experiences influences his or he likelihood for
committing future crimes. This theory was originated by Sigmund Freud, founder of
psychoanalysis. He thought that human behavior, including violent behavior, was the
product of “unconscious” forces operating within a person’s mind and felt that early
childhood experiences had a profound impact on adolescent and adult behavior.
Three elements or structures that make up the human personality

(Frued)
1. The Id (Pleasure Principle)
It present the unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other necessities
over the life span which is concerned with instant pleasure or gratification while
disregarding concern for others. This is known as the pleasure principle, and it is often
paramount when discussing criminal behavior.
2. The Ego (Reality Principle)
It is thought to develop early in a person’s life. For example, when children learn
that their wishes cannot be gratified instantaneously, they often throw a tantrum. It
compensates for the demands of the id by guiding an individual’s actions or behaviors to
keep him or her under within the boundaries of society.
3. The Superego (Morality)
It develops as a person incorporates the moral standards and values of the
community; parents; and significant others, such as friends and clergy members. It serves
to pass judgment on the behavior and actions of individuals. The ego mediates between
the id’s desire for instant gratification and the strict morality of the superego.
What are the types of mood disorders?

1. Conduct Disorder

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Children who have difficulty in following rules and behaving in socially

acceptable ways. It is manifested as a group of behavioral and emotional problems in
young adults. These children diagnosed with conduct disorder are viewed by adults, other
children, and agencies of the state as “trouble,” “bad,” “delinquent,” or even “mentally
ill.” The most prominent causes are child abuse, brain damage, genetics, poor school
performance, and a traumatic event.
2. Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Children showing defiance; uncooperativeness; irritability; a very negative
attitude; a tendency to lose one’s temper; and exhibiting deliberately annoying behaviors
towards peers, parents teachers, and other authority figures, such as police officers.
Example of Mental Health Disorders

1. Bipolar Disorder
It is marked by extreme highs and lows; the person alternates between
excited, assertive, and loud behavior and lethargic, listless, and melancholic
behavior.
2. Schizophrenia
Individuals often exhibit illogical and incoherent thought processes, and
they often lack insight into their behavior and do not understand reality. A person
with paranoid schizophrenia also experiences complex behavior delusions that
involve wrongdoing or persecution.
3. Behavioral Theory
It focuses on behavior modelling and social learning. It maintains that all human
behavior- including violence behavior- is learned through interaction with the social
environment. Behaviorist argue that people are not born with a violent disposition.
Rather, they learn to think and act violently as result of their day-to-day experiences.
4. Cognitive Theory
This theory signifies that an individual perception and how it is manifested affects
his or her potential to commit crime. It focus on how people perceive their social
environment and learn to solve problems. The moral and intellectual development
perspective is the branch of cognitive theory that is most associated with the study of
crime and violence.

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Levels of Moral Development

Level 1: Pre- conventional
Throughout the pre- conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is
defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal
and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but
this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages,
and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to
others.

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Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same
for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Post- conventional

Throughout the post- conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are
unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization
that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions,
their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the
pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach
this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values.
Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those
that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to
meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and
focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect.

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
5. Personality Theory
This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or
inadequate personality. In short criminal behavior is associated with defective personality
traits. Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression,
and sensation-seeking. The criminal does not have the ability to feel empathy, remorse, or
guilt for his or her actions, and has not developed a sense of right and wrong.
6. Psychoanalytic Theory
A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in
the mind of the individual. The criminal behavior is the result of a mental disturbance.
According to Sigmund Freud, this may have been caused by a conflict between the id,
ego, and superego, or it may be the result of an improper fixation during a stage of
emotional development.
Psychoanalysts believe that is a man cannibalistic wild creature in its beginning,
which will from in a mature and responsible person through a process of socialization
which has significant role in the formation of our conscience.
Who is a Psychopathic?
A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality disorders.
7. Theory of Frustration Aggressiveness

This theory claims that frustration always leads to aggression and every
aggression is the result of frustration which is one of the possible causes of crime.
What is frustration?
It is a psychological state of discomfort due to the inability to achieve certain
goals or find solutions for problems.
8. Humanistic Psychological Theory

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Proponents: Abraham Maslow and Helleck

This theory explains crime and criminal behavior in terms of human needs.
People tend to adopt criminal behavior because they do not have other options available
for sustenance. Crime such people can be a way of adapting. People have physiological
needs, safety needs, belongingness needs as well self-esteem needs but remain unfulfilled
most of the time people feel helpless.

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Tel no. (036) 6212-318
ACTIVITY III
NAME: ____________________________________YR. &SEC._____________

Instructions: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What was the effect of the traditional explanation of crimes in the treatment of
offenders?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. At present do you believe that the beliefs under demonological theory are still
recognized?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Give the distinctions between spiritual and natural explanations of crime.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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Tel no. (036) 6212-318
ACTIVITY IV
NAME: ____________________________________YR. &SEC._____________

Instructions: Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked.
Part II: Identification
___________________1. This theory posit the human behavior as rational and assumes
that people have the ability to choose right from wrong.
___________________2. Doctrine that the purpose of all actions should be to bring
about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
___________________3. This is use for estimating the probability that a person will
engage in a particular kind of behavior.
___________________4. This ideas were all premised under the principle of
utilitarianism.
___________________5. An individual’s choice to commit or not commit a crime is
influenced by the fear of punishment.
___________________6. The father of Classical School of thought.
___________________7. It has a concept that a wrongdoer should be forced to
“payback” or compensate for his or her criminal acts.
___________________8. This is aimed at the wrongdoer and tries to deter him from
crime by punishing him.
___________________9. Act of preventing a criminal act before it occurs, through the
threat of punishment and sanctions.
___________________10. Crime is a product of people’s daily activities influence by a
number of factors that can become the motivation behind crime.
Part II: Essay

Instruction: Read the questions and write your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

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a. Give the distinction between the Classical and Neo Classical Theory. In these
theories what do you appreciate most? Why?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
b. Read and understand the essay on Crimes and Punishment by Cesare Beccaria.
What are the insights you learned from it. Hoe does these ideas influence your
views on crimes as a criminology student?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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Tel no. (036) 6212-318
ACTIVITY V
NAME: ____________________________________YR. &SEC._____________

Part I: Identification
Instruction: Read and understand the given items. Give the correct answer by
writing the letter only.
_____________________1. Human behavior originated in the brain.
_____________________2. The shape of the skull and some facial features had an
impact on a human behavior and actions.
_____________________3. Human behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by
individual differences and biological traits meaning it is not free-will that drives people to
commit crimes.
_____________________4. Founder of sociology and positivism.
_____________________5. A theory which assume that some people are ‘born
criminals’, who are physiologically distinct from non-criminals.
_____________________6. Focus strongly on inherited characteristics.
_____________________7. Claimed a return to a primitive or subhuman type of man.
_____________________8. One who carries from birth, through unfortunate heredity
from his ancestors, a reduced resistance to criminal stimuli and also an evident and
developed tendency to crime?
_____________________9. The man in whom altruism is wholly lacking and whose
sentiments of both pity and probity are absent, and such a criminal will steal or skill as
the occasion arises.
_____________________10. People are born with an inherited body type based on
skeletal frame and body composition.
Part II: Essay

a. Explain strain/anomie theory? Create a scenario wherein this theory exist?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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b. According to Edwin Sutherland, “Criminal behavior is learned.” Agree or

disagree? Justify your answer by giving a concrete example.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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CHAPTER III
CRITICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME CAUSATION
Critical theory's do not only rejects traditional theories of crime causation, but
challenge conventional understandings of crime and punishment by uncovering false
belief and perspectives. It is anchored in the paradigm of inequalities of the capitalist
society.
Critical theories also try to explain group differences in crime rates in terms of the
larger social environment; some focus on class differences, some on gender differences,
and some on societal differences in crime. Several versions of critical theory exist, but all
explain crime in terms of group differences in power.
1. Labeling theory
The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and
deviant "labels" or x applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather
instigate future deviant or criminal acts. labeling theory is not concerned with
why people originally engaged in act that result in their being labelled but it is
with criminal career formation and not the origin of criminal acts.
People become criminals when significant members of society label them

as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity. Throughout their lives
people are given a variety of symbolic labels in their interactions with others.
These labels imply a variety of behavior and attitudes; labels thus help define not
just one trait but the whole person. If a devalued the status is conferred by a
significant other, the negative label may cause permanent harm to the target.
Being perceived as a social deviant may affect their treatment at home, at work, at
school and in the other social situations.
What are the two effects of labeling?

1. The creation of a stigma
A public record of the deviant act caused the denounced person to be ritually
separated from a place in the legitimate order of society through successful digression
ceremonies.
2. The effect on self-image
Stigmatized offenders may begin to reevaluate their own identities around the label.
Two stages of deviance

1. Primary deviance
These are crimes that have little influence on the actor and can quickly be
forgotten.
2. Secondary deviance

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It arises when deviant comes to the attention of significant others or social control
agencies who apply a negative label. The person then reorganizes his or her own
behavior and personality around the consequences of a deviant.
It involves socialization into a deviant role. The labeled person is transformed into
one who employs his behavior or a role based upon the label as a means of
defense, attack or adjustment. Secondary deviance produces a deviance
application effect this is a self-fulfilling prophecy.
2. Conflict theory
The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing
ideas and values. The group (s) with the most power makes the laws and controls
society groups lacking the formal power to make the rules still maintain their own
group norms, and continue in their behavior, which is now viewed as criminal by
the larger society. This perspective explains both law and criminal justice (why
some are legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior
(why some individuals commit acts defined as criminal).
3. Marxist theory
Marxist theories argue that those who owned the means of production
(e.g., factories, businesses) have the greatest power. This group the capitalist class
uses its power for its own advantage. Capitalist work for the passage of laws that
criminalize and severally sanction the "street" crimes of lower-class persons, but
harmful actions of business and industry (e.g., pollution, unsafe working
conditions).
What are the characteristics of a capitalist?
1. Act to increase their profits

-there is is improvements in working conditions
-they attempt to hold down the wages of workers
2. Acknowledge that disputes sometimes arise within the capitalist class and that
the government sometimes makes concessions to workers in an effort to protect
the long-term interests of capitalists.
4. Feminist theory
This theory focus on gender differences in power as a source of crime. it
address two issues: why are males more involved in most forms of crime than
females, and why do females engage in crime most theories of crime were

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developed with males in mind feminist argue that the causes of female crime
differ somewhat from the causes of male crime.
Gender differences in crime are said to be due largely to gender

differences in social learning and control. Females are socialized to be passive,
subservient, and focused on the needs of others. Further females are closely
supervised than male partly because fathers and husbands desire to protect their
"property" from other males. Females are more closely tied to the household and
to child rearing tasks, which limits their opportunities to engage in many crimes.
5. Rational choice theory (right realism)

Proponents: Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke
The theories under the rational choice theory (RCT) posits that a criminal
rationally chooses the crime to commit and the target of crime. Criminals evaluate
available information to decide whether a crime is attractive and worthwhile. Criminal
behavior is centered on the situational aspects because society can achieve a high degree
of crime prevention by focusing on the situational aspects that influence particular types
of criminal behavior. It emphasized that individuals as rational actors wherein they are
capable of making their own choices which includes choosing to commit crime. They
even weigh up the benefits and disadvantages they derived from their acts. This theory
implies that individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide when and where to
commit crime.
Rational choice theory states that people freely choose their behavior and are
motivated by the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure. Individuals evaluate their
choice of actions in accordance with each action ability to produce advantage, pleasure
and happiness. It also provides a micro perspective on why individual offenders decide to
commit specific crimes; people choose to engage in crime because it can be rewarding,
easy satisfying and fun. It simply suggests that crime is a personal choice which is the
result of individual decision-making processes. Therefore individuals are responsible for
their choices and thus individual offenders are subject to blame for their criminality.
Integrated theory
One in which two or more of the major criminological theories are used together
in a new theoretical perspective.
Economic Model of Crime

It assumes that an individual will choose the same course of action when
confronted with the same alternatives regarding costs, rewards, and risk. It is also based
on the assumption that a person chooses to commit crime. It means that criminal behavior

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follows a calculation whereby criminals explore the perceived cost, rewards, and risk of
alternative action.
Justice model
It stresses the idea that offenders are responsible people and therefore deserve to
be punished if they violate the law.
Just deserts
It is a justice perspective according to which those who violate others rights
deserve to be punished.
Self l-control theory (general theory of crime)

These theory constituted reassertion of the classical schools initial contention that
individuals seek personal pleasure while avoiding pain (Beccaria, 1764/1963) which
simply means that people are motivated by self-interest. Low self-control was the
general, antecedent cause of forceful/fraudulent acts "undertaken in pursuit of self-
interest"(Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). Self-control theory is a theory about the
"redirected attention of criminologists to the family and to what parents do, or do not do,
during childhood that affects the likelihood of delinquency.
Main proposition of SCT: "individuals commit crimes because they have low self-
control"
However, the proponents further argued that a lack of self-control is neither a

sufficient nor a necessary condition of crime to occur because other properties of the
individual or of the situation may counteract one's likelihood of committing deviant acts.
Everything else being equal, low self-control and a weak bond to society should
positively and significantly predict a variety of deviant and criminal conduct..
Proponent: Gottfredson and Hirschi

Research: they started by looking at what criminologists do know about crime and
criminals.
Findings:
1. Criminal events are generally based on immediate gratification or removal of an

irritant, are easy, and are varied.
2. Criminals displayed characteristics similar to crime events:
3. Criminals were found among individuals seeking immediate and easy
gratification and whose behavior included numerous types of crime and other
deviant behavior.
4. Crime and the criminal work contiguous elements.
What is self-control?
A person's ability to alter his or her own states and responses.

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Note: Low self-control is the main individual-level source of crime.
What are the types of self-control?

1. Impulse control-control over the contents of the mind.
2. Control over performance- control over emotion and modes
3. Low self-control (harold g. Grasmick)
Why do individuals resist in engaging in criminal acts?
The answer is that they have high self-control. That is these individual are able to
delay gratification of immediate impulses and pursue long term goals. How however
individuals who lacks self-control engage risky behavior, including criminal acts, to
satisfy their immediate needs.
Self-control is directed to the fact that that individual differences in the tendency
to commit criminal acts.., remain reasonably stable with change in the social location of
individuals and change in their knowledge of the operation of sanction systems. This is
the problem of self-control, the differential tendency of people to avoid criminal acts
whatever the circumstances in which they find themselves. Since this difference people
has attracted a wide verity of names, we begin by arguing the merits of the concept of
self-control.
Displacement Theory
What is crime displacement?
Crime displacement is the relocation of crime (or criminals) result of police crime
prevention efforts. Grind displacement has been linked to problem oriented policing, but
it may occur at other labels and for other reasons. Community development effort may be
a reason why criminals moved to the other areas for their criminal activity.
The displacement theory argues that by removing the opportunity for crime or
seeking through prevent a crime by changing the situation in which it's occurs does not
actually prevent crime but merely moves it to a new environment which less obstacles.
Crime displacement is one probable explanation the criminal pattern change in a center
system. A practical and common belief about crime displacement is that perpetrators have
the ability mobility and flexibility to exploit the weakest link in the chain they will do so
to commit the crime (Ekwall & Lumsden, 2007)
What are the types of displacement?
1. Geographical displacement: criminal can be moved from one location to another

2. Temporal displacement: criminal can be moved from one time to another
3. Target displacement: criminal can be directed away from one target to another
4. Tactical displacement: one method of committing crime can be substituted for
another

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5. Criminal type displacement: one kind of crime can be substituted for another
placement theory suggests crime is moved around:
Five categories of situational crime prevention

1. Increasing the efforts
2. Increasing the risk
3. Reducing the rewards
4. Reducing the provocations and
5. Removing the excuses
What are the factors that causes crime displacement
1. Offenders motivation
2. Offenders familiarity
3. Crime opportunity
Biosocial Theories of Crime Causation

The idea that biological and environmental factors are related to criminal behavior
is central to biosocial criminology. Biosocial criminology is best understood as a general
paradigm of research that analyzes all factors related to the etiology and antisocial
behavior, meaning that genetic influences, biological influences such as hormone levels,
and neurological factors are considered in combination with environmental influences
like socialization, exposure to poverty, and external sources of control.
This theory stressed out importance of biochemical conditions, genetic code,
neurological conditions and influences of social environment on the behavior. There is
the combined effect of personal biological traits and social environment will result in
conformity with social norms or with crime. A biosocial approach to behavior rest on a
few relatively simple assumptions: humans are as such a part of nature as any other
animal and are thus subject to the same evolutionary, biological, and genetic processes
that influence the rest of the natural world.
What are the four major domains of biosocial criminology?

1. Evolutionary criminology
It suggests that criminal behavior stems from an evolutionary focus were
in its six the ultimate causes of criminal behavior, which address the broader
questions that ask "why" it recognize that you mans are the product of selection
pressures that were present throughout our ancestral history (Daly & Wilson,
1988). It explain human behavior (especially "universal" behavior that are
displayed in many human cultures) of evolutionary pressures and responses (i.e.
Adaption) to those influences (Barnes et al., 2015).
2. Biological criminology

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It focuses on the physiological factors not such genetic factors which may
be related to antisocial behavior although this perspective is broad there are
certain types of biological criminology research that tend to appear more often
than others hormonal associations (e.g., testosterone) with antisocial behavior
resting heart - rate levels, which are thought to influence autonomic arousal levels
that can also influence sensation - seeking behaviors (Portonoy et al., 2014); and
the role of pubertal onset/ development in the etiology of delinquency in
adolescence
.
3. Neurocriminology
It links brain structure and function to behavioral outcomes and, in a
general sense, provides a "clear" causal pathway between genes, the brain, and
behavior. Genetic factors influence brain functioning/ structure, which goes on to
impact behavioral outcomes.
4. Behavioral Genetic: Nature vs. Nurture

Behavioral genetics is a field of study that aims to unpack the genetic and
environmental influences on human behavioral outcomes. It focuses on the three
components of behavioral genetics: heritability, the shared environment, and the
non - shared environment.
Behavioral genetics offers scientist an avenue by which both genetic and
environmental influences on human behavior and personality traits can be
analyzed. It has been a centerpiece of biosocial criminology representing the
integrative nature of biosocial criminology by giving equal weight and attention
to biological and environmental factors.
Situational Crime Prevention Strategies
Knowing all the theories on crime causation it is very significant to study about
the situational crime prevention strategies which could serve as a coping mechanism to
prevent and control crimes. This ensures the safety of everybody as a result sustainable
peace and order situation is enjoyed at all times. The situational crime prevention (SCP)
is a primary crime prevention which refers to the art and science of reducing
opportunities for crimes based on new crime seeks to influence the offender’s decision or
ability to commit crimes at particular Places and times by way of particularly designed
measures.

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Tel no. (036) 6212-318
ACTIVITY VI
Name: ____________________________________ Year & Sec. __________________

Part I: Instruction: Read and understand the given items. Give the correct answer
by writing the letter only. Strictly no erasures or alterations.
_____________________1. Challenges conventional understandings of crime and

punishment by uncovering false beliefs and perspective.
_____________________2. People become criminals when significant members of
society label them as such and they accept those label as a personal identity.
_____________________3. It arises when a deviant comes to the attention of significant
others or social control agencies who apply a negative label.
_____________________4. The view that society in divided into two or more groups
with competing ideas and values.
_____________________5. Those who own the means of production have the greatest
power.
_____________________6. Focus on gender differences in power as a source of crime.
_____________________7. A criminal rationally chooses the crime to commit and the
target of crime.
_____________________8. It assumes that an individual will choose the same course of
action when confronted with the same alternatives regarding costs, rewards, and risks.
_____________________9. It is a justice perspective according to which those who
violate others’ rights deserve to be punished.
_____________________10. Reasserts that individuals seek personal pleasure while
avoiding pain which simply means that people are motivated by self-interest.
Part II: Reaction Paper. Write your answer in paragraph form. (Minimum of 150
words)
1. Read a research study related to Labelling Theory. Highlight the findings and give your
reactions. Indicate your references. You can use extra sheet of paper.

Theories and Crime Causation Criminology 2

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Theories and Crime Causation Criminology 2

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Theories and crime causation criminology 2

Criminology (Filamer Christian University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

PREPARED BY: MARY GRACE O. GALINO RC, MSCJ.

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FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

SELF- LEARNING MODULE 1

Course No. : CRIMINOLOGY 2

This course captures the theoretical perspective of crime causation committed by

 Conduct criminological research on crimes, crime causation, victims,

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 Formulae solutions to the crimes experienced in the community based on

Welcome to the Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation and Intelligence Self-

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6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you complete it.

D. ASSESMENT GUIDES AND MATERIALS

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Correspondingly, this endeavor focuses on the information about theories and

One common definition of CRIMINOLOGY - Is – the study of crimes, criminals

Thus, in most complete definition of criminology is – “A BODY OF

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Causes of crime may be environmental, hereditary or psychological.

THEORY; Its concept and Relevance

According to Okada (2015), Theory is a series of statements that seek to

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A theory is a set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how

We called these STATEMENTS HYPOTHESES, which are statements about

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICRO-AND MACRO THEORIES

THEORY ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:

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KEY CONCEPTS OF THEORIES

Means different things to different contemporary criminologists, depending on

THE SEVEN (7) APPROACHES INCLUDE:

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A fourth style of work in contemporary criminology attempts to describe crime

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PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the

1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately functioning

A. Intent to rob a bank E. Intent to sabotage

INTENT OR INTENTIONALLY – In perpetrating a crime by a person is often

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the INTENT to perform it. DESIRE is a WHISHFUL thinking differentiated from

2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – Is the means or implemented used in the

A. Leaving one’s home or car unattended for a long time

3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of indiscretion

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME

1. Crimes against persons

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2. Crimes against property

Frequently, crimes in the context of the study of criminology are classified in

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES:

1. ATROCITY OR GRAVITY – Crimes are committed at different degrees of

MOTIVES OF THE OFFENDER (Bonger). – The reason or reasons of the offender

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III. POLITICAL MOTIVE – (Encarta, 2009) – Defines political motive as “motive

STATISTICAL PURPOSES – It is imperative to gain awareness on the statistics of

A. How many crimes against person were committed in a quarter of a year?

THEORETICAL PURPOSES. – For theoretical purposes, each class should be a

A. PROFESSIONAL CRIMES – Differentiated from other crimes by the regularity of

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NAME: _________________________ YR. &SEC.