STATISTICAL METHODS IN NURSING RESEARCH
Master of Arts in Nursing
Synthesis of Lectures
DESCRIPTIVE & INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics allows for the collection,
organization and presentation of data in a way that is
easy to understand. While it can be used to describe
an entire population, descriptive statistics is more
often applied to samples to capture the
characteristics of the population. Inferential
Statistics is utilized to draw conclusions about the
statistical significance of the relationships or
differences among the variables in the study. This
may include quantifying the association between two
continuous variables or assessing the relationship
between an outcome variable and one or more risk
factors or confounding variables.
Both Quantitative and Qualitative Research are used
to generate nursing knowledge for practice.
Quantitative Research is conducted to test theory by
describing variables (Descriptive Research),
examine relationships and to develop and refine
explanatory knowledge of nursing
practice (Correlational Research), and determining
cause and effect interaction between variables to
determine the effectiveness of nursing interventions
in predicting and controlling the outcomes desired for
clients (Experimental Research).
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative Research is a subjective approach used
to describe life experiences and situations and give
them meaning (Creswell & Porth, 2018). While data
in quantitative research is on the form of numerical
values, data in qualitative design take the form of
words, which are collected through interviews,
observations, and focus groups and analyzed for
meaning. Qualitative Research is utilized to present
a detailed discussion of the lived experiences of the
participants (Phenomenology), to discover a
possible explanation behind a particular
phenomenon (Grounded Theory), to investigate a
particular cultural group to get a clear understanding
of their beliefs and practices (Ethnography), to have
an in-depth study of a situation or a nursing
phenomenon (Case Study) and to study the life and
works of a well-known individual with the goal of
contributing to the body of
knowledge (Biographical). When deciding to
conduct a Qualitative Research, it is vital that we
become familiarized with each of these design in
order to determine which is most suitable for our
research goals.
RESEARCH PROCESS
The methods for Quantitative Research Design begin
with the Identification of the Problem. This usually
identifies an area of concern for a particular
population or an area where there is a gap in
knowledge needed for nursing practice. This is
followed by the Formulation of Hypothesis which
translates the research problem into a clear
explanation or prediction of the expected results or
outcomes of the study. After the hypothesis are
formulated, researchers start the Data Collection
Process which involves the process of acquiring
participants and collecting data for the study. It is
important to note that steps on Data Collection Steps
varies depending on the research design, sample,
and measurement techniques. Once Data Collection
are complete, Data Analysis can begin by
employing different statistical methods to examine,
reduce, and give meaning to the numerical data
gathered (Descriptive Statistics) and to address
objectives, questions, and hypothesis in the study to
allow inference from the study sample and to the
target population (Inferential Statistics). The final
step on the process is the Interpretation of
Results which involves examining the entire
research process for strengths and weaknesses,
organizing the meaning of the results, and forecasting
the usefulness of the findings for evidenced-based
nursing practice.
RESEARCH DATA
Research Data can come from different sources. It
may be gathered directly from original
source (Primary Data) using interviews, electronic
correspondents or questionnaires. It is considered
a Secondary Data if it was taken from either
published or unpublished materials. There are two
types of data which includes Desirable Data which is
qualitative in nature and focuses on data that is not
quantifiable and describes the variables involved in a
study like sex and civil status. Quantifiable Data are
quantitative in nature and includes data that can be
counted or is quantifiable like age, height and weight.
Quantifiable Data can be further classified
into Discrete (if the data is exact, or answerable by
yes or no) and Continuous (if data uses an
approximation while still measurable by using 5- or 4-
point scale)
In Inferential Statistics, researchers examine
relationships, make predictions, and determine the
causality or differences in the study using the
gathered research data. In Quantitative Research
where the variables are at the interval (data where 0
is moving or arbitrary) or ratio (data where 0 is fixed
or emanating from 0) level of measurement, and the
values of the study participants for the variable are
normally distributed Parametric Tests are used. On
the other hand, Non-Parametric Tests are
employed when variables are measured at
the nominal (describes the characteristics, features
and nature of data) or ordinal (describes
ranks) levels which is usually Qualitative in nature.
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 STATISTICAL METHODS IN NURSING RESEARCH
Master of Arts in Nursing
RESEARCH VARIABLES
Research Variables simply put, refers to the
research data. It may include the qualities, properties,
or characteristics of persons, things, or situations that
change or vary that are measured in the study. It is
important to take note that variables should be
concisely defined to promote their measurement or
manipulation in quantitative studies. Types of
Research Variables includes Independent
Variable (variables that researchers cannot
manipulate), Dependent Variable (variable that
researchers can control or manipulate),
and Extraneous Variable (variables that may have
some effect to independent variables)
The root source of research data is the
population. An accurate sampling technique should
be utilized to ensure that the sample accurately
represents the population being studied. It is crucial
to note that the relationship between the population
size and sample size is inversely proportional.
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is the formal statement of the expected
relationship between two or more variables in a
specified population. It translates the research
problem into a clear explanation or predictions of the
expected results or outcomes of the study. After a null
hypothesis was formulated, inferential statistics can
be applied to determine whether to accept or negate
the null hypothesis. In Comparative Design, two
variables are compared to determine if there are
significant difference between them. In Correlational
Design, the existence or non-existence of relationship
of dependent and independent variable are
determined while on Experimental or Quasi
Experimental Design, researchers try to determine
the significant effect or none of a variable to another.
The most important thing when we conduct our own
study is that it must contribute to the body of
knowledge of the nursing profession. Research
findings will influence nursing practice indirectly and
add to the nursing’s body of empirical knowledge
allowing for the integration of the best research
evidence with our clinical expertise, and client’s
values and circumstances to produce a quality health
outcome.
The goal of our research is not merely to satisfy the
degree requirement but to contribute to the body of
knowledge of our profession. With this goal, it is vital
to ensure that our research is reliable and valid. In
presenting a study, the reliability and validity are the
first thing that the panel of experts looks for and us,
as researchers must be able to present what makes
our study reliable and valid.
In a reliable study, researchers must be able to
present evidence that if another researcher will
conduct the same study using the same methods, the
study will yield the same result. Researchers must
show how consistent the results from the
questionnaires are or how well it actually measures.
To do this Reliability Testing must be employed. 15-
20 respondents will answer the questionnaire and
their answers will not be included in the study.
If the hypothesis includes a variable that cannot be
measured directly, a scale will be used to make the
variable measurable. The scale consists of group of
questions (items) which are used to jointly measure
the variable. The goal is to have the responses on the
questions (items) match well and are highly
correlated (internal consistency) This internal
consistency is what Cronbach’s alpha will
measure. Cronbach’s alpha is used if the
questionnaire has more than two answer possibilities.
A result of 0.70 and above determines that the
questionnaire used is reliable.
For questionnaires with varying difficulty or
combinations of questions that are easy, moderate or
challenging, Kuder-Richardson 20 is utilized. The
scores for KR-20 range from 0 to 1, where 0 is no
reliability and 1 is perfect reliability. The closer the
score is to 1, the more reliable the test.
Another thing to take into consideration in ensuring
the integrity of a quantitative study is its validity. In
ensuring the internal validity, it is vital that
researchers scrutinize the questionnaire and adapt it
to the respondents of the study. The causal
relationship between the variable must also be clearly
demonstrated. To ensure External Validity,
researchers must establish a perfect fit of
questionnaires and respondents. Most importantly,
the findings of the study can be generalized to other
relevant settings or groups.
For Qualitative Research Designs, researchers
must establish the trustworthiness of the study by
meeting the following criteria.
Credibility
Most researchers argue that this is the most
important criterion for a assessing the quality and
integrity of a qualitative research design. It refers to
how confident are we that study’s data and its
interpretation is truthful. It is vital that as someone
reads the study, the researchers must be able to
provide the reader within that study enough
information and evidence that the contents of the
study are truthful.
Dependability
Since dependability refers to the stability of data
overtime and over conditions, it can be considered as
a pre-requisite in attaining credibility of a study. This
necessitates the researcher to read the study multiple
times to ensure that the data is properly and correctly
interpretated. Having only one researcher go over the
data and interpret it is not enough, the research must
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Master of Arts in Nursing
also be scrutinized by another researcher or a mentor
to ensure consistency of data and its interpretation.
Confirmability
This refers to having another researcher having the
same interpretation of the research data after
meticulously examining it. It also prevents having the
researcher’s personal bias influence the
interpretation of the data.
Transferability
This refers to the extent to which the findings of a
study can be transferred to other settings or groups.
This requires that researchers include a report
detailing the people included in the study, the setting
it took place providing information to other
researchers to make a judgement call on whether
they can use the results of the study on their own
study.
• In Etic Approach to quantitative research
designs, the researcher stays outside of the
research. The researcher only collects the
data for the study and his responsibility ends
after the collection of data.
• In Emic Approach, the researcher is part of
the study and has to immerse himself into the
population being studied.
Measures of Association and Correlation is used
to associate 2 variables (dependent and
independent) and is used to predict, forecast &
estimate.
Regression Analysis by Francis Galton
Regression Analysis is used when correlating if
there is a significant or strong relationship with
variables.
Example: Associating sex and leadership skills.
Pearson rCoefficient Correlation
It is a parametric inferential tool used to determine the
degree or strength of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. In Karl
Pearson’s coefficient of correlation, the value range
is -1 to +1 with -1 signifying strong negative
correlation while +1 indicates strong positive
correlation.
If CV > TV, reject the null hypothesis
If CV < TV, accept the null hypothesis
If CV = TV, reject the null hypothesis
Comparative
If TV > Critical Value, reject the null
Design
hypothesis
If TV< Critical Value, accept the null
hypothesis
If p value is higher than the level of
significance (.05), accept the null
Correlational hypothesis
Design If p value is lower than the level of
significance (.05), accept the null
hypothesis
Chi-square test is used to discover if there is a
relationship between two categorical variables.
Researchers must use Chi-square test to analyze
their data if the two variables are measured at an
ordinal or nominal level or if the two variables consist
of two or more categorical independent groups like
gender, ethnicity, physical activity level and
profession.
Spearman’s Rank Correlation (Spearman rho) is a
non-parametric test used to measure the relationship
between 2 variables that is ordinal in nature
Kruskal-Wallis Test (Mann-Whitney Test) is a non-
parametric test used to determine the significant
differences/comparing between 2 or more
independent groups or different samples of known
variables.
A Comprehensive Analysis of a Quantitative
Study entitled “Knowledge and Attitude on the
Nurse Practitioner Role of Nurses and
Physicians in Two Tertiary Hospitals in Metro
Manila.”
Introduction
Nursing is a dynamic profession. While its core
values and nursing functions remain constant,
nursing actions need to be constantly reviewed,
analyzed and updated to meet the ever-changing
health needs of the people. This is made possible
through research. Nursing research requires the
application of one's nursing education and
experiences for the continuing advancements that
promote optimal nursing care and the growth of the
nursing profession(Tingen et al., 2009).
Nursing Research is a scientific investigation which
begins with a research question and the entire
research will be designed to produce a reliable
answer to this question. This requires the use of
appropriate research instruments and collection of
data. Once data is complete, statistical analysis will
be utilized to answer the research question. Every
step of the research process is sequential and
cumulative (Hayat, 2012) thus it is vital that every step
is done correctly, failure in one of the steps will render
the entire study of no value
Methodology
In this paper, a quantitative study by Duller (2020)
entitled “Knowledge and Attitude on the Nurse
Practitioner Role of Nurses and Physicians in Two
Tertiary Hospitals in Metro Manila.” will be
comprehensively analyzed. The analysis will focus on
the following:
1. Methodology
2. Sampling Technique
3. Questionnaire's content, validity & reliability
4. Hypothesis Testing
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 STATISTICAL METHODS IN NURSING RESEARCH
Master of Arts in Nursing
Results
These are the results of the comprehensive analysis
of the study “Knowledge and Attitude on the Nurse
Practitioner Role of Nurses and Physicians in Two
Tertiary Hospitals in Metro Manila.”
Methodology
The researcher utilized an exploratory quantitative
research design for this study. This type of research
design perfectly suits the study due to the nature of
the study’s subject. The researcher wants to
determine the knowledge and attitudes of nurses and
doctors working in two tertiary hospitals in Metro
Manila on the Advanced Practice Nurse (APN) role in
the Philippines. While APN Role is well established in
western countries as early as 1960s ((Hibbert et al.,
2017) it remains to be defined, legislated, and
regulated in most Asian countries including the
Philippines. Since studies on APN role conducted in
the Philippines is very few to non-existent combined
with the broadness of the topic, utilizing an
exploratory quantitative research design can be
useful to find more detail on the topic and its results
may be used as objectives, problem formulations,
sampling designs, or better methodologies for future
research on the topic.
The use of a modified version of an instrument that
was used to conduct a similar study also proved to be
advantageous as the questionnaire items already
accurately addressed the research questions and the
modifications made ensures that the questions
applies to the practice here in the Philippines.
Sampling Technique
To determine the required sample size for the study,
the researcher used the G* Power 3.0.10 which is a
free-to-use software used to calculate statistical
power. The program offers the ability to calculate
power for a wide variety of statistical tests including t-
tests, F-tests, and chi-square-tests, among others.
Specific to this research, a T-Test was used and the
following was entered into the G*Power software
together with consideration for attrition rate of 20%
which resulted in the sample size of 72 participants.
a. 0.80 = Large Effect Size
b. 0.05 = Probability Error
c. 0.80 = Power
The following inclusion criteria was also identified and
implemented for the study.
a. Either RN or MD employed in the hospital
included in the study
b. Must be willing to sign an informed consent.
c. Must answer the research instrument
completely
Questionnaire's content, validity & reliability
For this study, an adapted version of the Northern
Emergency Nurse Practitioner Staff Survey that was
previously used in a similar study in Australia
exploring the knowledge and attitudes of staff in the
Emergency Department regarding the
implementation of a new Nurse Practitioner role
(Considine & Martin, 2005). The instrument was
modified to ensure that all items accurately reflect the
practice in the Philippines. To ensure its content
validity, it was evaluated by a panel of Advanced
Nurse Practicing with high credentials practicing in
the United States of America. It received an excellent
content validity index of 0.979 and its reliability was
established by the test of international consistency
with Cronbach's alpha at 0.947.
The instrument is consisting of 19 items rated using a
5-Point Likert Scale as follows:
a. 1 = strongly disagree
b. 2 = disagree
c. 3 = no opinion
d. 4 = agree
e. 5 = strongly agree
Hypothesis Testing
1. State the null hypothesis
There is no significant difference in nurses
and physicians’ knowledge and attitudes on
the Nurse Practitioner Role of Nurses.
2. Define the default alpha (margin or error)
For this study, default alpha is set to 5% or
.05
3. Apply the appropriate statistical equation
t = ( x̄1 – x̄2) / √ [(s21 / n 1 ) + (s22 / n 2 )]
t = (3.34 - 3.13 / [(0.816 / 41) +(0.500 / 25)]
t = 1.30
4. Calculate the tabular value
On this study, the researchers identified the
statistical significance (p) to be <0.05
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 STATISTICAL METHODS IN NURSING RESEARCH
Master of Arts in Nursing

5. Calculate the computed value

The result of the study did not reach the
significant value

6. Make a decision based from the numerical

result
Based on the non-significant results, the
researchers accepted the null hypothesis
that “There is no significant difference in
nurses and physicians’ knowledge and
attitudes on the Nurse Practitioner Role of
Nurses.” They further stated that this was
similar to the pre-intervention scores in the
study of attitudes and knowledge of MDs and
RNs in Australia before the assignment of a
new NProle in the Emergency Department
(Considine & Martin, 2005).
7. Based on the previous steps, draw
conclusions.
The researchers concluded that there is no
significant difference in nurses and
physician’s knowledge and attitude on the
Nurse Practitioner Role of Nurse based on
their overall scores. The researchers also
recommended that educational interventions
be implemented to increase the knowledge
and attitudes on the NP role among Filipino
nurses and physicians in the Philippines.

Discussion
In conducting a study, just showing the data collected
from the participants is not enough. It is vital that
these data are analyzed and interpreted carefully to
provide concrete support to the study. The process of
using mathematical equations on interpretation of
data is very complex and may appear very
challenging but once complete, provides confident
answers to the whys of the study.